Sedimentology (1 986) 33, 185--206

Sedimentation during carbonate ramp-to-slope evolution in a tectonically active area:

Bowland Basin (Dinantian), northern England

R O B L. G A W T H O R P E *
Department of Earth Sciences, The University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, U . K .

ABSTRACT

The Bowland Basin (northern England) contains a series of carbonates and terrigenous mudstones
deposited during the Ivorian to early Brigantian. Two regional depositional environments are indicated by
facies and facies associations. Wackestone/packstone and calcarenite fdcies indicate deposition in a
carbonate ramp environment, while lime mudstone/wackestone, calcarenite and limestone breccia/
conglomerate facies, often extensively slumped, represent a carbonate slope environment. Stratigraphic
relations suggest that the depositional environment evolved from a ramp into a slope through the
Dinantian.
Two main sediment sources are indicated by the sequence; an extra-basinal terrigenous mud source and
a supply of carbonate from the margins of the basin. Deposition from suspenslon and from sediment
gravity flows, in situ production and remobilization of sediment during sedimentary sliding were important
processes operating within the basin.
Periods of enhanced tectonic activity in the late Chadian to early Arundian and late Asbian to early
Brigantian are indicated by basin-wide horizons of sedimentary slide and mass flow deposits. Both intervals
were marked by a decline in carbonate production resulting from inundation and uplift/emergence. The
first of these intervals separates deposition on a seafloor with gentle topography (carbonate ramp) from a
situation where major lateral thickness and facies variations were present and deposition took place in a
carbonate slope environment. The second interval marks the end of major carbonate deposition within the
Bowland Basin and the onset of regional terrigenous sedimentation.

INTRODUCTION

In recent years several types of carbonate platform
and platform margin (sensu Read, 1982, 1984) have
been recognized as a result of work in both ancient
and modern carbonate provinces. However, the
apparent diversity of platform morphology (e.g. Hine
& Mullins, 1983; James & Mountjoy, 1983; Kendall
& Schlager, 1981; Read, 1982, 1984) can be resolved
into two basic types; carbonate ramps, with gentle
slopes leading from shallow water facies to deeper
water low energy deposits, and rimmed carbonate
shelves, with marked platform-to-basin transitions
characterized by carbonate slope environments (Ahr,
1973; Ginsburg & James, 1974; James & Mountjoy,
1983; Mullins et al. 1984; Read, 1982, 1984; Wilson,
1975). Modification of these basic types is generally
*Present address. B.P. Britannic House, Moor Lane,
London EC2Y 9BU, U.K
the result of drowning or emergence, and carbonate
ramps may evolve into rimmed shelves or vice versa.
The nature, location and evolution of a platform
margin is controlled by a complex series of parameters,
the most significant of which are considered to be: (1)
antecedent topography, (2) tectonic subsidence, (3)
fluctuations in sea-level, (4) rate of carbonate produc-
tion, ( 5 ) rate of terrigenous sedimentation, (6) wave
energy, (7) composition of the water mass, (8) nature
of the benthos, (9) cementation, (10) time.
The Dinantian succession of the Bowland Basin
records the influence of many of these parameters,
particularly the effects of tectonic activity, on the
evolution of a platform margin from a carbonate ramp
to a rimmed shelf. In addition the sequence provides
details of the anatomy of and facies associated with
Carboniferous carbonate ramps and slopes.
186 R. L. Gawthorpe

GEOLOGICAL A N D research in the area has concentrated mainly on the

STRATIGRAPHIC SETTING
During the early Carboniferous most of northern
Britain was composed of a series of relatively stable
areas and more rapidly subsiding basins. Amongst the
modes of origin proposed for this structural configu-
ration are shearing (Arthurton, 1984), back-arc rifting
(Leeder, 1976, 1982) and north Atlantic rifting
(Haszeldine, 1984). The Bowland Basin (also known
as the Craven or Skipton Basin) represents one of
these basins, lying between the Askrigg-Bowland
High to the north and north-west and the Central
Pennine High to the south-east (Fig. 1). In the past,
litho- and biostratigraphy of the various anticlines
within the basin, and on the origin of the various types
of carbonate buildup present. In recent years, how-
ever, the sedimentology of the basin has been studied
by Miller & Grayson (1972, 1982), who considered the
environmental interpretation of the Chadian Waul-
sortian buildups, and by Charsley (1984), who de-
scribed the sequence present in the Swinden borehole.
Fewtrell (1979) analysed the distribution of grain
types from the succession in the Skipton area, and
brief descriptions of the depositional environments of
the Dinantian sequence are presented in Fewtrell &
Smith (1980), who also presented a formal lithostrati-

Fig. 1. Simplified geological map of the Bowland Basin showing the basic stratigraphy up to the Pendleside Limestone (Asbian/
Brigantian). Also shown are the areas of ‘shallow-water’ carbonate deposition situated on topographic highs defining the
Asbian basin margins, and the locations of the logs of Fig. 9. Based on Geological Survey 1 ” maps, Old Series sheets 91NE,
91SE, 92NW and New Series sheet 68; also on Earp et a/. (1961), Harrison (19821, Murray (1983) and the author’s own field-
work.
 Carbonate ramp-to-slopeevolution 187

graphic scheme for the basin. Structurally the basin
has a NE-SW orientation, and contains a series of
NW-SE trending fault zones and NE-SW trending
asymmetric periclines, some of which are associated
with thrusts. A combination of gravity, magnetic,
sedimentological and structural data indicates that
the Bowland Basin was essentially a half-graben
during the Dinantian (Gawthorpe, in preL.s), with the
major basin margin located along what is now the
Pendle Monocline (MiIler & Grayson, 1982).
The Dinantian rocks comprise a series of carbonates
and terrigenous mudstones, locally reaching an ex-
posed thickness of approximately 2 km. The oldest
beds proven are recorded from the Swinden borehole
(Fig. 1) and are of Ivorian age (Charsley 1984);
however, the base of the sequence has not been
penetrated. Post-Dinantian sediments are dominated
by clastic deposits and reflect the progressive estab-
lishment of fluvio-deltaic conditions over most of
northern England. Prior to deposition of Permo-
Triassic sandstones, major uplift and erosion occurred
within the basin, for example near Clitheroe, where
red sandstones of Permo-Triassic age rest on mid
Dinantian sediments (Earp et al., 1961).
FACIES ANALYSIS
Within the Ivorian to early Brigantian sequence of
the Bowland Basin a number of facies and facies
associations (groups of facies occurring together in
vertical succession) can be recognized. The facies
defined, though not unique to any particular environ-
ment, are of importance in that they reveal information
about the processes operative during transport and/or
deposition of that particular facies. The facies associ-
ations can be interpreted in terms of sedimentary
environments when considered either separately or in
stratigraphically and/or laterally related groups. Ten
main facies and seven main facies associations
characterize the Ivorian to early Brigantian sequence
in the Bowland Basin. This study is based on a basin-
wide survey of both outcrop and available borehole
material, which together have provided detailed
coverage of the Ivorian to early Brigantian interval.
The 25 boreholes studied in detail were of particular
value in constraining facies and facies associations in
the poorly exposed mudstone-rich intervals. Over 400
thin and polished sections were prepared and exam-
ined during the course of this work. In addition,
material from Barraclough (1983) and Metcalfe (1 976)
was also studied.
Facies descriptions
Calcarenitefacies
This facies consists of planar bedded wackestone/
packstone units ranging in thickness from 0.01 to
0.75 m. Lower contacts are generally sharp and planar

SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES
FOSSILS
/L sfide and slump
fossils undifferentiated
cross lamination
broken fossils
undifferentiated
A cross bedding

lamination
* broken fossils
0 crinoids corals
-
= crinoids
- parallel
_- -_ -
-_
- . ~

discontinuous parallel brachiopods

LITHOLOGY GRAPHIC LOG SYMBOLS

--..-_ discontinuous wavy

limestone
(silty) I interlaminated - _- solitary corals

colonial corals
dolostone
@ algae
@ ?
dolomitic j
limestone BIOTURBATION
'i bryozoa
limestone with shale < slight
P plant fragments
55 moderate
shale with limestone
5$$ strong 8 gastropods

0 mudstone
slide and slump

sandstone and
I I l 1 i i
Key to sedimentary logs
188 R.L. Gawthorpe

Fig. 2. (A) Normally graded, bioclastic calcarenite (packstone to wackestone t u t u r e ) showing sharp lower and upper contacts
and parallel lamination. The lens cap is 5 cm in diameter. Worston Shales, River Hodder, SD 714 584. (B) Photomicrograph
of the mixed bioclastic wackestone/packstone facies. The facies is composed predominantly of foraminifera (f), recrystallized
shell debris (s), and crinoid fragments (c).Chert can be seen replacing the crinoid fragments. The original micritic matrix has
undergone extensive neomorphism and is now predominantly pseudospar. Skipton Castle Limestone, Skipton Castle Woods,
SD 992 526. (C) Chaotic limestone breccia/conglomerdte overlying massively bedded calcarenites. The breccia/conglomerate
 Carbonate ramp-to-slope eGolution I89

or, occasionally, erosive, whilst upper contacts range
from sharp to gradational, with a planar to undulatory
nature. Beds are often massive or contain only parallel
lamination, but occasionally wave or current ripple
lamination is present. Where sedimentary structures
are developed they typically occur in sequences
comparable to Bouma A, AB, B and, occasionally, BC
divisions (Fig. 2A). Detrital components vary with
facies association but in general are predominantly
bioclastic, with a macrofauna of fragmented and
abraded crinoids, brachiopods, rare solitary and
colonial corals and occasional bryozoans. Foramini-
fera, calcispheres and ostracods are the main micro-
scopic constituents. Many of the bioclasts show
extensive micritization and chertification, with pyri-
tization and replacement by dolomite also common.
The other allochems present are lithoclasts, usually a
few millimetres in size and similar in lithology to
adjacent rocks. Both compositional and size grading
are commonly recognized, with individual units fining
and becoming more argillaceous upward. Bioturbation
is of varying intensity and is generally confined to the
tops of beds.
Interpretation. The presence of fragmented bioclastic
material and rounded lithoclasts, together with the
sedimentary structures described above indicate that
this facies is not an in situ development of carbonate;
clearly these are ‘event deposits’. The sequence and
range of structures recorded could be found in either
limestone turbidites(Cook& Mullins, 1983; McIlreath
& James, 1978) or tempestites (Aigner, 1982; Jeffrey
& Aigner, 1982; Seilacher, 1982), and in many
instances features that would distinguish unequivo-
cally between the two (e.g. basal lags, hummocky
cross-stratification, wave ripple lamination) are ab-
sent. Therefore, interpretation of the depositional
environment of these units must take into account the
nature of the associated facies.
of irregular and variable thickness. Beds may be
massive or contain a discontinuous wavy parallel
lamination. The carbonate fraction has generally
undergone extensive diagenetic alteration, as shown
by the widespread transformation of original micrite
matrix, and to a lesser extent peloids, to neomorphic
micro- and pseudospar. In addition, bioclasts are
often recrystallized, or replaced by silica, dolomite or
pyrite. Bioturbation is moderately to strongly devel-
oped in this facies. Three main categories of wacke-
stone/packstone can be identified, based on the main
types and relative proportioni of skeletal components.
In the peloid-foram wackestones allochems mainly
consist of peloids, of varying morphology and size
(50-500 pm), and foraminifera. Minor constituents
are mainly fragmented brachiopod and echinoderm
debris. Most grains are highly micritized, and some of
the larger irregular-shaped peloids represent micri-
tized bioclasts. Mixed bioclastic wackestone/pack-
stones contain both whole and fragmentary bioclasts.
Crinoid and brachiopod fragments, often showing
peripheral micritization and rare micritic grain coat-
ings, predominate but echinoid spines and plates,
gastropods, bryozoans, foraminifera and undifferen-
tiated shell debris also occur; some algal material may
also be present. Large articulated brachiopods and
slightly fragmented echinoderms can be found on
some bedding planes. In addition, certain units
contain both in situ and overturned solitary and
colonial corals. Algal wackestone/packstones contain
abundant algal material, and oncolites up to 15 mm in
diameter. In addition to several types of codiacean
and dasycladacean algae, coralline algae are present
but are restricted to the area around Skipton (Barra-
clough, 1983). Other common constituents are fora-
minifera, calcispheres and peloids, together with
fragmented, and occasionally whole crinoids, echi-
noids and brachiopods. Insoluble residue contents are
low, typically < 5%.

Interpretation. The diverse fauna, particularly within

Wuckestonelpackstone facies
This diverse facies (Fig. 2B) mainly comprises varying
proportions of skeletal grains, micrite, silt and clays,
occurring as centimetre- to decimetre-scale beds, often
the packstone facies, suggests that depositionoccurred
in a marine environment of normal salinity. The
presence of in situ and partly disarticulated brachio-
pods on bedding planes indicates relatively low energy

is mainly clast-supported and is composed of several types of carbonate clast together with a matrix of lime mud and sand-
sized allochems. Pendleside Limestone, Higher Clough, SD 729 586. (D) Interlaminated mudstone and lime mudstone/
wackestone typical of the mudstone-carbonate rhythmite facies. Note the lack of bioturbation. Worston Shales, BP Minerals
borehole M H D 3,98.5 m, S D 683 462. (E) Calcareous siltstone facies with abundant crinoid, brachiopod and rare foraminifera
fragments. The matrix is composed of angular silt-sized quartz, mica and micrite. Haw Bank Limestone-with-Shales, Skipton
Rock Quarry, SE 015 532.
190 R . L. Gawthorpe
conditions conducive to growth, whilst the various
calcareous algae, where present, suggest deposition in
water depths no greater than 75-100 m.
Lime mudstone/wackestonefacies
This fine grained facies consists of varying proportions
of carbonate and clastic material. The main carbonate
constituents are micrite, foraminifera, calcispheres,
sponge spicules, peloids, ostracods and highly com-
minuted, undifferentiated shelly fragments, whilst
terrigenous components predominantly comprise clay,
mica and silt-grade quartz. Bioclasts are often cor-
roded and/or replaced by silica or pyrite, and micrite
has been extensively neomorphosed to microspar or
replaced by dolomite and silica (microquartz and
chalcedony). Discrete chert nodules are also common
within this facies. Beds range in thickness from 0.02
to 1 m and typically have sharp upper and lower
contacts. The thinner, centimetre-scale units are
characterized by continuous millimetre-scale Iamina-
tions and restricted bioturbation. Thicker units,
typicalIy0.2-0-3 m thick, may besimpleor compound,
and are laterally continuous on outcrop scale. In these
beds sedimentary structures have generally been
destroyed by extensive bioturbation, much of which
is non-figurative and produces a mottled texture
lacking recognizable burrow forms. However, where
particular burrow types can be identified they consist
of Planolites, Chondrites, Skolithos and Zoophycos.
Interpretation. The fine grain size, laterally continuous
parallel laminationsand lack ofscouring characteristic
of this facies suggest that deposition occurred in a low
energy environment, probably largely from suspen-
sion. Aerobic bottom conditions are indicated by the
presence of bioturbation.
Limestone breccialconglomerate Jacies
These deposits have a wide variety of forms and
textures. Individual beds range in thickness from
0.1 m to tens of metres, with an average between 0.5
and 2 m . Contacts are usually sharp and planar;
however, lower contacts are occasionally erosional
and upper contacts may be hummocky with projecting
clasts. Internally, sorting is poor and beds are usually
chaotic (Fig. 2C), although elongate clasts may show
imbrication or bedding-parallel orientation. Normal
or inverse grading occurs in some instances. Despite
modification of depositional textures by compaction
and stylolitization, a complete spectrum of fabrics can
be recognized from clast- to matrix-supported. Clasts
range from centimetre- to metre-sized with geopetals
indicating overturning or orientations markedly dif-
ferent from those of the surrounding lithologies. The
matrix of this facies consists of lime mudstone/
wackestone or a mixture of lime mud and sand-sized
allochems. Delicate bioclasts are often well preserved.
Two main limestone breccia types can be identified
based on clast lithologies. Polymict breccia/conglom-
erates have clasts of lithologies stratigraphically
associated with the breccias (e.g. calcarenite, lime
mudstone/wackestone) and also contain ‘exstic’ clasts,
(e.g. cross-bedded/laminated grainstones, massive
micrite) and fragments of solitary and colonial corals.
In contrast, oligomict breccia/conglomerates consist
predominantly of rounded to tabular lime mudstone
clasts in a lime mudstone/calcarenite matrix.
Interpretation. Although the fabrics now observed
reflect a combination of depositional and diagenetic
processes, many of the features described above are
recognized in submarine mass flows where transport
was achieved largely by a debris flow mechanism
(Cook et al., 1972; Cook & Mullins, 1983; Enos &
Moore, 1983; McIlreath & James, 1978). Chaotic
matrix-supported fabrics and poor sorting are char-
acteristic features of such deposits. However, the
diversity associated with certain textural features of
the Bowland Basin breccia/conglomerates, e.g. the
recognition of normally graded, massive and inversely
graded units, may indicate complex modes of trans-
port, with contributions from turbulent and grain flow
mechanisms, for example.
Rhythrnite,facies
Occurring in beds between 0.02 and 0.3 m thick, this
facies consists of rhythmic alternations of lithologies
on a millimetre scale. Two main types of rhythmite
can be identified based on the composition of
individual laminae. Mudstone-carbonate rhythmites
consist of laterally extensive alternations of dark grey
calcareous mudstone and light to medium grey fine
grained carbonate (Fig. 2D), the latter having a
wackestone texture. The thickness of mudstone
laminae is generally greater than that of the carbonate
laminae (2-15 mm and 1-5 mm respectively). Mud-
stone intervals show a very fine internal lamination
defined by variations in colour and carbonate content,
whereas carbonate laminae generally appear massive,
although fining upward (producing gradational upper
contacts) is sometimes recorded. Carbonate rhyth-
 Carbonate ramp-to-slope eoolution
mites are composed of rhythmic alternations of lime
mudstone/wackestone and calcisiltite/fine calcarenite.
Lime mudstone/wackestone laminae are up to 2 mm
thick and consist of micrite, often displaying a clotted
appearance, together with spicules, calcispheres and
highly comminuted shelly debris. A very fine parallel
lamination is often present, defined by the parallel
alignment of elongate fragments. The calcisiltite/fine
calcarenite intervals are composed predominantly of
variably micritized silt to fine sand grade carbonate
particles, mainly calcispheres, spicules, foraminifera,
peloids and undifferentiated shelly fragments. In
addition, occasional crinoid fragments may be present
within slightly coarser grained laminae. The bases of
these coarser units are typically sharp, and the
intervals often fine upward forming gradational
contacts with overlying lime mudstone/wackestone
laminae.
Interpretation, The alternation of different lithologies
in the mudstone-carbonate rhythmites suggests peri-
odic changes in source and/or depositional mecha-
nism. The fine grained, laminated nature of the
mudstone component suggests that these laminae were
deposited from suspension. In contrast, the carbonate
laminae, with their sharp basal and gradational upper
contacts, are interpreted as having been deposited
from fine grained turbulent density currents. Thus
deposition of these mudstone-carbonate rhythmites
took the form of alternating episodes of suspension
and current sedimentation. Similar mechanisms are
proposed for the carbonate rhythmites, with the lime
mudstone/wackestone laminae representing suspen-
sion fall-out deposits and the coarser calcisiltite/fine
calcarenite laminae the result of deposition from
turbulent density currents.
Mudstone jacies
Several types of mudstone can be recognized based on
differences in colour, structure, degree of bioturbation
and composition. Laminated mudstones are essen-
tially dark grey, with continuous parallel laminations
defined by slight variations in colour and in composi-
tion. Lighter coloured laminae reflect higher carbonate
contents, and mainly consist of small rounded peloids,
calcispheres and highly abraded shelly fragments.
Nodular and replacive pyrite is common. In general,
this lithology is not bioturbated and contains between
1.2 and 5% organic carbon. Sharp-based massive
mudstones occur as centimetre-scale beds with sharp
basal contacts; the uppermost portion of individual
191
units is often bioturbated. In addition, structureless
highly bioturbated mudstones are also present, in
which sedimentary structures have been obliterated
as a result of intense biogenic reworking. These units,
which often contain Planolites and Chondrites traces
and have organic carbon contents in the range 0.1-
2.59/,,may represent intensely bioturbated equivalents
of either the laminated or sharp-based mudstones.
Bioclastic mudstones, which may contain either
fragmentary or non-fragmentary bioclastic material,
represent a fourth type. Fragmentary bioclastic mud-
stones occur as millimetre- to centimetre-thick beds,
often with sharp upper and lower contacts and a
slurried internal appearance, in which bioclastic
material predominantly comprises highly abraded and
fragmented crinoid and brachiopod debris. In con-
trast, non-fragmentary bioclastic mudstones contain
a variety of skeletal grains, including in situ solitary
and colonial corals, echinoderms, brachiopods and
bryozoans.
Interpretation. Although primary sedimentary struc-
tures have locally been destroyed by intense biotur-
bation, the fine grained and, in part, laminated
character of this facies suggests that deposition
occurred largely from suspension. Where an in situ
benthic fauna is present or the mudstone is biotur-
bated, bottom conditions were obviously aerobic ;
however, the laminated, organic-rich mudstones are
likely to have been deposited in an anaerobic/
dysaerobic environment. The sharp-based mudstones
may represent deposition from argillaceous turbidity
currents.
Mixed rerrigenous-carbonate facies
This facies largely consists of skeletal grains, micrite,
quartz silt and clay minerals/mica, with minor
amounts of plant material. Bedding is usually on a
decimetre scale, with bedding planes often undulatory
and laterally continuous on outcrop scale. Two main
lithologies, argillaceous wackestone/packstones and
calcareous siltstone/sandstones, can be identified,
based on the relative proportions of the four main
components. The terrigenous component of the argil-
laceous wackestone/packstones consists mainly of
clays, with some micaceous fragments and silt grade
quartz; insoluble residues are generally in excess of
25%. Crinoid, brachiopod, mollusc and bryozoan
fragments are the main carbonate constituents, al-
though solitary and colonial corals and foraminifera
are locally abundant. Despite the abraded nature of
192 R. L. Gawthorpe
the shelly fragments within these units, bedding planes
often contain whole or partly disarticulated brachio-
pods and crinoids. Sedimentary structures have often
been destroyed by intense bioturbation, the only
commonly observed structure being a discontinuous,
wavy parallel lamination. Within the calcareous
siltstone/sandstones silt grade clastic grains are much
more common than in the argillaceous wackestone/
packstones, typically exceeding 30”/, and consisting
predominantly of quartz (Fig. 2E). Mica is also more
abundant and is generally elongate parallel to bedding.
Bioclasts, although frequently highly abraded, tend to
be of larger grain size than the terrigenous compo-
nents. As in the argillaceous wackestone/packstones,
sedimentary structures are poorly preserved due to
bioturbation. Upward fining units are sometimes
recorded, but more commonly no systematic grading
is present.
Interpretation. Interpretation of depositional processes
is constrained by the intense bioturbation associated
with this facies. However, the presence of both
abraded bioclasts and quartz silt suggests deposition
from submarine currents with mixing of materials
derived from two sources; a carbonate and a fine
grained terrigenous source. Extensive bioturbation
and the presence of partly disarticulated, more or less
in situ brachiopods and crinoids on bedding planes
indicate that this environment was aerobic and
conducive to the development of both infauna and
epifauna.
Mudstone conglomeratefacies
Typically occurring as centimetre- to decimetre-scale
units with sharp upper and lower contacts, this facies
consists of mudstone matrix supporting a variety of
clasts. Rounded to tabular mudstone clasts, ranging
in size from a few millimetres to several centimetres,
form the dominant clast type, but isolate fold hinges,
deformed clasts and subordinate lime mudstone/
wackestone clasts are also present. Tabular clasts may
show imbrication or preferred bedding-parallel ori-
entation, but well defined grading is absent. The
matrix consists of mudstone with varying proportions
of sand grade bioclastic material (predominantly
brachiopod and crinoid fragments) and often has a
chaotic appearance with no evidence of lamination.
Interpretation. Many of the features described above,
e.g. matrix support, chaotic appearance, are similar
to fabrics present in the limestone breccialconglom-
erate facies, and are interpreted as the result of
deposition from debris flows. However, the clast types
and mudstone matrix indicate a local source region/
environment of deposition for this facies.
Massive rnicrite,facies
This facies, the ‘Bank Facies’ of Miller & Grayson
(1972), consists of light grey, unbedded to poorly
bedded lime mudstone to wackestone with very low
degrees of impurity (insoluble residues < 3 %). Bio-
clasts comprise a small percentage of the facies,
consisting predominantly of varying proportions of
bryozoan, brachiopod and crinoid debris, with subor-
dinate but locally abundant sponge spicules, forami-
nifera, solitary corals and algae. Sedimentary
structures are generally absent.
Interpretation. The lack of sedimentary structures and
the preservation of a non-fragmentary fauna suggests
deposition in a low energy environment, with in situ
carbonate production. Sedimentation rates may have
been relatively rapid, as indicated by the lack of
argillaceous material, and possibly the lack of bedding
(Miller & Grayson, 1972). Early lithification, in detail
involving several stages of marine cementation
(Gilles, pers. comm.) is indicated by the presence of
open cavities with internal sediments, and may help
to explain the topographic expression shown by some
of the developments of this facies.
Bioclastic grainstonefacies
This facies, which is locally extensively dolomitized,
occurs as medium to dark grey beds, centimetres to
metres in thickness. Contacts are usually sharp and
often modified by compaction and stylolitization.
Although this facies is dominantly massive, cross-
stratification on various scales and parallel lamination
may be present. Allochems comprise most of the rock.
Echinoderm fragments (mostly crinoidal) are the most
abundant skeletal grains, but mollusc and brachiopod
shell fragments are also important. Typically these
grains are highly micritized, often with well developed
micrite envelopes and/or coatings. Micritic grains
with a poorly developed, clotted internal structure
(and possibly of algal origin), together with foramini-
fera and peloids are the other main allochems.
Insoluble residues are generally low (< 5 %).
Interpretation. The coarse grain size and lack of
interparticle fines suggests that this facies was depos-
 Carbonate ramp-to-slope evolution

ited in a relatively high energy subtidal environment.

The massive nature of the majority of this facies may
be the result of extensive bioturbation but cross-
stratification, where present, suggests that nearshore
currents were strong. This facies is thought to represent
a beach/barrier complex.
Slumped horizons are developed within both car-
bonate and mudstone facies, affecting intervals up to
30 rn in thickness. Several types of deformation
structure can be identified and are termed slides,
multilayer folds, intrafolial folds and slump blocks
(Gawthorpe & Clemmey, 1985). Within carbonate-
dominated lithologies the most commonly observed
structures are decimetre- to metre-scale slides and
multilayer folds, whilst mudstone lithologies are
characterized by centimetre-scale deformation of an
intrafolial style. A complex spectrum from slides to
mass flows can be observed, with slump blocks
representing the initial stages in the break-up of slide
sheets into mass flows.

Facies associations and environmental interpretation

Facies association I :wackestonelpackstone-mudstone-
calcarenite
This association consists of alternations of wacke-
stonelpackstone and mudstone facies covering thick-
nesses of several metres to tens of metres. The
wackestone/packstone facies is predominantly repre-
sented by peloid-foram wackestone and mixed bio-
clastic wackestone/packstone units, with massive
mudstones and non-fragmentary bioclastic mudstones 2rn
forming the mudstone component (Fig. 3). However,
at certain intervals within the succession algal pack-
stones become an important part of the association. I I I I I I
Laminated calcarenites, occurring as sharp-based
beds up to 0.2 m thick, are present within both Fig. 3. Log showing representative section through late
Ivorian and early Chadian sequence displaying characteris-
mudstone and wackestone/packstone intervals.
tics of facies association 1. The sequence shows mudstone-
and carbonate-dominated cycles; note thin bedded carbon-
Interpretation. This association was deposited in a ates within the mudstone units and the restriction of algae to
warm shallow marine environment probably in the thick carbonate units. Chert nodules, planar to undulatory
region of 75-100 m below sea-level. The broad-scale bedding, patchy concentration of broken bioclasts and shell-
rich lamination are also characteristic features. Haw Bank
mudstone-carbonate cycles reflect the periodic influx Limestone, Skipton Castle Shale and Skipton Castle Lime-
of fine grained terrigenous sediment into the basin stone, Hollywell Bridge, SE 027 533.
and the deleterious effect this had on carbonate
production. This is especially true in the case of algal
growth and explains the lack of the algal wackestone/
packstone facies in the more argillaceous parts of the ment into the area of deposition, most probably as a
succession (Barraclough, 1983). The calcarenite facies result of storm activity. The lack of soft sediment
represent episodic high energy conditions which deformation suggests that depositional slopes were
allowed the transport of fragmentary bioclastic sedi- slight.
194 R. L. Gawthorpe

Facies association 2 :wackestone/packstone-

argillaceous wackestonelpackstone-calcareoussiltstone-
mudstone
This association consists of varying proportions of
silty and argillaceous wackestone/packstone interbed-
ded with calcareous mudstones and siltstones. Individ-
ual beds often have diffuse upper and lower contacts.
A log showing some of the features characteristic of
this association is shown in Fig. 4. Bedding is on a
centimetre to decimetre scale, with a discontinuous
parallel lamination often present. Broad scale cyclicity
between silt- and carbonate-dominated units can also
be seen on a scale of metres to tens of metres. Fossil
fragments occur in both the siltstone and carbonate
facies, whilst the upper bedding planes of wackestone/
packstone facies often contain large articulated bra-
chiopods and, occasionally, slightly disarticulated
crinoids. Thin calcarenite beds, a few centimetres in
thickness, have a higher concentration of bioclasts
and often fine upwards.

Interpretation. The general characteristics of this

association are similar to those of facies association 1,
but with a much greater percentage of terrigenous
material. Deposition occurred below wave base, with
carbonate constituents derived from the basin margin.
Mud and silt were probably derived from an extra-
basinal source, although in view of the relatively
uniform distribution of the silt throughout the associ-
ation, it may have been introduced as wind-blown
particles derived from nearby subaerially exposed
regions, as discussed by Charsley (1984). A n abundant
infauna (indicated by intense bioturbation) and the
presence of articulated brachiopods on bedding planes
indicate that bottom conditions were aerobic, while
the lack of remobilized sediment, in the form of lm
sedimentary slides and slumps, again suggests that
depositional slopes were gentle.
I I I I I I

Fig. 4. Log of facies association 2. This association is

Facies association 3 :lime mudstone-calcarenite
This facies association consists of lime mudstone/
wackestone and calcarenite facies, with the calcaren-
ites generally comprising between 20 and 50 % of the
association (Fig. 5). Thickly bedded lime mudstone/
wackestones predominate over thinner centimetre-
scale units, with the calcarenite facies dominated by
fining upward, non-stratified units between 0.05 and
0.3 m thick. Bioturbation is extensive in lime mud-
stone/wackestones but is generally restricted to the
tops of the calcarenite units. Bedding is often defined
distinctive in that it contains large amounts of silt-sized
quartz. Most of the bioclasts are fragmentary but large
(centimetre-sized) articulated brachiopods, solitary corals
and partly disarticulated crinoids are often preserved on
bedding planes. Bioturbation is quite extensive. Calcarenite
faciesare present within both the lower carbonate-dominated
and upper silt-dominated parts of the sequence. Haw Bank
Limestone-with-Shales,Skipton Rock Quariy, SE 015 532.
by thin mudstone partings, though individual beds
are often composite units. Boudinage and sedimentary
slide structures are present, usually affecting several
beds within this association.
 Carbonate ramp-to-slope eaolution
8 *o"
, I l , , I
Fig.5. Log of facies association 3. Sequence consists of
planar bedded lime mudstone/wackestone facies interbedded
with upward fining calcarenites and occasionally mudstones.
Bioclasts are generally highly comminuted with macrofauna
restricted to the allochthonous calcarenites. The sequence is
extensively bioturbated, and chert nodules are common.
Pendleside Limestone, Bottoms Beck, SD 745 566.
Interpretation. Deposition of this association occurred
in a setting where there was little terrigenous input
but major fine grained carbonate deposition, with
episodic influx of turbulent currents which deposited
the calcarenite beds. The lime mudstone/wackestone
facies is typical of fine grained carbonate muds derived
195
from the platform during storms, often referred to as
hemipelagic, peri-platform ooze (Cook & Mullins,
1983; McIlreath & James, 1978; Mullins et a/., 1984;
Schlager & James, 1978). Truly pelagic carbonates
would have been very restricted in the Carboniferous
due to the virtual absence of calcareous planktonic
organisms. The bioclastic nature of the calcarenite
facies, together with the paucity of in situ shelly fauna
on the slope itself suggests that this facies too has a
platform margin provenance. The transportation of
such material from platform margin to basin most
likely occurred during and/or.after storm or, possibly,
seismic activity. Hence, such an association would
tend to form an apron around platform margins. This,
together with the presence of occasional structures
associated with slide deformation suggests an upper
carbonate slope environment.
Facies association 4 :mudstone-lime mudstonel
wackestone-rhythmite-mudstone conglomerate
Alternations of mudstone and lime mudstone/wacke-
stone are characteristic of this association, with over
50% of the association composed of mudstone.
Laminated and sharp-based massive mudstones are
the most voluminous, though millimetre- to centi-
metre-thick fragmentary bioclastic mudstone horizons
are often associated with intervals containing intra-
folial folds, slump lobes and mudstone-matrix debris
units (Fig. 6). The lime mudstone/wackestone units
are in the order of 0.03-0.1 m thick and are of the
laminated, thin bedded type. Carbonate rhythmites
may also be present within this association. Biotur-
bation is rare and usually restricted to the carbonate
beds.
Interpretation. The presence of sedimentary slide
deformation is again consistent with a slope environ-
ment, but the predominance of 'distal' slide structures
and high percentage of mudstone suggest that the
carbonate source was restricted and/or distant from
the site of deposition. This conclusion is supported by
the nature of the carbonate facies in the association;
thin laminated lime mudstone/wackestone and rhyth-
mite beds compared to the thick upper slope lime
mudstone/wackestones and calcarenites present in
association 3. The slump folds and mudstone conglom-
erates represent remobilization of slope sediments,
and both are associated with the leading edge of
sedimentary slide sheets (Gawthorpe & Clemmey,
1985). These features suggest a lower slope environ-
ment with moderate terrigenous influx. The presence
196 R . L. Gawthorpe
lm
fault
I I I I I I
Fig. 6. Log of facies association 4. Mudstone is predominant
with carbonate rhythmites (A) and mudstone-carbonate
rhythmites (B) forming the other major components.
Slumped intervals are on a decimetre scale and are of an
intrafolial style. A complete spectrum between this type of
deformation and mudstone conglomerate facies (C) can be
seen, suggesting a genetic link between the two. Worston
Shales, BGS borehole Cow Ark No. 9 (SD64 NE9), SD 6832
4647.
of mudstone turbidites (sharp-based massive mud-
stones) also supports this interpretation, as the currents
depositing these sediments would be funnelled into
topographic lows.
Fucies association 5 :lime mudstoneiM,ackestone-
mudstone-calcarenite
Lime mudstone/wackestone facies predominate, com-
prising approximately 60 % of the association and
having a character intermediate between facies
associations 3 and 4. Mudstones are generally massive,
and bothmudstone and carbonate facies show variable
degrees of bioturbation. Calcarenite facies are present
in varying amounts, and may locally dominate the
succession. Typically these are laminated, fining
upward bioclastic beds < 10 cm thick. Mudstone rip-
up clasts and tabular lime mudstone/wackestone clasts
may be present in some calcarenites. Structures
associated with sedimentary slide deformation are
usually restricted to intrafolial folds and slump lobes
(Fig. 7), composed of lime mudstone/wackestone and
situated within mudstone facies.
Interpretation. The calcarenite facies in this association
appears to have two sources; one from the basin
margin and the other related to mobilization of
sediment during slide deformation. Rare limestone
breccias containing tabular lime mudstonelwacke-
stone clasts are thought to be related to slide
deformation. Such features suggest deposition in a
mid-slope situation, the majority of the carbonate
fraction of the association being derived from the
basin margin, with some remobilized off the slope.
Influx of mud is also indicated, but the lack of sharp-
based mudstones suggests that deposition did not take
place in topographic lows.
Facies association 6 :limestone brecciulconylomerate-
calcarenite
This association is dominated by coarse grained
carbonates of limestone breccia/conglomerate and
calcarenite facies, occurring as decimetre- to metre-
scale beds and occasionally interbedded with lime
mudstone/wackestone and mudstone facies (Fig. 8.)
The limestone breccia/conglomerates have a polymict
nature and occasionally contain olistoliths, up to 20 m
in diameter, composed of micritic lithologies. Individ-
ual beds of calcarenite lithology are generally massive
to upward fining, and of biolithoclastic composition.
However, coarsening and thickening upward se-
quences of calcarenite facies, often capped by a
development of limestone breccia/conglomerate are
commonly observed, and upward fining sequences
may be present above some breccia/conglomerates.
Interpretation. The various types of allochem, in
 Carbonate rump-to-slopeecolution
I characteristic features of this association. Base of sequence
Fig. 7. Log of facies association 5 showing thin parallel
laminated, planar bedded lime mudstone/wackestones, in-
terpreted as hemipelagic deposits, interbedded with mud-
stones and rare graded calcarenites. Slumped intervals on a
centimetre to metre scale, comprising intrafolial folds and
slump blocks, suggest sedimentation occurred on a slope.
Worston Shales, Dunsop Brook, S D 695 540.
particular the clast composition of the limestone
breccia/conglomerates, indicates a complex source
involving a combination of platform margin, intra-
basin high and slope regions. Material from these
areas was transported to the site of deposition by a
combination of debris and turbidity flow mechanisms.
197
Fig. 8. Log of facies association 6 showing some of the
is composed of facies association 3 , which passes upward
into a sequence of interbedded massive and upward fining
calcarenites and limestone breccias. Some of the variation in
the limestone breccia facies is shown schematically in the
figure, with chaotic, upward fining and reverse graded units
present. Pendleside Limestone, River Hodder, SD 719 576.
However, whilst some calcarenites were derived from
the carbonate source region (i.e. basin margin), the
thinning and fining upward sequences above limestone
breccia/conglomerates are most likely to have origi-
nated directly from the breccia/conglomerates as a
result of modification during transport, by a mecha-
nism similar to that described by Krause & Oldershaw
198 R. L. Gawthorpc
(1979). This association may reflect deposition in
several environments, e.g. basin margin or slope-
related sedimentary slide sheets. The particular envi-
ronment is constrained by the clast types and the
stratigraphically adjacent facies associations.
Fucies ussociation 7 :micrite- wackestonelpackstone-
gruinstone-mudstone
This facies association consists of massive micrite,
wackestonelpackstone, grainstone/calcarenite and
mudstone facies, and has been termed ‘Clitheroe
Limestone Complex’ (Miller & Grayson, 1982) or
‘Waulsortian facies’ (Lees & Miller, 1985). Systematic
lateral facies variations occur within this association
from massive micrite through crinoidal packstones
and wackestones into interbedded argillaceous wacke-
stone/packstones and mudstones, termed ‘bank’,
‘flank’ and ‘interbank’ facies respectively by Miller &
Grayson ( I 972). Grainstone/calcarenite facies may
occur within flank and interbank facies.
Developments of this association may have a sheet-
or mound-like form, and are interpreted to represent
topographic features on the contemporaneous sea-
floor. A good correlation exists between the spatial
distribution of this association and structural trends
within the basin (Fig. 1). For a more detailed account
of this facies association the reader is referred to
Miller & Grayson (1972).
Interpretation. Although the origin of these buildups is
still unclear, several hypotheses have been put for-
ward. Of these, in situ production of lime mud (e.g.
Lees & Miller, 1985) as opposed to baffling of
transported sediment (e.g. Pray, 1958; Wilson, 1975)
best explains the lack of terrigenous mud often
associated with laterally equivalent facies, and the
local, appreciable thicknesses (up to 500 m) of the
bank facies.
FACIES S E Q U E N C E
This section considers the stratigraphic relations
between the various facies and facies associations
described above. The use of calcareous microfossils,
particularly foraminifera, in recent years has aided
time correlation within the Dinantian sequence of the
basin, and has formed the basis upon which the
chronostratigraphic stages of George et al. (1976,
pp. 34-37) were established. In particular the works
of Fewtrell & Smith (1978, 1980), George et al. (1 976)
and Metcalfe (1976, 1980a, b) on microfossils, and
Riley ( 1 982) on macrofossils have refined stratigraphic
correlation within the basin. These works have formed
the stratigraphic basis for this sedimentological study.
Figure 9 shows a series of summary logs from various
anticlines within the Bowland Basin. Despite the
diachronous development of facies and associations,
and major lateral thickness and facies variations in
post-lower Visean sediments, systematic changes in
the sequence can be observed on a basin-wide scale,
for example, a change to a mud-dominant sequence
during the late Chadian to early Arundiandand an
increase in carbonate sedimentation during the As-
bian. O n a more detailed level, systematic changes in
the vertical sequence of facies and associations also
occur. A schematic log showing a composite vertical
facies sequence for the Bowland Basin, based on
Fig. 9, as well as other sections throughout the basin,
is shown in Fig. 10. This sequence, being a compila-
tion, does not represent the sequence at any particular
location within the basin, rather it outlines the main
facies and associations, and their stratigraphic se-
quence of development on a basin scale.
Environmental interpretations of this sequence are
based on basin-scale lateral facies variations. Proxi-
mal, shallow water carbonate-rich facies are charac-
teristic of more northern and north-western areas in
the basin, with deeper water, muddier facies present
along the south and south-eastern limit of Dinantian
exposure. This lateral variation across the basin is
related to the general asymmetric subsidence of the
Bowland Basin, with maximum subsidence adjacent
to the fault bounded south-eastern margin of the basin
(Pendle Monocline). Details of the lateral facies and
thickness variations, and their importance in under-
standing the evolution of the Bowland Basin will be
presented at a later date.
The sedimentology of the Ivorian to early Brigantian
sequence of the Bowland Basin is described below in
terms of five stratigraphic divisions (Ivorian to early
Chadian, early to late Chadian, late Chadian to early
Arundian, early Arundian to late Asbian, late Asbian
to early Brigantian), using the chronostratigraphic
stages of George et ul. (1976).
Ivorian to early Chadian
The oldest sediments exposed or proven by boreholes
within the basin belong to facies association 2 and are
of Ivorian age (Charsley, 1984). This association,
which contains relatively large amounts of silt and
clay grade terrigenous sediment, was gradually re-
 Carbonate ramp-to-slope erolution 199

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a
E C

P P
.-
a 3
m v)

Fig. 9. Summary lithological sections from the main anticlines in the Bowland Basin together with the position of the
Dinantian stage boundaries and a selection of the local rock-names. Based on Earp et a!. (1961), Fewtrell & Smith (1980),
George er al. (1976), Harrison (19821, Hudson (1944), Hudson & Mitchell (1937), Hudson & Dunnington (1945), Metcalfe
(1976, 1980a,b), Miller & Grayson (1972), Murray (1983), Arthurton et ul. (in press) and the author’s own field-work.
MF= Malham Formation, KF=Kilnsey Formation, SFF= Stockdale Farm Formation, ChL= Chapel House Limestone,
PdL = Pendieside Limestone, ThL= Thornton Limestone, HBeL= Hetton Beck Limestone, HL= Hetton Limestone,
CL=Chatburn Limestone, SL=Swinden Limestone, N L = Nappa Limestone, HbL= Haw Bank Limestone, BL= Butterhaw
Limestone, DL = Draughton Limestone, EL = Embsay Limestone, PqL= Peach Quarry Limestone.

placed towards the end of the Ivorian by the more
carbonate-rich facies association 1. Towards the top
of this interval, during periods when terrigenous input
was low, algal wackestone/packstone facies were
developed. Lateral facies variations within this part
of the succession are gradational, and synsedimentary
deformation features and debris flow units absent,
suggesting that deposition occurred on a gently sloping
seafloorlacking major topographic change. The lateral
transition from mixed bioclastic packstones through
foram-peloid wackestones to argillaceous wackestones
reflects increasing distance from the region of opti-
mum carbonate production (i.e. the basin margin) and
decreasing energy in agitated subtidal environments.
Taking into account the structural development of the
Bowland Basin and the tilt-block morphology of
adjacent areas such as the Stainmore Trough (Miller
& Grayson, 1982) and the Derbyshire Dome (Miller
& Grayson, 1982; Smith et al., 1985), this lateral
transition of facies is interpreted to represent deposi-
tion on acarbonateramp(Ahr, 1973;Read, 1983,1984)
rather than simply a transition from nearshore to
muddy offshore on a carbonate shelf (Fig. 11). Over
the whole area of the ramp, bottom waters were
aerobic, as indicated by the intense bioturbation, with
water depths, indicated by the presence of algae,
probably in the region of 75-100 m. The changes in
facies reflect the periodic influx of terrigenous sedi-
ment into the basin.
Throughout the Ivorian to early Chadian interval,
the style of the sedimentation and basin morphology
remained relatively constant. Approximately 1 km of
sediment is recorded from the Swinden area, including
Swinden borehole (Charsley, 1984), suggesting rela-
tively rapid sedimentation that kept pace with
subsidence.
Early to late Chadian
In many areas of the basin, deposition of facies
association 2 continued into this interval but, in
general, the sequence became more mudstone-rich
through the Chadian. The relatively uniform condi-
tions of the previous period changed progressively,
200 R.L. Gawthorpe

TECTONIC ACTIVITY

TECTONIC ACTIVITY

a
I
a
a:
w
!-
a
z
Q
U
0

E
0 N
0
N
I
0
lo

Fig. 10. Schematic compilation log for the Ivorian to early Brigantian sequence of the Bowland Basin, based on Fig. 9 and
other sections within the Bowland Basin. The figure shows the stratigraphic relations of the facies and facies associations
described in the text, and the approximate position of the Dinantian stages. Periods of enhanced tectonic activity and the
general environments of deposition are also shown.

leading to the development of marked lateral and Chadian, with grainstone facies developed towards
vertical facies variations within the succession. Along the top of the interval, whereas in the north eastern
the northern margin of the basin facies association 1 sector of the basin mudstones with thin interbedded
was deposited throughout most of the early to late wackestone/packstone units predominate. Elsewhere
 Carbonate ramp-to-slope evolution 20 1

RAMP
lagoonal facies association 1
1 facies
association 2
gainstone I
-I
lime or mudstone
mudstones facies
I mixed bioclastic
wackestonelpackstone I ","EL=I argillaceous
wackestone
_ _ ~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~ _ sea level

w a v e base

not to scale

Fig. 11. Carbonate ramp facies model showing location of the various facies and facies associations described in the text. Also
shown is a series of logs indicating the gross lithological characteristics displayed along various parts of the ramp profile. This
facies model also displays the broad-scale lateral facies variations characteristic of the Ivorian and early Visean parts of the
succession, with carbonate-rich proximal facies characterizing the N W part of the basin.

the sequence has a character intermediate between
these two extremes, consisting of interbedded mud-
stones and thin wackestone/packstones facies, with
occasional wackestone/packstone-dominated units.
During this period, facies association 7, the Waulsor-
tian facies association, became an important element
in the succession. This association, which is charac-
terized by especially rapid lateral thickness and facies
variations, is recognized at two horizons (Miller &
Grayson, 1982), with development apparently related
to structural features within the basin, in particular
NE--SW trending anticlines (Fig. 1). In adjacent areas
of the basin, thick developments of facies association
1 appear to occupy a similar stratigraphic position
(Metcalfe, 1976, 1980a,b). Despite the more varied
nature of the early to late Chadian sequence, the
general environment of deposition appears to have
been similar to that of the previous interval, i.e. a
carbonate ramp (Fig. 11). However, the greater
abundance of mudstone facies indicates increased
terrigenous mud input into the basin compared with
the latest lvorian to early Chadian. In addition, the
presence of pronounced thickness and facies varia-
tions suggests that the seafloor was becoming differ-
entiated into a series of topographic highs and lows,
although the absence of slump and limestone debris
flow horizons implies that development of a more
marked seafloor topography was a gradual process
and that topographic change was slight. h situ
carbonate production on topographic highs and their
margins gave rise to local accumulations of facies
association 7, whilst in the lows mudstone facies
predominated. Grainstones were restricted to the
shallower parts of the ramp and the most prominent
palaeohighs. The lack of major mudstone deposition
on these highs points to a topographic control on the
transport and deposition of terrigenous material
within the basin.
Late Chadian to early Arundian
During this period facies associations 1 and 7, typical
of the previous interval, were replaced by basin-wide
deposition of terrigenous muds (George et a / . , 1976,
p. 35). Associated with this facies change are several
distinctive features. Limestone breccia/conglomerate
units containing blocks (often of Waulsortian facies
202 R. L. Gawthorpe
association) several metres to tens of metres in size,
were developed throughout the area of the basin
(Hudson, 1927; Miller & Grayson, 1972). Many of
these breccia horizons are debris flow deposits.
Sedimentary slide structures are also abundant, espe-
cially in the central and wertern parts of the basin
(Dunnington, 1945 ; Gawthorpe & Clemmey, 1985).
The presence of sedimentary slides and debris flow
deposits indicates the development of depositional
slopes and associated sediment instability on the
seafloor during this period. In addition, local erosion
surfaces have been described from certain parts of the
basin, e.g. Slaidburn Anticline, Eshton/Hetton Anti-
cline (Harrison, 1982) and Clitheroe Anticline (Miller
& Grayson, 1972), although some of these features
may represent sedimentary slide planes developed
within partially lithified carbonates. The succeeding
mudstones are dominated by the massive and lami-
nated types, with carbonates absent or very poorly
developed. The replacement of a mixed carbonate-
clastic sequence by basin-wide terrigenous sediment
indicatescessation of carbonate production and supply
within the basin. Factors leading to such a change
have been outlined by various authors, and include
drowning or emergence of the carbonate-producing
area (James & Mountjoy, 1983; Kendall & Schlager,
1981) or increased influx of terrigenous material.
Early Arundian to late Asbian
Within this part of the sequence a progressive change
from mudstone facies to increasingly carbonate-
dominated facies associations is the most conspicuous
feature. During the early part of this Interval, an
increase in carbonate deposition is reflected by the
change from laminated and massive mudstones to
mudstone-carbonate rhythmites. The lack of biotur-
bation indicates that bottom conditions were probably
anaerobic/dysaerobic.
Lime mudstone/wackestone facies became increas-
ingly important in the remaining part of this interval,
firstly in facies associations 4 and 5, interbedded with
mudstone facies, and finally in facies association 3,
where they dominate the sequence. Thus, by the
Asbian stage, carbonates were dominant throughout
a large area of the basin. It is in this part of the
succession that slump folds, mudstone conglomerates
and oligomict limestone breccias, if not volumetrically
important, are significant in terms of environmental
analysis. The presence of increasing intensity of
bioturbation through this sequence of associations
indicates abundant infauna and progressively more
aerobic bottom conditions.
In the late Asbian, carbonate breccias and calcar-
enites of facies association 6 succeeded facies associ-
ation 3, particularly in the northern part of the basin.
Elsewhere there .was an increase in the percentage of
calcarenite facies in association 3.
This sequence of facies represents re-establishment
of carbonate production along the basin margin and
transport into the basin, after the dominance of
mudstone facies which characterized the latest Chad-
ian and early Arundian. Sedimentary slide-associated
deformation features and the presence of oligomict
limestone breccia and mudstone conglomerates of
mass flow origin indicate the presence of marked
topography within the basin.
To summarize, the vertical sequence of facies
present in the early Arundian to late Asbian reflects
the superposition of lower, mid-, upper and marginal
subenvironments (associations 4, 5, 3 and 6 respec-
tively) of a carbonate slope (summarized in Fig. 12),
producing a stratigraphic.sequence apparently similar
to that of an offlap margin (James & Mountjoy, 1983).
Late Asbian to early Brigantian
This period marked the end of major carbonate
deposition within the Bowland Basin, and the replace-
ment of carbonate facies by fine grained terrigenous
sediments. The carbonate-dominated facies associa-
tions 3 and 6 were succeeded first by a sequence of
interbedded mudstones and carbonates representing
facies association 4, and then by massive and
laminated mudstones with occasional mudstone con-
glomerates containing abundant carbonate lithoclasts.
This sequence, like that of the late Chadian to early
Arundian, represents a halt in the production and
transport of carbonate sediment in the basin, and may
again be related to drowning, emergence, clastic
progradation or a combination of these processes.
DISCUSSION
Two periods, the late Chadian to early Arundian and
late Asbian to early Brigantian, appear to have been
of particular significance in the evolution of the
Bowland Basin during the early Carboniferous. It was
during these periods that carbonate production was
suppressed and the succession became dominated by
terrigenous lithologies.
 Carbonate ramp-to-slope eaolution 203

MARGIN SLOPE BASIN

- 4
gramstone
w-
shoals and/or facies facies facbs mudstone
builduDs association 6 association 3 associatlon 5 association

Fig. 12. Carbonate slope facies model showing the relationships between the various facies and associations described in the
text. Schematic lithological logs showing the characteristics of the sequences from various parts of the slope profile are also
shown. Note the abundance of carbonate and mudstone breccias and conglomerates compared to the ramp facies model. This
facies model summarizes the main features of the early Arundian to late Asbian part of the succession, with carbonate-rich
upper slope facies characteristic of the N W part of the basin.

As outlined above, several factors may be respons-
ible for such a decline in carbonate sedimentation,
namely inundation, emergence or clastic progradation
into the areas of carbonate production. Whilst these
factors may reflect either eustatic sea-level changes or
tectonic activity (or both), in this instance the
processes responsible for cessation of carbonate
production can be identified through detailed study of
the thickness, facies and structural characteristics of
the late Chadian to early Arundian and late Asbian to
early Brigantian sequences. The late Chadian to early
Arundian, for example, contains major horizons of
debris flow limestone breccias and sedimentary slide
structures, indicating that sediments on the seafloor
were particularly unstable during this period. Major
lateral thickness and facies variations associated with
NW-SE trending fault zones become apparent for the
first time in this part of the sequence and affect the
rest of the succession. Thus differential topography
and the stratigraphic control on debris flow and
sedimentary slide horizons indicate that the late
Chadian to early Arundian was a period of enhanced
tectonism. Differential movement associated with
faulting can account for the synchronous development
of subsidence and local uplift, for example in
extensional regimes, where uplift of the footwall can
occur even though subsidence is the dominant move-
ment regionally. Movement of this kind would allow
inundation (for example progressive transgression on
to the margins of the Askrigg Block and associated
drowning of the previous basin-margin carbonates) to
be contemporaneous with uplift/emergence phenom-
ena (Arthurton, 1984; Harrison, 1982) such as the
local erosion surfaces within the basin.
A similar situation occurred during the late Asbian
to early Brigantian, with early Brigantian uplift and
erosion of the Settle/Cracoe 'reef belt (Mundy, 1980),
along the northern margin of the basin, occurring at
the same time as subsidence within the basin. Major
debris flow and sedimentary slide horizons also occur
within this interval.
Both periods were associated with increased terri-
genous deposition in the basin. However, from
analysis of sequences adjacent to basin margins at the
204 R. L. Gawthorpe
time intervals in question, it appears that the decline
in carbonate deposition was not a consequence of
terrigenous sediment progradation but was due to a
combination of inundation and emergence. The influx
of terrigenous sediment into the basin, however, may
have been related to tectonism. Although Barraclough
(1983) does suggest that the late Chadian and
particularly the early Arundian was a period of
transgression over much of northern England, in the
case of the Bowland Basin and surrounding areas a
model involving only eustatic changes in sea-level
(Ramsbottom, 1973, 1977) to account for the nature
of the sedimentary succession is clearly not tenable.
The late Chadian to early Arundian period of
tectonic activity was also important with respect to
the evolution of sedimentary environments through
the Visean. Prior to this interval, sedimentation took
place on a carbonate ramp, whereas subsequent
deposition occurred on a developing carbonate slope.
Such a stratigraphic sequence involving evolution
from a ramp to a slope is displayed by many ancient
and modern platform-to-basin transitions and is often
a consequence of high carbonate production along the
basin margin coupled with sediment starvation in the
basin (Read, 1982, 1984). In the case of the Bowland
Basin, however, such a n evolutionary sequence is
thought to reflect the development of major seafloor
topography due to tectonic effects during the late
Chadian to early Arundian, providing an abrupt
platform-to-basin transition. The development of such
a marked basin margin was also important in
determining the location of the marginal carbonate
buildups along the northern margin of the basin
(Mundy, 1980). The establishment and growth of
these buildups during the HQlkerian and Asbian stages
(Mundy, 1980), together with carbonate sedimenta-
tion on the Askrigg Block, was responsible for the
increase in carbonate sedimentation within the basin.
Thus the superposition of lower, mid- and upper slope
subenvironments during the Holkerian and Asbian
reflects the growth of basin-margin carbonates on a
stationary rather than a progradational (offlap) basin
margin.
CONCLUSIONS
( I ) Within the Bowland Basin, sediments of Ivorian
to early Chadian age reflect deposition on a carbonate
ramp, with episodic influx of terrigenous mud.
Wackestone/packstone and mudstone facies predom-
inate.
(2) During the Chadian, lateral facies variations
developed on a scale of kilometres to tensof kilometres,
reflecting the development of slight palaeohighs and
shallow depressions on the seafloor. Carbonate sedi-
mentation predominatedon the palaeohighs and basin
margins, especially where Waulsortian buildups were
present, and provided local, intra-basin sources of
carbonate. The differential topography of the seafloor
may have had a tectonic origin, as suggested by the
location of Waulsortian buildups along ppesent-day
observed structural trends.
(3) The sequence records two periods of enhanced
tectonic activity; the late Chadian to early Arundian
and late Asbian to early Brigantian, both marked by
horizons of debris flow carbonate breccias and
sedimentary slides. During the former interval, major
intra-basin topography was developed, while the latter
saw the end of major carbonate deposition within the
basin. Both periods were associated with a halt in
carbonate sedimentation and a concomitant increase
in the deposition of terrigenous mud. Cessation of
carbonate production was a consequence of contem-
poraneous inundation and emergence of the various
carbonate producing areas associated with the basin,
and was related predominantly to tectonism.
(4) The early Arundian to late Asbian sequence
reflects a progressive increase in carbonate deposition
after the late Chadian to early Arundian interval.
Debris flows and sedimentary slides reflect deposition
on a carbonate slope. The superposition of lower,
mid- and upper slope subenvironments was a conse-
quence of establishment of carbonate sedimentation
on the Askrigg Block and growth of marginal
carbonate buildups along the northern margin of the
basin.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am grateful to Harry Clemmey and Mike Leeder at
Leeds and to Rob Barraclough, Pete Turner, Miles
Widnall, Chris Carlon and Ian Cowden for helpful
discussion during this work. Thanks are also due to
Catherine Hunt and Ian Blakeley for help with typing
and photography, and to Wayne Ahr, Ian Somerville
and Paul Bridges for their constructive comments on
the manuscript. Financial support from BP Minerals
International Ltd and access to BGS borehole material
is gratefully acknowledged.
 Carbonate ramp-to-slope ecolution
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