Fisheries Research 230 (2020) 105675

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Fisheries Research
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fishres

Climate change adaptation strategies and fish catchability: The case of T

inland artisanal fishers along the Volta Basin in Ghana
Franklin Nantui Mabea,*, Amos Asaseb
a
Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Faculty of Agribusiness and Communication Sciences University for Development Studies, Tamale, Ghana
b
Department of Fisheries and Water Resources, School of Natural Resources, University of Energy and Natural Resources, Sunyani, Ghana

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Handled by Steven X. Cadrin The pattern of the climatic conditions in the fisheries sub-sector is currently alarming and has interfered with
Keywords: many productive fishing activities. In response to this, fishers have resorted to using some climate change
Adaptation strategies adaptation strategies(CCAS). This study assessed whether or not climate change adaptation strategies used by
Catchability inland artisanal fishers improve fish catchability along the Volta Lake in Ghana. The study used primary cross-
Climate change and conditional mixed-process sectional data. A conditional mixed-process (CMP) with an ordered probit outcome was used to estimate the
effects of climate change adaptation strategies on fish catchability. The climate change adaptation strategies
used by fishers in the study area are; increasing daily fishing time, increasing fishing efforts, changing fishing
time, aquaculture production, migrating to another fishing area, fishing further away or deep inside the water,
catching smaller fish, participation in alternative non-fishing livelihoods and taking a moratorium in fishing. It
was evident that the more climate change adaptation strategies fishers use, the more fish they catch per unit man
effort. It is prudent for stakeholders promoting climate change adaptation strategies and sustainable fishing
especially the Ministry of Fisheries and Aquaculture Development to promote these strategies in fishing. More
emphasis should be placed on sustainable climate change adaption strategies such as aquaculture production and
implementation of close fishing seasons.

1. Introduction
The social effects of climate change have gained global importance
in recent time. Climate change over the past years has affected all as-
pect of human life in the world. The Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC,
2011), defines "climate change" as "a change in the state of the climate
that can be identified (e.g. by using statistical tests) by changes in the
mean and/or the variability of its properties and that which persists for
an extended period, typically decades or longer. Climate change and
agriculture are interrelated processes, both of which take place on a
global large scale. The fisheries industry which is one of the paramount
sub-sector of the agricultural sector has not been spared of climate
change effects over the past decades.
According to Pinsky et al. (2013), there is a continuous shift in the
distribution range of aquatic species as a result of changes in tem-
perature, sea ice extent, salinity, PH, oxygen levels and circulation.
These changes have adverse implications on aquatic organisms, people
who depend on fish for food, and the revenues of the global economy.
For instance, the global fisheries revenues are likely to drop by 35 %
more than the projected decrease in catches by 2050s under CO2
emissions (Belhabib et al., 2016).
In Ghana, fishing is practised on a small scale by rural fishing
communities, largely along the Volta basins. Artisanal fishing occurs
predominantly in Volta and Bosumtwi lakes (lacustrine), lagoons (es-
tuarine), rivers, streams, dams etc. As noted by Afoakwah et al. (2018),
the definition of artisanal fishing varies from country to country. Irre-
spective of this, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines it as:
“traditional fisheries involving fishing households (as opposed to
commercial companies), using relatively small amount of capital and
energy, relatively small fishing vessels (if any), making short fishing
trips, close to shore, mainly for local consumption”.
The contribution of inland capture fisheries to national fish pro-
duction was 21 % in 2014 with the majority of the resources from the
Volta Lake, which is the main source of freshwater fish in Ghana
(Ministry of Fishery and Aquaculture Development, MoFAD, 2015). The
fishery sector provides jobs to over 2.7 million men and women as
fishers, processors, boat owners and builders, as well as other ancillary
jobs in Ghana (Nunoo et al., 2015). Irrespective of this, the country is
50 % insufficient in meeting fish demand per annum (Ministry of

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: mfnantui@uds.edu.gh (F.N. Mabe), amos.asase@uenr.edu.gh (A. Asase).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fishres.2020.105675
Received 12 December 2019; Received in revised form 15 June 2020; Accepted 17 June 2020
Available online 04 July 2020
0165-7836/ © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
F.N. Mabe and A. Asase
Fisheries and Aquaculture Development MoFAD, 2015). This problem is
being compounded by adverse climatic conditions. The country is ex-
pected to experience rising temperatures, increasing rainfall variability
and sea-level rise (Dazé and Echeverría, 2016), which can affect aquatic
resources. It has been established that climate change has adversely
affected the fishery sector in Ghana. Several researchers have also
published evidence to strengthen these arguments.
In a study to compare the vulnerability of capture fisheries econo-
mies to potential climate change, WorldFish (2010) revealed that out of
33 nations, Ghana is ranked the 25th highly vulnerable country. Asante
and Amuankwa-Mensah (2015) found that higher sea surface tem-
perature resulted in the lower catch rates of round sardinella in Ghana.
Also, Asante and Amuankwa-Mensah (2015) reported that the pro-
duction and total annual catchability of fishes such as tilapia, catfish
and flat sardine are significantly affected by precipitation. The total
contribution of the fishery sub-sector to Ghana's agriculture Gross Do-
mestic Product (GDP) has declined from 9.1 % in 2012 to 5.7 % in 2016
(Ministry of Fisheries and Aquaculture Development MoFAD, 2015 and
MoFA, 2017). The further admonishing by Asante and Amuankwa-
Mensah (2015) that the adverse effect of climate change is responsible
for the decline of the fishery sector in the Ghanaian economy is not
farfetched. Also, Asante and Amuankwa-Mensah (2015) indicated that
the consequence of this is the inability of the country to meet its do-
mestic fish demand thereby threatening the economic and food security
of many Ghanaians. A study by Barange et al. (2018) indicated that
climate change has affected some of the main small pelagic fish, tuna
and tuna-like fish, with heavy implications on artisanal fishery sector in
many sub-Saharan countries including Ghana. The story is not different
in the Gambia as Bah et al. (2018) research revealed that unpredictable
rainfall, increased winds, increased temperature, drought and flood
have resulted in increased risk and uncertainties in fishing, thereby
reducing fish catch.
To minimize the effects of climate change on freshwater artisanal
fishing, most fishers adopt adaptation strategies. Climate change
adaptation as explained by and United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change(UNFCCC, 2018) involves adjusting to actual or expected cli-
mate and its effects, which include changes in processes, practices and
structures to lessen or avoid potential damages or benefit from oppor-
tunities presented by climate change. Some of the common adaptation
strategies are shifting fishing effort to new locations (FAO, 2015),
fishing further away, fishing deep inside water and changing the timing
of fishing (Kabisa and Chibamba, 2017 and Sereenonchai and Arunrat,
2019). As noted by Belhabib et al. (2016), adaptation responses of
fishers to climate change impacts are scarce and not well studied unlike
in the area of crop and livestock production. Fishers adopt multiple
adaptation strategies. What is not clear is whether or not fish catch-
ability improves with an increasing number of climate change adapta-
tion strategies in Ghana. This study, therefore, seeks to answer the
question of what climate change adaption strategies are currently being
used by fishers and whether or not these adaptation strategies sig-
nificantly help fishers to increase their catch/yield.
2. Theory and methods
2.1. Study area and data requirements
The study was conducted along the Volta Basin in the Brong Ahafo
Region of Ghana. A multi-stage sampling technique was used. A simple
random sampling technique was used to select Sene East and Pru East
Districts from four Volta Basin Districts (Kintampo North, Pru East,
Sene East and Sene West Districts) since the sampling frame is known
with certainty. In each of the selected Districts, 16 fishing communities
were selected using simple random sampling technique due to the
homogeneity in the characteristics of the fishing communities. In each
of the communities, 13 houses were selected using a systematic
2
Fisheries Research 230 (2020) 105675
sampling technique based on the house numbers. Using the sample
selection table developed by Krejcie and Morgan (1970), a population
of 80,000 fishers and 5.5 % margin of error gave a sample size of 330
but 397 respondents were used for this study. Primary data was col-
lected using a semi-structured questionnaire.
2.2. Identification of climate change adaptation strategies
Climate change adaptation strategies used by fishers were obtained
from respondents with the help of questionnaires. Descriptive statistics
such as percentage frequency was used to analyse the data to achieve
this objective.
2.3. Impacts of climate change adaptation strategies on fish catchability
To identify the determinants of climate change adaptation strategies
and the impacts of the adaptation strategies of fish catchability, this
study used Conditional Mixed Process (CMP) framework. The theory
underpinning this kind of analysis is the theory of utility maximization.
An inland artisanal fisher will adapt to climate change if only if he/she
perceived that adapting will yield higher benefits (higher catchability)
than not adapting. Fishers are economic agents (firms) who are rational
and have access to information and aimed at maximizing utility or
profit from any action they take (Kijima et al., 2011). Utility max-
imization depends on the fishers' ability to make the best choice(s) on
climate change. A farmer will choose many or best combination of
climate change adaptation strategies (mobcccas) if only the utility or
benefits derived from the decision is greater than choosing few or worst
combination of climate change adaptation strategies (fowcccas) and
this is mathematically expressed as:
Umobcccas > Ufocccas (1)
It is hypothesized that the more number of climate change adap-
tation strategies a fisher uses, the greater the quantity of fish catch be
unit area. Hence, the number of climate change adaptation strategies
here are ordered with 1, 2, 3, …, 9 representing one, two, three, …,
nine number of climate change adaptation strategies respectively. In
this study, climate change adaptation strategies considered are increase
fishing time, increase fishing efforts, change fishing time, engage in
aquaculture, migration to another fishing area, fishing further away or
deep inside water, catching smaller fish, engage in alternative non-
fishing livelihood and taking a moratorium in fishing.
The factors that determine the number of climate change adaptation
strategies and their impact on fish catchability can be estimated using
CMP with ordered probit. CMP, as noted by Roodman (2011), is a
system of equations which can be used to evaluate the impact of a
decision or participation in something on a certain outcome for non-
experimental or non-observational data. This is because CMP can deal
with the problem of sample selection bias. With that, inherent char-
acters of some fishers would not make them more efficient in fish
catchability than their colleagues. Though, Heckman sample correction,
propensity score matching (PSM), endogenous switching regression
model, generalized propensity score (GPS) matching in continuous
treatment framework and treatment effects can be used to deal with the
problem of sample selection (Heckman, 1979; Shiferaw et al., 2014;
Hirano and Imbens, 2004; and Wooldridge, 2005), CMP can ad-
ditionally be used when the selection equation has ordered dependent
variable as it is this case. According to Asfaw et al. (2016), "mixed
process" simply means that a regression model with different equations
that can have different kinds of dependent variables. Also, CMP can
solve the problem of endogeneity as the number of climate change
adaptation strategies is both endogenous and exogenous variable.
Following Roodman (2011) and Makate et al. (2016), the ordered
probit equation that examines the determinants of the number of cli-
mate change adaptation strategies used is as:
F.N. Mabe and A. Asase Fisheries Research 230 (2020) 105675

j=J
No. Adapi = β0 + ∑ βj Xji + εi
j=1 (2)
Where:
No.Adapi = number of climate change adaptation strategies used by
ith fisher (1, 2, 3, …, 9 representing one, two, three, …, nine number of
climate change adaptation strategies respectively), Xj = jth explanatory
variable that determines the number of adaptation strategies and εi =
error term for ith fisher.
With CMP, the outcome equation which measures the effects of the
number of adaptation strategies on fisher catchability is expressed as:
k=K
Catchabilityi = α 0 + αj No. Adapi + ∑ αk Zki + ℓi
k=1 (4)
Where:
Zki = kth explanatory variable affecting the catchability of ith fisher.
3. Results
3.1. Summary statistics
Table 1 presents the results on the summary statistics of socio-
economic and fishing operation variables of respondents in the study
area. The average number of climate change adaptation strategies used
by fishers and mean catchability are 5 and 5.16 Kg/manday respec-
tively. This meant that fishers were catching relatively smaller quan-
tities of fish per manday, suggesting the negative effect of climate
change on catchability.
On average, fishers spent 4.6 years in formal education and this is
too low. Educational attainment according to Gebresilassie and Bekele
(2015) plays critical roles in agricultural production. Therefore, the low
level of education recorded in the study area has the tendency of
slowing the synthesis of information on climate change thereby af-
fecting the adaptation choices. The average age of household head was
41.6 years, implying household heads were middle-aged and therefore
falls within the economically active age group. Additionally, the
average fishing experience gained by fishers was 20.2 years. The
finding suggests that fishers are old enough to use a certain climate
change adaptation strategy to counteract or minimize its effects.
The result also showed that on average, each fisher household has 7
persons. This is higher than the national average of 5 persons per
household (Ghana Statistical Service (GSS), 2014). Also, the average
adult household size of fishers in the study area was 4, implying
households were slightly dominated by adults.
The technology variables revealed interesting findings. About 24 %
of fishers owned motorized canoes in the study area. The average net
size used by fishers was 95.86 m whereas the average mesh size of
fishing nets was 11.45 mm. The size of mesh used by inland artisanal
fishers in the study area is below the recommended mesh size of 25 mm
and above. This is against the government of Ghana regulation, which
requires a minimum mesh size of 25 mm (Akpalo, 2002; Nunoo and
Asiedu, 2013).
For policy and information variables, the results from Table 1
showed that 9 % of respondents had access to agricultural extension
services. It is important to note that fishers also receive advice on
fishing from some general agricultural extension officers and fishing
officers from Ministry of Fishery and Aquaculture Development. This
implies that access to agricultural extension service for the fishery is
very low probably due to low expertise in fishery extension delivery in
the country. Also, the average annual amount of credit received by
fishers was GH¢572.30. About 14 % of respondents indicated that they
had electricity in their communities. Whilst 53 % of the respondents
have a good communication network, 79 % monitor weather in-
formation. This is important for fishers because any changes in the
weather pattern will have implications on fish availability.
The results from Table 1 showed that fishers travelled an average
distance of 58.8 km from the community to fish market. Whilst 53 % of
respondents were interviewed in Pru East District, the rest come from
Sene West. The average distance covered in fishing per day was 8.7 km.
About 48 % of respondents revealed that the road to the markets was
motorable, suggesting the bad nature of roads in the study area. The
average annual depreciation of fixed capital inputs was GH¢2983.35,
meaning that fishers assets were depreciating at a faster rate and could
have an implication on their ability to acquire new inputs. The results
from Table 1 showed that the average value of variable inputs was GH

Table 1
Summary Statistics of Socioeconomic and Fishing Operation Variables.
Factors and measurement Mean Std. Dev. Min Max

Number of climate change adaptation strategies (0–9) 5.46 1.23 2.00 9.00
Catchability (Kg/manday) 5.16 9.21 0.05 96.92
Fishers’ characteristics
Formal education (years) 4.59 5.01 0.00 23.00
Age of household head (years) 41.64 11.86 18.00 92.00
Fishing experience (years) 20.15 11.34 1.00 60.00
Household size (number of persons) 7.22 3.09 1.00 15.00
Adult household size (number of persons greater than 18years) 3.95 1.93 0.00 12.00
Number of wards in JHS 1.40 1.65 0.00 10.00
Technology variables
Ownership of motorized canoe (1=own; 0=otherwise) 0.24 0.43 0.00 1.00
Netsize (m) 95.86 84.90 10.00 120.00
Mesh size (cm2) 11.45 4.65 1.00 30.00
Policy and information variables
Access to agricultural extension service (1 = yes, 0 = no) 0.09 0.29 0.00 1.00
Amount of credit received (GH¢) 572.30 1116.04 0.00 11000.00
Availability of electricity in the community (1 = yes; 0 = no) 0.14 0.35 0.00 1.00
Quality of mobile phone network (1=good; 0=poor) 0.53 0.50 0.00 1.00
Monitoring of weather information (1 = yes; 0 = no) 0.79 0.41 0.00 1.00
Location and infrastructure variables
Distance from community to fish selling market (Km) 58.76 107.50 0.00 400.00
District (1=Pru East; 0=Sene West) 0.53 0.50 0.00 1.00
Average distance covered in fishing per day (Km) 8.72 7.85 0.20 80.00
Motorability of road to market (1=motorable; 0=otherwise) 0.48 0.50 1.00 2.00
Conventional inputs
Depreciation (annual value of fixed capital inputs) (GH¢) 2983.35 3128.90 199.50 23341.50
Value of variable inputs (GH¢) 895.07 1311.92 134.00 12910.00

3
F.N. Mabe and A. Asase Fisheries Research 230 (2020) 105675

Table 2 adaption strategy for fishers.

Frequency Distribution of Categorical variables. Another significant adaptation strategy used by fishers to minimize
Variable Freq. Percent the effects of climate change is fishing further away or deeper inside
water. It recorded a percentage frequency of 88.9 % making it the
Size of unmotorized canoe: second most important adaptation strategy for inland artisanal fishers
No canoe 83 20.91
along the Volta basin. This might be that in the face of climate change,
Small size 170 42.82
Medium size 133 33.50
the activities of human close to the communities compound the pro-
Big size 11 2.77 blem thereby affecting fishes to move far away. The only way is for the
Total 397 100.00 fisher to travel far away or deep inside water to cast their fishing nets.
Farmers' perception about the effects of climate change: Climate change reduces Fishing further away or deep inside water has been identified by Kabisa
the quantity of fish catch:
and Chibamba (2017) and Sereenonchai and Arunrat (2019) as strategy
Disagree 7 1.76
No change 16 4.03 fishers use to get more fish in the face of the changing climatic condi-
Agree 147 37.03 tions.
Strongly agree 227 57.18 The third most used adaptation strategy is changing fishing time as
Total 397 100.00
it recorded a percentage frequency of 78.6 %. Changing fishing time
here means fishers changing the time of fishing or the season of intense
fishing. As the fishers were asked why they change the fishing time,
¢895.07, suggesting that fishers were spending more on variable inputs
they indicated that, due to climate change, hot spells make fishes hide
in their fishing activities.
under shades during certain times of the day and sometimes night. As
Table 2 shows the frequency distribution of two categorical vari-
such, they studied and know when to go fishing and get enough catch.
ables. As shown in the table, 42.8 % representing the majority of the
According to fishers, they need not border so much about the time of
respondents owned small size unmotorised canoe ((4−5 m long). A
fishing some decades ago as there were enough fishes to catch. This
significant number thus 20.9 % do not have canoes at all. For motorised
finding is a confirmation of Kabisa and Chibamba (2017) and
canoe, as much as 76 % of the respondent do not have (see Table 1).
Sereenonchai and Arunrat (2019) that changing fishing time is one of
This is a true reflection of the artisanal nature of the fishers’ work. On
the surest ways for adapting to climate change. According to Shelton
average, most respondents strongly agree that climate change reduces
(2014), changing the timing as species arrive earlier later is an auton-
the quantity of fish catch. Out of 397 respondents, 57.2 % strongly
omous adaptation strategy use by fishers.
agree that climate change reduces the quantity of fish catch. From
Climate change affects the growth of fishes and this is confirmed by
Table 2, the level of agreement increases with the frequency of the
inland artisanal fishers in this study and the work of Daw, Adger and
respondents. This suggests that fishers are well aware of the negative
Brown (2009). As such, fishes available are smaller in size. Some are
effects of climate change on fishing.
even fingerlings. Inland artisanal fishers interviewed in this study noted
that they catch smaller fishes to continue to get fish in the face of the
3.2. Climate change adaptation strategies changing climatic conditions. Out of 397 respondents, 72.7 % catch
smaller fish to compensate for the unavailability of bigger fishes due to
Climate change adaptation strategies, as defined by IPCC (2011) is climate change. This finding is not different as Kabisa and Chibamba
“adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or ex- (2017) came out with the same adaptation strategy being used by
pected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or ex- fishers in Lake Kariba of Zambia.
ploits beneficial opportunities”. Fig. 1 is a 3-D column chart which il- Spending more time on fishing or increase daily fishing time is
lustrates the percentage frequency distribution of climate change another climate change adaptation strategy used by fishers to minimize
adaptation strategies used by inland artisanal fishers to minimize the the effects of climate change on catchability. When one spends more
effects of climate change on the quantity of fish catch per effort. As time fishing per day, one is likely to get a little more quantity of fish
shown in the figure, increasing fishing efforts is the adaptation strategy than his/her counterpart who spends less time per fishing day. From
with the highest percentage frequency. It is the adaptation strategy that Fig. 2, more than half of the respondents (66.0 %) have increased daily
fishers use most. Out of 397 respondents, 378 representing 95.5 % in- fishing time to be able to catch more fishes to compensate for low
creases fishing efforts to be able to catch more fish in the face of climate quantity of fish available for catch due to climate change. Increase
change. This observation confirmed the findings of Daw et al. (2009) fishing time as noted by Kabisa and Chibamba (2017) is a climate
and De Silva and Soto (2009) that increasing efforts is an important change adaptation strategy used by fishers to get more fish.
Another climate change adaptation strategy that recorded more
than half usage is migration to another fishing area. Out of 397 inland
artisanal fishers interviewed, 235 representing 59.6 % migrate from one

Fig. 1. Climate change adaptation strategies.

Note: The responses were multiple. Fig. 2. Distribution of Number of Climate Change Adaptation Strategies.

4
F.N. Mabe and A. Asase
fishing community to another just to get enough catch to compensate
for low catch due to climate change. Fishers intimated that though
migration is an old phenomenon in the history of fishing, it is now
rampant as a result of the changing climatic conditions. According to
the fishers, they sometimes do that to discover new fishing areas and
settle there. This adaptation strategy was identified by Shelton (2014)
as he indicated that changing locations of fishing in response to species
shifting to new areas is another adaptation strategy that can minimize
the effects of climate change on fish catch. Meanwhile, migration as fish
distribution changes has the potential of causing overexploitation.
The other adaptation strategies fishers use to lessen the impact of
climate change on the quantity of fish catch is alternative non-fishing
livelihoods, taking a moratorium on fishing and engagement in aqua-
culture. Each of these climate change adaptation strategies recorded
less than 50 % percentage frequency. Alternative non-fishing liveli-
hoods, taking a moratorium on fishing and engagement in aquaculture
recorded a percentage frequency of 46.0 %, 27.5 % and 4.5 % respec-
tively. This finding supports the work of Asiedu et al. (2017) that
adaptation is cardinal in dealing with climate change by the small scale
aquafarmer in Ghana. To Daw et al. (2009), aquaculture infrastructure
investments especially nylon netting and raised dykes flood-prone pond
systems are key to adapting to reduced fish catch. Though aquaculture
is one of the most sustainable adaptation strategies to minimize the
effects of climate change on fishing, it is the least used. It is important to
note that climate change has effects on aquaculture as well. This effects
according to Aseidu et al. (2018) are lessened in Ghana as aquafarmers
adopt adaptation strategies such as water management, construction of
bore-holes, sitting farms close to water bodies, adjusting fish stocking
time, and creation of embankment to avoid floods.
3.3. Distribution of number of climate change adaptation strategies
Fig. 2 shows the area chart for the percentage frequency distribution
of the number of climate change adaptation strategies. From the chart,
it is clear that out of 397 respondents, 121 representing 30.5 % use five
adaptation strategies. Five climate change adaptation strategies re-
corded the highest usage. This is followed by 6 adaptation strategies
which recorded 26.2 % of the respondents. Out of 397 inland artisanal
fishers interviewed, 18.1 % and 16.9 % respectively used four and
seven adaptation strategies. Less than 5 % of the respondents used at
most three adaptation strategies. Also, less than 5 % used eight to nine
adaptation strategies. The distribution of the number of climate change
adaptation strategies is relatively normal or symmetric.
3.4. Climate change adaptation strategies: determinants and impact on fish
catchability
This section presents and discusses the CMP results on factors in-
fluencing inland artisanal fishers’ use of climate change adaptation
strategies as well as the contribution of strategies on fish catchability.
3.4.1. Appropriateness of CMP model
It is important to test for the appropriateness of CMP model for the
data. Meanwhile, CMP was used because of its advantages of being able
to jointly identify factors influencing the number of adaptation strate-
gies that inland artisanal fishers use as well as estimate the contribution
of these strategies on fish catchability. It also can deal with endogeneity
that might result from the presence of selectivity bias. Having laid the
foundation for the use of CMP, the atanhrho_12 is a diagnostic test
which is a Fisher's z transformed correlation. The negative sign and
statistical significance of atanhrho_12 imply that there are some un-
observed factors which affect the number of climate change adaptation
strategies that inland artisanal fishers use and fish catchability (Makate
et al., 2016). Hence, there is evidence of selectivity bias and the esti-
mates would have been biased if ordinary least square (OLS) was used
rather than CMP. Also, the likelihood ratio test value as shown in
5
Fisheries Research 230 (2020) 105675
Table 3 is 465.13 and it is statistically significant at 1%. This means that
there is a strong correlation between the error terms of the number of
adaptation strategies and catchability model and hence the two could
not have been estimated individually. Also, it implies stochastic factors
not included in the two models are related and hence their omission is
not a serious econometric problem.
3.4.2. Determinants of climate change adaptation strategies
Fishing experience, number of wards in Junior High School educa-
tion (JHS), amount of credit received, access to agricultural extension
service, ownership of unmotorised canoe, monitoring of weather in-
formation, district dummy, motorability of roads and reduction in the
quantity of fish catch by climate change are the factors which positively
and significantly influence the number of adaptation strategies fishers
use (Table 3). Whilst fishing experience, number of children in JHS,
credit amount, monitoring of weather information, reduction in the
quantity of fish catch by climate change and motorability of roads are
each statistically significant at 1 %, access to agricultural extension and
district dummy is statistically significant at 10 % each.
The coefficient value of fishing experience is positive suggesting
that as fishing experience increases, the number of climate change
adaptation strategies use also increases. A one-year increase in fishing
experience increases the number of climate change adaptation strate-
gies by 1.7 %. This meets a priori expectation. The reason might be that
as one become more experience in fishing, one gets to know many
climate change adaptation strategies that could be used to minimize the
effects of climate change on fishing. This corroborates with the findings
of Adebayo (2012); Sereenonchai and Arunrat (2019) and Nhemachena
and Hassan (2007) that experienced fishers can quickly accept climate
change adaptation strategies.
The number of wards in JHS is another factor that influences the
number of climate change adaptation strategies used by fishers. As the
number of wards in JHS increases by one, the number of climate change
adaptation strategies used by fishers increases by 16.5 %. The reason
might be that when children in JHS get information about climate
change and climate change adaptation strategies, they teach their
parents or guardian. Therefore, education is a major factor in any cli-
mate change adaptation strategies intervention that need to be pro-
moted. This finding is consistent with Maddison (2006); Adebayo
(2012) and Apata et al. (2009) that higher education increases fishers’
access to information about climate change adaptation strategies.
Access to agricultural extension services also affects the number of
climate change adaptation strategies positively. This implies that inland
artisanal fishers who have access to agricultural extension services can
adopt many climate change adaptation strategies. Agricultural exten-
sion agents are the technical persons who know more and appropriate
climate change adaptation strategies. With contact with them, they
teach the fishers climate change adaptation strategies and encourage
them to adopt them. This finding is supported by Clifford et al. (2018),
the authors found that the likelihood of fishers adapting to climate
change increases with access to agricultural extension services.
As shown in Table 3, the amount of credit received by inland arti-
sanal fisher positively influence the number of climate change adap-
tation strategies. The coefficient value suggests that as the amount of
credit received increases, the number of climate change adaptation
strategy increases. This was expected as economic theory suggests that
credit can be used as capital to purchase more efficient inputs or invest
in more climate-smart fishing technologies. It is worth noting that,
credit advanced to fishers by the fish buyers capacitate them to be able
to adopt many climate change adaptation strategies. With credits for
fishing activities, fishers can better engage in aquaculture, increase
fishing efforts etc.
Another important variable which influences the number of climate
adaptation strategies used by fisher is the ownership of canoe which are
not motorised. It is important to note that fishers who own such canoes
can travel afar to areas where fishes migrate to. As depicted in Table 3,
F.N. Mabe and A. Asase Fisheries Research 230 (2020) 105675

Table 3
Determinants and Effect of Climate Change Adaptation Strategies on Fish Catchability.
Source: Analysis from field data (2019)
Variables Determinants of CCAS Effects of CCAS on Fish Catchability

Coef. Std. Err. Coef. Std. Err.

Number of climate change adaptation strategies 3.0638*** 0.9388

Formal education (years) 0.0136 0.0109 0.1479** 0.0700
Age of household head (years) −0.0081 0.0065 0.0438 0.0411
Fishing experience (years) 0.0182*** 0.0068 −0.0630 0.0465
Household size (number of persons) −0.0607* 0.0315 −0.2136 0.1845
Adult household size (number of persons less than 18years) −0.0426 0.0486 2.5473*** 0.3155
Number of wards in JHS 0.1690*** 0.0448
Access to agricultural extension service (1 = yes, 0 = no) 0.3528* 0.1943 1.9943* 1.1222
Amount of credit received (GH¢) 0.0001*** 0.0000 −0.0004 0.0003
Unmotorized canoe ownership (1= own canoe; 0= otherwise) 0.2625* 0.1374 1.4061* 0.7533
Ownership of motorized canoe (1=own; 0=otherwise) −0.1043 0.1361 1.4165* 0.7454
Availability of electricity in the community (1 = yes; 0 = no) −0.3401** 0.1510
Quality of mobile phone network (1=good; 0=poor) 0.0270 0.1124
monitoring of weather information (1 = yes; 0 = no) 0.4862*** 0.1319
Distance from community to fish selling market (Km) −0.0022*** 0.0005
District (1=Pru East; 0=Sene West) 0.1795* 0.1098
Average distance covered in fishing per day (Km) 0.0032 0.0071 0.0301 0.0456
Motorability of road to market (1=motorable; 0=otherwise) 0.4085*** 0.1118
Climate change reduces quantity of fish catch (1=strongly disagree, 0=otherwise) 0.2889*** 0.1069
Depreciation (annual value of fixed capital inputs) (GH¢) 0.0005*** 0.0001
Value of variable inputs (GH¢) −0.0004 0.0003
Netsize (yards) 0.0033*** 0.0004
Mesh size (cm) −0.1507* 0.0731
_cons 23.3457 5.3312
/atanhrho_12 −0.6019*** 0.1817
rho_12 −0.5384 0.1290
Log likelihood = -1852.98; LR chi2(33) = 465.13; Prob > chi2 = 0.000

*** and ** at 1 % and 5 % significance level respectively, CCAS = climate change adaptation strategies.

inland artisanal fishers who monitor weather information use more priori expectation. It is expected that the closer the distance of fishers’
climate change adaptation strategies than their counterparts. With communities to the market, the more climate change adaptation stra-
monitoring of weather information, fishers are well-informed on cli- tegies fishers are likely to adopt. It is hypothesized that when fishers are
mate change thereby making them react by adopting many climate able to quickly sell their fishes, they get enough money to acquire the
change adaptation strategies. Fishers who monitor weather information necessary inputs needed for adapting to climate change.
use 48.4 % more climate change adaptation strategies. This finding
corroborates with Enimu and Onome (2018) that fishers with better
3.4.3. Effects of climate change adaptation strategies and other factors on
access to information about the changing climate have more likelihood
fish catchability
of adopting climate change adaptation strategies.
From Table 3, it is clear that the number of climate change adap-
District dummy also influences the number of climate change
tation strategies used by inland artisanal fishers has significant effects
adaptation strategies. The positive sign of the coefficient value implies
on fish catchability. Climate change adaptation strategies is highly
that fishers who live in Pru East District use more climate change
statistically significant at 1 %. The positive coefficient implies that as
adaptation strategies than their counterparts. It is important to note
the number of climate change adaptation strategies increases, fish
that unlike Sene West District, Pru East District is more developed and
catchability increases. The positive direction of effects meets the apriori
has a weather station. As such, fishers are likely to be more exposed to
expectation as the study hypotheses that climate change adaptation
weather information and climate change adaptation strategies hence
strategies increase fish catchability. Note that fish catchability is the
making them adapt more climate change adaptation strategies than
quantity of fish catch per unit effort or mandays. Therefore, the unit of
their counterparts in Sene West District.
fish catchability is metric tonnes per effort where in this study the effort
Fishers who perceived that climate change has caused a reduction in
is manday. The coefficient value of 3.06 implies that a unit increase in
the quantity of fish catch use more climate change adaptation strategies
climate change adaptation strategy increases fish catchability by
than their counterparts. This is because, as fishers, they react to the
3.06 Mt/effort. The low catchability has resulted in the low fish pro-
perception by using more climate change adaptation strategies to
duction from the traditional capture which is unable to meet the annual
minimize the effects of climate change on fish catchability. Also, fishers
fish requirement of 950, 000 Mt leaving a deficit of about 50 % per
who perceived that their roads to the nearest fish selling markets are
annum (Ministry of Fisheries and Aquaculture Development MoFAD,
motorable adapt many climate change adaptation strategies. With good
2015). Hence, the importation of 180,802 Mt of fish in 2015 to sup-
roads, fishers can easily travel to market areas, sell their fishes and get
plement domestic demand (Ministry of Fisheries and Aquaculture
money to acquire the necessary inputs for adapting to climate change.
Development MoFAD, 2015). The low catchability is in line with the
Conversely, household size, access to electricity and distance from
low global production of marine capture fisheries which declined from
community to the nearest fish selling market are statistically significant
92.2 million tonnes (MT) in 2014 to 90.9 MT in 2016 (Food and
and negatively affect the number of climate change adaptation strate-
Agricultural Organisation (FAO, 2018). Both natural and anthro-
gies use by fishers. Though household size and access to electricity are
pological factors are the likely factors for the low catchability. Ac-
respectively significant at 1 % and 5 %, they do not meet the expected
cording to Atindana et al. (2019), these factors include overfishing,
direction of effects. Meanwhile, distance from community to the nearest
climate change, low technological development, unsustainable fishing
fish selling market is statistically significant at 1 % and also meets the a
methods (such as the use of restricted fishing gears) and socio-economic

6
F.N. Mabe and A. Asase
factors.
Other factors that have positive significant effects on fish catch-
ability are the value of fixed capital, ownership of unmotorized canoe,
ownership of motorised canoe, size of fishing net, years of education,
adult household size and access to agricultural extension services. Value
of fixed capital, size of net and adult household size are statistically
significant at 1% each. Meanwhile, years of education and access to
agricultural extension service are statistically significant at 5 % and 10
% respectively. Also, ownership of motorised canoe, ownership of un-
motorised canoe are statistically significant at 10 % each.
The amount of money invested in fixed capital asset increase the
quantity of fish catch per unit effort. When the fixed capital asset in-
creases by Gh¢1.00, the annual quantity of fish catch per unit effort is
0.0005 Mt/effort. This confirms the hypothesis that fixed capital asset is
an important input in fishing. The canoe is a fixed asset and its own-
ership (whether motorised or unmotorised) was hypothesised to have a
significant positive effect on fish catchability. The results shown in
Table 3 confirm this hypothesis. The positive coefficient values for
ownership of motorized and unmotorized canoes imply that fishers who
own them get more quantity of fish catch per effort applied than their
counterparts. This suggests the importance of canoe in fishing. Another
important input in fishing is the size of the net. As shown in Table 3, A
1yard increase in the size of fishing net results in 0.0438 Mt/effort in-
crease in fish catchability.
Education was hypothesized to have a statistically significant effect
on fish catchability. As the year of education of a fisher increases by
one, the fish catchability increases by 0.1479 Mt/effort. With educa-
tion, fishers are able to understand the fishing techniques and applied
them to their advantage as compared to those without or with a low
level of education.
The adult number of people in a household increases the quantity of
fish catch per unit effort. It is important to note that when the number
of adults in a household increases by one person, the annual quantity of
fish catch per unit efforts increases by 2.55 Mt/effort. This finding re-
sonates well with the findings of Demena (2011) household size in-
creases fish catch level in Eretria. This might be that a fisher with large
adult household size are better placed in terms of labour force since
fishing is quite labour intensive. According to Inoni and Oyaide (2007),
family members are key to the share of labour demand in fishing. For
Mwakubo et al. (2007), household size has a positive relationship with
fish catch and this might be due to its triggering effects. That the effort
has to increase to catch more fish to meet the subsistence demand of the
household due to many members in the household.
Access to agricultural extension service is an important institutional
factor that enhances fish catchability. It has positive effects on fish
catchability suggesting that fishers with agricultural extension contacts
have 1.99 Mt/effort catchability more than their counterpart without
access. This is theoretically supported as Sauer and Zilberman (2010)
and Minai et al. (2014) indicated that agricultural extension service
delivery is a key influencer of adoption of technologies which intend
increases agricultural productivity (in this case fish catchability).
On the other hand, the mesh size of fishing net reduces fish catch-
ability as it is being depicted by the negative sign of the coefficient
value. This meets the apriori expectation as economic theory suggests
that as mesh size of fishing net reduces, the more fish one catches per
unit effort. When the mesh size reduces by 1 cm2, the quantity of fish
catch per unit efforts increases by 0.15 Mt/effort. This revelation cor-
roborates the work of Ahmed and Tagago (2013) that smaller mesh
sizes are more efficient in catchability than bigger mesh size in terms of
the number of fish catch.
4. Conclusions
The three major climate change adaptation strategies used by fishers
are increasing fishing efforts, fishing further away from the community
and changing fishing times. The number of climate change adaptation
7
Fisheries Research 230 (2020) 105675
strategies increases with fishing experience, the number of wards in
Junior High School, amount of credit received, access to agricultural
extension service, ownership of unmotorised canoe, monitoring of
weather information and motorability of roads. Fishers who perceived
that there has been a reduction in the quantity of fish catch due to
climate change and those who stay in Pru East District adopt more
strategies. Climate change adaptation strategies are important in
minimising the effects of climate change on fish catchability and hence
should be promoted among inland artisanal fishers. Though sustainable
climate change adaption strategies such as aquaculture production and
close fishing seasons are sparingly patronised in the study area, their
promotion should be intensified.
Declaration of Competing Interest
There is no competing interest between authors.
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge the financial support received from West African
Science Service Centre on Climate Change and Adapted Land Use
(WASCAL) and Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF)
under Building Local Capacity for Policy-Oriented Research in
Adaptation and Mitigation in West Africa (BLOC) Award.
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