Introductory Mathematical Analysis Fourteenth Edition - Ch14 Integration

Introductory Mathematical Analysis
For Business, Economics, and The Life and Social Sciences

Fourteenth Canadian Edition
Chapter 14
Integration
Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc. All rights reserved. 14 - 1

Chapter Objectives (1 of 2)
• To define the differential, interpret it geometrically, and use
it in approximations. Also, to restate the reciprocal
relationship between
• To define the antiderivative and the indefinite integral and
to apply basic integration formulas.
• To find a particular antiderivative of a function that satisfies
certain conditions. This involves evaluating constants of
integration.
• To learn and apply the formulas for
1
ò u du, ò e du, and ò u du.
n n

Chapter Objectives (2 of 2)
• To discuss techniques of handling more challenging
integration problems, namely, by algebraic manipulation
and by fitting the integrand to a familiar form. To integrate
an exponential function with base different from e and to
find the consumption function, given the marginal
propensity to consume.
• To motivate, by means of the concept of area, the definite
integral as a limit of a special sum; to evaluate simple
definite integrals by using a limiting process.
• To develop informally the Fundamental Theorem of
Calculus and to use it to compute definite integrals.

Chapter Outline
14.1) Differentials
14.2) The Indefinite Integral
14.3) Integration with Initial Conditions
14.4) More Integration Formulas
14.5) Techniques of Integration
14.6) The Definite Integral
14.7) The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

14.1 Differentials (1 of 4)
Let y = f ( x) be a differentiable function of x, and let Dx
denote a change in x, where Dx can be any real number.
Then the differential of y, denoted by either dy or d ( f ( x))
is given by dy = f ′ ( x ) Dx
Example 1 – Computing a Differential
Find the differential of y = x 3 - 2 x 2 + 3x - 4, and evaluate it when
x = 1 and Dx = 0.04.
d 3
Solution: dy =
dx
( ) (
x - 2 x 2 + 3x - 4 Dx = 3x 2 - 4 x + 3 Dx )
When x = 1 and Dx = 0.04, dy = dy (1, 0.04)
= (3(1) 2 - 4(1) + 3)(0.04) = 0.08
Example 3 – Using the Differential to Estimate a Change
in a Quantity
A governmental health agency examined the records of a
group of individuals who were hospitalized with a particular
illness. It was found that the total proportion P that are
discharged at the end of t days of hospitalization is given by
3
æ 300 ö
P = P ( t ) = 1 - 3ç ÷
ç ( 300 + t ) ÷
2
è ø
Use differentials to approximate the change in the proportion
discharged if t changes from 300 to 305.
Example 3 – Continued
Solution:
The change in t from 300 to 305 is Δt = dt = 5. The change
in P is ΔP = P(305) − P(300). We approximate ΔP by dP :
2
⎛ 300 ⎞ ⎛ 300 ⎞
ΔP ≈ dP = P '(t)dt = −3 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ − 2⎟
dt
⎝ 300 + t ⎠ ⎝ (300 + t) ⎠
300 3 300 2
=3 4 dt When t = 300 and dt = 5, dP = 3 5
( 300 + t ) 600 4
≈ 0.0031. For a comparison, the true value of ΔP is

P(305) − P(300) = 0.00307

Example 5 – Finding dp/dq from dq/dp
dp
Find if q = 2500 − p 2 .
dq
dq 1
Solution: We have = (2500 − p 2 )−1/2 (−2 p)
dp 2
p
=−
2500 − p 2
dp 1 2500 − p 2
Hence, = =−
dq dq p
dp

14.2 The Infinite Integral (1 of 7)
An antiderivative of a function f is a function F such that
F ' ( x ) = f ( x ) . Equivalently, in different notation, dF = f (x)dx.
Any two antiderivatives of a function differ only by a constant.
We write ∫ f (x)dx = F(x) + C, which is read "the indefinite

integral of f (x) with respect to x." The symbol ∫ is called
the integral sign, f (x) is the integrand, and C is the constant
of integration. Here, x is the variable of integration.
F(x) + C is called the most general antiderivative of f (x).

Example 1 – Finding an Indefinite Integral
Find ò 5dx.
Solution: We know the derivative of 5 x is 5, 5 x is an antiderivative
of 5. Therefore, ò 5dx = 5 x + C
Table 14.1 Elementary Integration Formulas
1. ∫ k dx = kx + C k is a constant
x a+1
2. ∫ x dx =
a
+ C a ≠ −1
a +1
1 dx
3. ∫ x −1 dx = ∫ dx = ∫ = In x + C for x > 0
x x
4. ∫ e x dx = e x + C
5. ∫ kf (x)dx = k ∫ f (x)dx k is a constant
6. ∫ ( f (x) ± g(x))dx = ∫ f (x)dx ± ∫ g(x)dx

Example 3 – Indefinite Integral of a Constant Times a
Function
Find ∫ 7xdx.
Solution: ∫ 7xdx = 7 ∫ x dx. By item 2 in the table above, we have
1+1 2
x x
∫ dx = 1+ 1 + C1 = 2 + C1 where C1 is the constant of
1
x
⎛ x2 ⎞ 7 2
integration. Therefore, ∫ 7xdx = 7 ⎜ + C1 ⎟ = x + 7C1
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
Since C1 is just an arbitrary constant, we replace it by C for
7 2
simplicity. Thus, ∫ 7xdx = x + C
2
Example 5 – Finding Indefinite Integrals
1
a. Find ∫ dt.
t
Solution: Since 1 / t = t −1/2 ,
(−1/2)+1 1/2
1 t t
∫ t ∫ dt = − 12 + 1 + C = 12 + C = 2 t + C
−1/2
dt = t
1
b. Find ò 6 x3 dx.
1 1 -3 1 æ x -3+1 ö x -2
Solution: ò 3 dx = ò x dx = ç ÷+C = - +C
6x 6 6 è -3 + 1 ø 12
1
=- 2
+C
12 x
Example 7 – Indefinite Integral of a Sum and Difference
Find ò( 2 5 x 4 - 7 x 3 + 10e x - 1 dx)

Solution: ò( )
2 5 x 4 - 7 x 3 + 10e x - 1 dx
= 2ò x 4/5 dx - 7 ò x 3 dx + 10ò e x dx - ò1dx
x 9/5 x4
= ( 2) - ( 7 ) + 10e x - x + C
9/5 4
10 9/5 7 4
= x - x + 10e x + C
9 4

Example 9 – Using Algebraic Manipulation to Find an
Indefinite Integral
( 2 x - 1)( x + 3) dx.
a. Find ò 6
( 2 x - 1)( x + 3)
Solution: ò 6
dx
1
= ò + 5 x - 3) dx
2
(2 x
6
1æ x3 x2 ö
= ç ( 2 ) + ( 5) - 3x ÷ + C
6è 3 2 ø
x3 5 x 2 x
= + - +C
9 12 2
x3 - 1
b. Find ò 2 dx.
x
x3 − 1 ⎛ x3 1 ⎞
Solution: ∫ 2 dx = ∫ ⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟ dx = ∫ x − x −2 dx
x ⎝x x ⎠
( )
x 2 x −1
= − +C
2 −1
x2 1
= + +C
2 x

14.3 Integration with Initial Conditions (1 of 5)
Example 1 – Initial-Condition Problem
If y is a function of x such that y ′ = 8 x - 4 and y (2) = 5, find y.

Also, find y (4).
Solution: Here, y (2) = 5 is the initial condition. Since
y′ = 8 x - 4, y is an antiderivative of 8 x - 4 :
x2
y = ò ( 8 x - 4 ) dx = 8 × - 4 x + C = 4 x 2 - 4 x + C.
2
Because y = 5 when x = 2, we have 5 = 4(2) 2 - 4(2) + C
5 = 16 - 8 + C
C = -3. Therefore, y = 4 x 2 - 4 x - 3 and
y (4) = 4(4) 2 - 4(4) - 3 = 45.

Example 3 – Income and Education
For a particular urban group, sociologists studied the

current average yearly income y (in dollars) that a
person can expect to receive with x years of education
before seeking regular employment. They estimated that
the rate at which income changes with respect to education
dy
is given by = 100x 3/2 4 ≤ x ≤ 16
dx
where y = 28, 720 when x = 9. Find y.

Solution: Here y is an antiderivative of 100x 3/2 . Thus,

5/2
x
y = ∫ 100x 3/2 dx = (100) 5 + C = 40x 5/2 + C.
2
The initial condition is that y = 28, 720 when x = 9.
y = 40x 5/2 + C
28, 720 = 40(9)5/2 + C = 40(243) + C
28, 720 = 9720 + C
Therefore, C = 19,000, and y = 40x 5/2 + 19,000

Example 5 – Finding Cost from Marginal Cost
In the manufacture of a product, fixed costs per week are $4000.

Fixed costs are costs, such as rent and insurance, that remain
constant at all levels of production during a given time period.
If the marginal-cost function is
dc
dq
(
= 0.000001 0.002q 2 − 25q + 0.2 )
where c is the total cost (in dollars) of producing q kilograms of
product per week, find the cost of producing 10,000 kg in 1 week.

( )
Solution: c ( q ) = ∫ ⎡⎣ 0.000001 0.002q 2 − 25q + 0.2 ⎤⎦ dq
= 0.000001∫ (0.002q 2 − 25q) + 0.2)dq
⎛ 0.002q 3 25q 2 ⎞
= 0.000001⎜ − ⎟ + 0.2q + C
⎝ 3 2 ⎠
When q = 0, c = 4000, which gives C = 4000. So we have
⎛ 0.002q 3 25q 2 ⎞
c(q) = 0.000001⎜ − ⎟ + 0.2q + 4000
⎝ 3 2 ⎠
c(10,000) = 5416 23 . Thus, the total cost for producing
10,000 kg of product in 1 week is $5416.67.

14.4 More Integration Formulas (1 of 5)
Power Rule for Integration
a +1
u
If u is differentiable, then ò u a du = + C if a ¹ -1
a +1
Integrating Natural Exponential Functions
ò = +C
u u
e du e
Integrals Involving Logarithmic Functions
1
ò x dx = ln x + C for x ¹ 0
Example 1 – Applying the Power Rule for Integration
∫ ( x + 1)
20
a. Find dx.
∫ ( x + 1)
20
Solution: We will set u = x + 1. Then du = dx, and dx has
u 21 (x + 1)21
the form ∫ u du. ∫ ( x + 1) dx = ∫ u du =
20 20 20
+C = +C
21 21
(
b. Find ∫ 3x 2 x 3 + 7 dx. )
3
Solution: Let u = x 3 + 7. Then du = 3x 2 dx. Fortunately, 3x 2

appears as a factor in the integrand and we have
∫ ( ∫) ( ∫ du )
3 3
3x2
x + 7 3
dx = x + 7 (3x 2
) dx = u 3
3
u4 (x 3 + 7)4
= +C = +C
4 4
Example 3 – Applying the Power Rule for Integration
a. Find ò 3 6 ydy.
Solution: We have ò 3 6 ydy = ò 61/3 y1/3 dy = 3 6 ò y1/3 dy
y 4/3 3 3 6 4/3
= 6
3
+C = y +C
4
3 4
2 x3 + 3x
b. Find ò 4 dx.
( x + 3 x 2 + 7) 4
du
Solution: If u = x 4 + 3x 2 + 7, then = (2 x 3 + 3 x)dx :
2
-4 æ du ö 1 u -3
ò ( x + 3x + 7) (2 x + 3x)dx = ò u çè 2 ÷ø = 2 × -3 + C
4 2 -4 3
1 1
= - 3 +C = - +C
( )
3
6u 6 x + 3x + 7
4 2

Example 5 – Integrals Involving Exponential Functions
a. Find ò 2 xe dx. x2
Solution: Let u = x . Then du = 2 xdx, and ò 2 xe dx = ò e (2 xdx)

2 x2 x2
= ò e du = e + C = e + C
u u x2
ò(x ) x3 + 3 x
b. Find 2
+1 e dx.
Solution: If u = x 3 + 3x, then du = 3( x 2 + 1)dx. Thus, we write
1 u
( 2
)
ò x + 1 e dx = ò e [( x + 1)dx] = 3 ò e du
x3 + 3 x x3 + 3 x 2
1 u 1 x3 + 3 x
= e +C = e +C
3 3
Example 7 – An Integral Involving 1/u du
( 2x 3 + 3x )
Find ∫x 4
+ 3x + 7
2
dx.
Solution: If u = x 4 + 3x 2 + 7, then du = 2(2x 3 + 3x)dx.
We write ∫ 4
( 2x 3
+ 3x1 1) 1
dx = ∫ du = ln u + C
x + 3x + 7
2
2 u 2
1
2
1
(
= ln x 4 + 3x 2 + 7 + C = ln x 4 + 3x 2 + 7 + C
2
)
since x 4 + 3x 2 + 7 > 0 for all x.

14.5 Techniques of Integration (1 of 2)
Example 1 – Preliminary Division before Integration
x3 + x
a. Find ò 2 dx.
x
x3 + x æ x3 x ö æ 1ö x2
Solution: ò 2 dx = ò ç 2 + 2 ÷ dx = ò ç x + ÷ dx = + ln x + C
x èx x ø è xø 2
2 x3 + 3x 2 + x + 1
b. Find ò dx.
2x + 1
Solution: Here we use long division to rewrite the integrand:
2 x3 + 3x 2 + x + 1 æ 2 1 ö x3 x 2 1
ò 2x + 1
dx = ò ç x + x +
è
÷ dx = + + ò
2x + 1 ø 3 2 2x +1
dx
x3 x 2 1 x3 x 2 1 1 x3 x 2
= + + = + + ò d (2 x + 1) = + ln 2 x + 1 + C
3 2 2 3 2 2 2x +1 3 2
14.5 Techniques of Integration (2 of 2)
Now let us consider the integral of an exponential function with
1 u
an arbitrary base, b. ∫ b du =
u
b + C.
lnb
Example 3 – An Integral Involving bu
Find ∫ 2 3−x dx.
Solution: ∫ 2 3−x dx = ∫ e( ln 2 )( 3−x )dx. Let u = (ln 2)(3 − x). Since
( ln 2 )( 3−x ) 1
du = − ln 2dx, we can write ∫ e dx = − ∫ e u
du
ln 2
1 u 1 ( ln 2 )( 3−x ) 1 3−x
=− e +C = − e +C = − 2 +C
ln 2 ln 2 ln 2
1 3−x
Thus, ∫ 2 dx = −
3−x
2 +C
ln 2
14.6 The Definite Integral (1 of 6)
In general, for a continuous function f defined on the interval
[a, b], where a < b, we can form the sums S n and S n , which are
obtained by considering the minimum and maximum values,
respectively, on each of n subintervals of equal length Δx.
Below is an illustration for f (x) = 2x, a = 0, b = 1, and n = 6.

The common limit of S n and S n as n ® ¥, if it exists, is called
b
the definite integral of f over [a, b] and is written ò f ( x ) dx.
a
The numbers a and b are called bounds of integration; a is
the lower bound, and b is the upper bound. The symbol x
is called the variable of integration and f ( x) is the integrand.
In terms of a limiting process, we have

b
å f ( x)Dx ® ò f ( x ) dx
a

Example 1 – Computing an Area by Using Right-Hand
Endpoints
Find the area of the region in the first quadrant bounded by

f ( x) = 4 - x 2 and the lines x = 0 and y = 0.
Solution: A sketch of the region appears below. We divide
[0, 2] into n subintervals of equal length Dx = 2 / n.
The endpoints of the subintervals are
x = 0, 2 / n, 2(2 / n), ! ,( n - 1)(2 / n), and n(2 / n) = 2.
The diagram below shows the corresponding rectangles
obtained by using the right-hand endpoint of each subinterval.


Solution, continued
The area of the k th rectangle is the product of its width, 2 / n, and its
height, f (k (2 / n)) = 4 - (2k / n) 2 . Summing these areas, we get
n æ
æ ö ö 2 n æ 8 8k ö
2 2
n
æ æ 2 öö 2 k
Sn = å f ç k × ç ÷ ÷ Dx = å ç 4 - ç ÷ ÷ = å ç - 3 ÷
è è n øø ç è n ø ÷ n k =1 n n
k =1 k =1 è ø è ø
n
8 n 8k 2 8 n 8 n 2
= å - å 3 = å1 - 3 å k
k =1 n k =1 n n k =1 n k =1
8 8 n ( n + 1)( 2n + 1) 4 æ ( n + 1)( 2n + 1) ö
= n- 3 = 8- ç ÷
n n 6 3è n2 ø
æ 4 æ ( n + 1)( 2n + 1) ö ö 4 æ 3 1 ö 16
lim Sn = lim ç 8 - ç ÷÷÷ = 8 - lim ç 2 + + 2÷=
n ®¥ ç 3è n 2
3 n n ø 3
n ®¥
è øø
n ®¥
è
Example 3 – Integrating a Function over an Interval
3
Integrate f (x) = x − 5 from x = 0 to x = 3; that is, evaluate ∫
0
(x − 5)dx.
Solution: Here, Δx = 3 / n. Using right-hand endpoints, we form
the sum and simplify
⎛ 3 ⎞ 3 9 ( n + 1) 9 ⎛ 1⎞
n
Sn = ∑ f ⎜ k ⎟ = − 15 = ⎜ 1+ ⎟ − 15
k=1
⎝ n⎠ n 2n 2 ⎝ n⎠
Taking the limit, we obtain
⎛ 9 ⎛ 1⎞ ⎞ 9 21
lim Sn = lim ⎜ ⎜ 1+ ⎟ − 15 ⎟ = − 15 = − .
n→∞ n→∞ ⎝ 2 ⎝ n⎠ ⎠ 2 2
3 21
Thus, ∫ (x − 5)dx = − . Since the value of f (x) is negative at
0 2
each right-hand endpoint, each term in Sn must also be negative.
Hence, the definite integral is negative.
14.7 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
(1 of 5)
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

If f is continuous on the interval [a, b], then
b
∫a
f (x)dx = F(b) − F(a) where F is any antiderivative of f .
Usually, F(b) − F(a) is abbreviated by writing
b
F(b) − F(a) = F(x) a
b a
Note that if a > b, then ∫ a
f (x)dx = − ∫ f (x)dx and if the bounds
b
a
of integration are equal, we have ∫a
f (x)dx = 0.

(2 of 5)
Properties of the Definite Integral

b
1. If f is continuous and f (x) ≥ 0 on [a, b], then ∫ f (x)dx can be
a
interpreted as the area of the region bounded by the curve
y = f (x), the x-axis, and the lines x = a and x = b.
b b
2. ∫ a
kf (x)dx = k ∫ f (x)dx, where k is a constant
a
b b b
3. ∫ ( f (x) ± g(x))dx = ∫ f (x)dx ± ∫ g(x)dx
a a a
b b
4. ∫ f (x)dx = ∫ f (t)dt
a a
5. If f is continuous on an interval I and a, b, and c are in I, then
c b c
∫
a
f (x)dx = ∫ f (x)dx + ∫ f (x)dx
a b

(3 of 5)
Example 1 – Applying the Fundamental Theorem

3
Find ∫ ( 3x )
− x + 6 dx.
2
−1
x2
Solution: An antiderivative of 3x − x + 6 is x − + 6x.
2 3
2
3
⎛ 3 x ⎞
3
( )
2
Thus, ∫ 3x − x + 6 dx = ⎜ x − + 6x ⎟
2
−1
⎝ 2 ⎠ −1
⎡ 3 32 ⎤ ⎡
= ⎢ 3 − + 6 ( 3) ⎥ − ⎢( −1) −
3 ( −1 ) 2
⎤
+ 6 ( −1) ⎥ = 48
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦

(4 of 5)
Example 3 – Evaluating Definite Integrals
∫( ) ) dt.
2
(
3
a. Find 4t 1/3 + t t 2 + 1
1
( )
4 2
∫ ( 4t ) ) dt = ( 4 ) ⎛ 1⎞ t +1
2 4/3 2 2
( t
3
Solution: 1/3
+ t t +12
+⎜ ⎟
1
4
3 1
⎝ 2⎠ 4
1
(
= 3 2 4/3 − 1 + ) ( 1 4
8
)
5 − 24 = 6 3 2 +
585
8
1
b. Find ∫ e3t dt .
0
1 1
⎛ 1⎞ 1 1
1
30 3
1
Solution: ∫ e3t dt = ∫ e3t d(3t) = ⎜ ⎟ e3t 0 = e3 − e0 = e3 − 1
⎝ 3⎠ 3
( ) ( )
0

(5 of 5)
Since a function f is an antiderivative of f ′
, by the Fundamental
a
Theorem we have ò f ′( x ) dx = f ( b ) - f ( a )
b
Example 5 – Finding a Change in Function Values by

Definite Integration
dc
A manufacturer's marginal-cost function is = 0.6q + 2.If production is presently
dq
set at q = 80 units per week, how much more would it cost to increase production
to 100 units per week?
100
⎡ 0.6q 2 ⎤
100 100
dc
Solution: c (100 ) − c ( 80 ) = ∫ dq = ∫ ( 0.6q + 2 ) dq = ⎢ 2 + 2q ⎥
80
dq 80 ⎣ ⎦ 80
100
= ⎡⎣ 0.3q 2 + 2q ⎤⎦ = 3200 − 2080 = 1120
80
If c is in dollars, then the cost of increasing production from 80 units to 100 units
is $1120.

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Introductory Mathematical Analysis Fourteenth Edition - Ch14 Integration

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Introductory Mathematical Analysis

For Business, Economics, and The Life and Social Sciences

Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc. All rights reserved. 14 - 1

Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc. All rights reserved. 14 - 2

Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc. All rights reserved. 14 - 3

Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc. All rights reserved. 14 - 4

≈ 0.0031. For a comparison, the true value of ΔP is

Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc. All rights reserved. 14 - 7

Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc. All rights reserved. 14 - 8

Any two antiderivatives of a function differ only by a constant.

We write ∫ f (x)dx = F(x) + C, which is read "the indefinite

Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc. All rights reserved. 14 - 9

Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc. All rights reserved. 14 - 10

Find ò( 2 5 x 4 - 7 x 3 + 10e x - 1 dx)

Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc. All rights reserved. 14 - 13

Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc. All rights reserved. 14 - 15

If y is a function of x such that y ′ = 8 x - 4 and y (2) = 5, find y.

Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc. All rights reserved. 14 - 16

For a particular urban group, sociologists studied the

Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc. All rights reserved. 14 - 17

Solution: Here y is an antiderivative of 100x 3/2 . Thus,

Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc. All rights reserved. 14 - 18

In the manufacture of a product, fixed costs per week are $4000.

Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc. All rights reserved. 14 - 19

Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc. All rights reserved. 14 - 20

Integrating Natural Exponential Functions

Integrals Involving Logarithmic Functions

Solution: Let u = x 3 + 7. Then du = 3x 2 dx. Fortunately, 3x 2

Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc. All rights reserved. 14 - 23

Solution: Let u = x . Then du = 2 xdx, and ò 2 xe dx = ò e (2 xdx)

Solution: If u = x 4 + 3x 2 + 7, then du = 2(2x 3 + 3x)dx.

Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc. All rights reserved. 14 - 25

Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc. All rights reserved. 14 - 28

In terms of a limiting process, we have

Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc. All rights reserved. 14 - 29

Find the area of the region in the first quadrant bounded by

Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc. All rights reserved. 14 - 30

Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc. All rights reserved. 14 - 31

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc. All rights reserved. 14 - 34

Properties of the Definite Integral

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Example 1 – Applying the Fundamental Theorem

Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc. All rights reserved. 14 - 36

Example 3 – Evaluating Definite Integrals

Copyright © 2019 Pearson Canada Inc. All rights reserved. 14 - 37

Example 5 – Finding a Change in Function Values by

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