370 Chapter 8 Polarization There are wo common cell configraions, referred ts transverse a longitudinal, depending on whether the aplied Eels perpendicular or parallel the direction of propass- ton, respectively. The longitudinal type illustrate, ints tnos basi form, in Fig. 887. Since the beam traverses the electrodes, these are usally made of transparent meta-onie coatings (eg. $90, nO, or CAO), thin mea films, gids, oF Fins. heer iself is generally nissan the absence of am applied field and its aligned such that its optic ox is along the beans propagation deetion, For such an atange- men the eardance is given by Ag = 2anbreV/Ay 8.42) Where ros is the electro-optic constant in m/V, nis the ordi nary index of refraction, Vis the potential difference in volts, and Ap is the vacuum wavelength in meters.* Since the crystals. are anisotropic, their properties vary in different directions, and they must be described by a group of terms referred to col lectively as the second-rank electro-optic tensor 7. Fortunate ly, we need only concern ourselves here with one of its ‘components, namely, roa, values of which are given in Table 84. The half-wave voltage corresponds to value of Ag in which case v Ag (8.43) Transparent ceetrode vote olaraer Figure 8.57 A Pociels cel “Ths exoression, along withthe appropriate one for the transverse ‘mode, is derived rater ricey in Yariv, Quantum Electronics. en so, the treatment is soptisteated and not recommended for casual reading TABLE 8.4 Electro-optic Constants (Room Temperature, Ao = 546.1 nm) 3 ny Vare Material (units of 10 m/V)_(approx.) (in kV) ADP (NHH,POD 8s 192 92 DP /K#.PO.) 106 151 1% KDA (KHAO =130 1s) 62 KO*P (KD,PO}) 23 12 =a and from Eq, (8.42) Ao. ‘n= Fae 8.44 a Der Lo) As an example, for KDP. 743 = 10.6 x 10-!? m/V, ny = 1.51, and we obtain Vaj2 ~ 7.6 X 10° V at Ay = 546.1 am. Pockels cells have been used as ultra-fast shutters, Q- switehes for lasers, and de to 30-GHz light modulators." 8.12 Liquid Crystals In 1888 the Austrian botanist Friedrich Reintzer observed that cholesteryl benzoate seemed to have two distinct transition points, one at which the crystal changed into a cloudy liquid and another where it became transparent. Known today as lig: uid erystal, he had discovered a new phase of matter that pos: sessed physical properties between those of ordinary liquids and solids, Liquid crystals (LCs) have long cigar-shaped mol- ecules that can move about, and consequently, like ordinary liquids, they lack positional order. Nonetheless, like crystals, their molecules strongly interact to sustain a large-scale orien- tational order. There are three types of liquid erystal distin- guished by the ways in which their molecules align. We'll focus on the nematic variety where the molecules tend t0 be ‘more or less parallel, even though their positions are fairly ran- dom (Fig. 8.58), To prepare a parallel nematic cell, we first coat one face of ceach of two pieces of flat glass with a transparent electrically conducting metalic film, such as indium tin oxide (which has ‘maximum transmission from 450 to 1800 nm). These two win- “The reader interested in ight modulation in general shoul consult D. F Nelson, "The Modulation of Laser Light." Scientific American June 1968), Also see Chaoter 14, Vol of Handbook of Optics (1995).Figure 8.58. The lng cigar molecules ofa nematic quid crystal align themselves in a random but parallel formation. dows will also serve as the electrodes, between which we'll place the liquid crystal and across which we'll apply a trolling voltage. We want the LC molecules in contact with the windows to be oriented in a direction that is both parallel to the glass and to each other. To accomplish that, it’s necessary tocreate a template of parallel ridges along which the LC mol- ecules can align. There are several ways to do that, the sim- plest being to just carefully rub the indium tin oxide surface (ora thin dielectric layer covering it), thereby producing par- allel microgrooves, ‘When the thin space (from just a few microns up to about 10 um) between two such prepared glass windows is filled with nematic LC, the molecules in contact with the micro: grooves anchor themselves parallel tothe ridges. The LC mol- ecules then essentially drag each other into alignment, and soon the entire liquid is similarly oriented (Fig. 8.594). The direction in which the molecules of aliquid crystal are aligned isknown as the director. Because of their elongated shape and ordered orientation, the liquid crystal molecules behave en masse as an anisotrop- iedielectric, one that’s positive uniaxial birefringent. The long, axis of the molecules defines the direction of the extraordinary index or slow axis. A ray of light linearly polarized parallel to the LC director will be an extraordinary ray and will experi- ence an ongoing phase change as i traverses the cell. By con- trast, a ray linearly polarized at 45° to the director will suffera retardance Ag just as if it had passed through a birefringent, crystal The Liquid Crystal Variable Retarder Now suppose we apply a voltage (V) actoss the cell (Fig. 8.595), thereby creating an electric field perpendicular to the lass windows. Electric dipoles are either present or induced, and the LC molecules experience torques that cause them to ‘ay to rotate into alignment with the field. As the voltage increases the molecules (except for those anchored to the inner surfaces of the windows), more and more turn toward the 8.12 Liquid Crystals 371 direction of the field, decreasing the birefringence, An = (1, ~n,) and the retardance Ag as well. Since the birefringence usually from 0.1 to 0.3) i a function of the voltage, tempera ture (decreasing about 0.4% per °C increase), and wavelength (decreasing as A, increases) AG(V.T.Ay) = 5 dAnV.TAy) a Maximum retardance (lypically ~Ay/2) obtains when the applied voltage is zero, The retardance when V is large (say, 20 V) is a minimum of around 30 nm (or zero, when a com- ensator is used to cancel the residual retardance of the anchored layers). ‘When the incident light is polarized parallel to the slow axis, the device can be used as a vollage-controlled phase ‘modulator. I.can change the phase delay the light will experi ence in traversing the cell. Alternatively, when the light has components parallel and perpendicular to the slow axis, the LC cell functions as a continuously variable retarder over 3 broad range of frequencies. By placing the cell betw. crossed polarizers (at 45°), it becomes 2 voltage-controlled irradiance modulator. The Liquid Crystal Display Imagine that one of the windows of the parallel LC cell in Fig. 8.59a is now rotated 90” in its own plane. This drags around the nematic liquid so that its molecular layers spiral a quarter ofa turn about the twist axis normal fo the windows Figure 8.59 (2) A nematic uid crystal between two transparent electrodes. The long molecules gn paral! to 2 set of microgrooves ‘on the inside faces cf the two electrodes. cb) When a votage is app, the molecules rotate ito alignment wth te fd.372 Chapter 8. Polarization Figure 8.60 (2) Atwsted nematic cell. The LC molecules are aligned horizontally on the let window and vericaly on te right wind, and tey gradualy twist (pane upon pane) from one to the oer. (b) When a votageisapolied across the cel, the molecules aign with the electric fd (much like putting a deck of eards between your two hands and fanning it around). The result is a so-called twisted nematic cell (Fig. 8.60). The molecules are aligned vertical- ly om one window, and gradually they're rotated, layer upon layer. until they are horizontal on the other window. The cell will rotate the plane of polarization as if it were an optically ‘active medium.® For example, a beam of linear light traveling ‘normal to the entrance window and polarized parallel to the ‘anchored molecules in Fig. 8.60, that is horizontally, will be rotated through 90° and emerge vertically polarized. Upon putting a voltage across the cell, an electric field par- allel to the twist axis is set up throughout the liquid erystal. Consequently, the LC molecules (except for those anchored to the windows) turn into alignment with the field (Fig. 8.60), ‘The twisted structure ofthe cell vanishes, and it loses its abil: ity to rotate the plane of polarization of incident fight, When the E-field is removed. the cell reverts ack to its Ovisted con: figuration and can again rotate light. Ifthe cell is now placed between crossed linear polarizers (Fig. 8.61). it becomes a voltage-controtled switch that can transmit or absorb an inci dent beam of light. ‘The simplest liquid erystal display (LCD). the kind found in digital watches, clocks, cameras, calculators, and so forth, is “For a proof of this. see BE. A. Saleh and M.C. Tech, Fundamentals ‘of Ptoris,p. 228 illuminated by ambient light. Therein lis its principlal virtue: it consumes very little electrical power because it isn't self luminous, To make an LCD, we just put a flat mirror beyond the [ast polarizer on the right in Fig. 8.61. Ambient light enters from the left and is immediately linearly polarized, inthis ease hor- izontally. With no voltage on the electrodes the light emerges from the twisted LC cell oscillating vertically. It passes through the second polarizer—unaffected by it—strikes the mirror, and reflects off to the left still oscillating vertically, It then retraces its path back through the LC cell, from which it exits traveling tothe left, horizontally polarized. Looking into the first polarizer, we see a relatively bright field of emerging Tight. ‘When a voltage is applied across the cel, the liquid crystal reorient itself and loses its ability to rotate the plane of polar ization. Horizontal light enters and leaves the cell, only to be completely absorbed by the second polarizer; the entrance window is now black, and no light emerges. By properly configuring the front transparent electrode, the black nonreflecting region can be confined to the shape of a number or letter, or anything you like. Usually the numbers on ‘your calculator are produced using seven small bar electrodes (Fig. 8.62) that are activated independently (by the decoder- river in an integrated circuit to create all the digits from 0 to 9. These bars are formed as isolated regions on the front indi- tum tin oxide film. When a voltage is put across a given bar and the large continuous back electrode, the E-field just behind the bar destroys the LC twist in that small region and that segment i ABCDERG Figure 8.62 A sevenbar electrode aray used to dspay numerals. For example, to form the ruber 9,2 votage is appied between a of the folowing segments and te large back electrode, D,E,F,G, A and B,Figure 8.61 vericaly emerges from the device. (b) When a vatage is applied a 8.13 A Mathematical Descigtion of Polarization 373 (2 A twisted nematic cell between crossed linear polarizer. Light polarized 55th it no longer rotates the plane of poarizaton; ligt ooarzed horizontally enters anc leaves the LC cl Tat ight is subsequently sorbed by the second polarizer and no light emerges ram the device By rotating a near polarizer in ont ofa gud erystal display we can see the numbers ‘spear end dissapear. Ty it wih your CalcUatr. toby EH) 8.13 A Mathematical Description of Polarization Until now we've considered polarized light in terms of the electric field component of the wave. The most general repre sentation was, of course, that of elliptical light. The endpoint of the vector E was envisioned continuously sweeping along ‘he path of an ellipse having a particular shape—the circle and line being special cases, The period over which the ellipse was traversed equaled that of the lightwave (ie., oughly 10°") and was far too short to be detected. In contrast, measurements made in practice are generally averages over comparatively Jong time intervals Clearly. it would be advantageous to formulate an alters tive description of polarization in terms of convenient observ ables, namely, irradiances. Our motives are far more than the ever-present combination of aesthetics and pedagogy. The formalism to be considered has far-reaching significance in374 Chapter 8 Polarization ‘other areas of study. for example, particle physies (the photon is, ater all an elementary particle) and Quantum Mechanics. I serves in some respects to link the classical and quan- tum-mechanical pictures, But even more demanding of our present attention are the considerable practical advantages to be gleaned from this alternative description, We shall evolve an elegant procedure for predicting the effects of complex systems of polarizing elements on the ulti- imate state of an emergent wave, The mathematics, written in the compressed form of matrices, will require only the sim- plest manipulation of those matrices. The complicated logic associated with phase retardations, relative orientations, and so forth, for a tandem series of wave plates and polarizers is almost all builtin. One need only select appropriate matrices from a chart and drop them into the mathematical mill. 8.13.1 The Stokes Parameters ‘The modern representation of polarized light actually had its origins in 1852 in the work of G. G. Stokes, He introduced four quantities that are functions only of observables of the cleciromagnetie wave and are now known as the Stokes para- ‘meters,? The polarization state of a beam of light (either nat- ural or totally or partially polarized) can be described in terms of these quantities. We will first define the parameters opera jonally and then relate them to electromagnetic theory. Imagine that we have a set of four filters, each of which, under natural illumination, will transmit half the incident the other half being discarded. The choice is not a unique one. and a number of equivalent possibilities exist. Suppose then that the first filter is simply isotropic. passing all states equally, whereas the second and third are linear polarizers whose transmission axes are horizontal and at +45° (diagonal along the first and third quadrants), respectively. The last filter is a circular polarizer opaque to states. Each of these four filler is positioned alone in the path of the beam under inves- “Much of the materia in ths section is treated more extensively in Shuccff's Polarized Light Production and Use, whch is something of classic onthe subject. You might also look at M. J. Waker, “Matrix Cleats and the Stokes Parameters of Polarized Raiation” Arm. J Phys. 22, 170 (1954), and W. Bickel and W. Bley, “Stokes Vectors, IMueler Matices, and Polarized Scattered Light." Am. J Phys, 53, 468 1985), tigation, and the transmitted irradiances Jy. fy fa fy are mea sured with a type of meter that is insensitive to polarization, (not all of them are). The operational definition of the Stokes, parameters is then given by the relations S)= 2p (8.450) S)=2)- 2 (8486) Si= 2h 2 (480) i= 2h 2a (8484) Notice that &y is simply the incident irradiance, and Si, 8 and sy specify the state of polarization. Thus 5, reflects a ten: dency for the polarization to resemble either a horizontal 9 state (whereupon > 0) ora vertical one (in which case 8 < 0). When the beam displays no preferential orientation with respect to these axes (8) = 0), it may be elliptical at 45°, ci cular, or unpolarized. Similarly, implies a tendency forthe light to esemble a state oriented inthe direction of +45° (shen 8, > 0) or in te direetion of ~45° (when 82 <0) or neither (= 0) Inthe same way 5 reveals atendency ofthe beam toward right-handedness (83 > 0), lef-handedness (33 <0), orneither ($3 = 0). Now recall the expressions for quasimonochromatic light, ya) = Ueas(t) cos We ~ a) + a(t) [83a and E,(0) = [Eo cos (ke ~ dn) + ef] (8.340] where Er) = Br) + B,(2). Using these in a fairly straight- forward way, we can recast the Stokes parameters* as So = (ERD + (ER (8460) Si = Badr — EBbr (8.460) $2 = (2Ea,Eo, 608 €by (8.460) Ss = QEnEoysin dy (8.468) Here © = ¢, ~ ¢, and we've dropped the constant €y¢/2, so “For the deta, see E. Hecht, "Note on an Operational Definition ofthe ‘Stokes Parameters,” Am. Phys. 38, 1156 (1970)that the parameters are now proportional to iradiances. For the hypothetical case of perfectly monochromatic light, Eo,(t), Eoy(t), and e(t) are time-independent, and one need only drop the ( ) brackets in Eq, (8.46) to get the applicable Stokes parameters. Interestingly enough, these same resuls ean be obtained by time averaging Eq. (8.14), which is the general equation for elliptical light.” If the beam is unpolarized, (E3,)r = (E5,)r: neither aver- ages to zero because the amplitude squared is always positive In that case sy = (E%,)r + (ER)r, but Sy = 8; = Sy = 0. The latter two parameters go 0 Zero, since both cos ¢ and sin & average to zero independently of the amplitudes. I is often convenient to normalize the Stokes parameters by dividing each one by the value of *, This has the effect of using an incident beam of unit iradiance. The set of parameters (, 2.83) for natural fightin the normalized representation is then (1,0, 0,0). If he light is horizontally polarized, it has no vertical component, and the normalized parameters are (1, 1,0,0). Similarly, for vertically polarized light we have (1,1, 0,0), Representations of a few other polarization states are listed in Table 8.5. (The parameters are displayed vertcal- ly for reasons tobe discussed later.) Notice that for complete- ly polarize light it follows from Eq, (8.46) that Sad+d+3 (8.47) Moreover, for partially polarize light it can be shown that the degree of polarization [Eq (8.29)] is given by VE OPH E+ SDS 8.48) Imagine now that we have (wo quasimonochromatic waves described by (8, 4) and (3%. ), which are superimposed in some region of space. As long as the waves, ate incoherent, any one of the Stokes parameters of the resul- ‘ant will be the sum of the corresponding parameters of the constituents (all of which are proportional to irradiance). In ‘ther words, the set of parameters describing the resultant is (55+ 54.5), 8 + 95,55 + SD. For example, if a unit flux density vertical P-stae (1, ~1. 0,0) is added t an inco herent £-state (see Table 8.5) of flux density2, 2.0.00, ~2). the composite wave has parameters (3, =1, 0, ~2). It is an *.Colet, “The Description of Polarization in Classical Physics," Am. J ys 36, 713 (1968) 8.13 A Mathematical Description of Polarization 375 TABLE 8.5 Stokes and Jones Vectors for Some Polarization States Jones vectors State of polarization Stokes vectors Venical state state at +45" Pestate at —45° estate ' 0 fstae i “1 ellipse of fax density 3, more neatly vertical than horizontal (5; <0), lefchanded (3, < 0), and having a degree of polar- ization of V5/3. The sel of Stokes parameters fr a given wave canbe env aged asa vector: we have already seen how two such (inco- herent) vectors add.* Indeed it will not be the usual kind of three-dimensional vector, but this sort of representation is widely used in physics o great advantage. More specifically, the parameters (Sy, 5, 8) are arranged in the form of what “The detaled requirements for 2 collection of objects to form a vector space and themselves be vectors in such a space are discussed i, for ‘example, Davis, traduetion to Vector Analysis.376 chapter 8 Polarization is called a column vector, (8.49) 8.13.2 The Jones Vectors Another representation of polarized light, which complements that of the Stokes parameters, was invented in 1941 by the ‘American physicist R, Clark Jones. The technique he evolved hhas the advantages of being applicable to coherent beams and atthe same time being extremely concise. Yet unlike the pre~ vious formalism, itis only applicable to polarized waves. In that case it would seem that the most natural way to represent the beam would be in terms of the electric vector itself. Writ- fen in column form, this Jones vector is z- [ew z-[& [e| where E, (1) and B, (1) are the instantaneous scalar components of E, Obviously, knowing E, we know everything about the polarization state, And if we preserve the phase information, ‘we will be able to handle coherent waves. With this in mind, rewrite Eq. (8.50) in complex form: a — | Ene’* *-|een where y, and g, are the appropriate phases, Horizontal and vertical states are thus given by 0 Foe | (852) [Ps] respectively. The sum of two coherent beams, as with the Stokes vectors, is formed by a sm ofthe corresponding com ponents Since = B+ E..when forexample Fo, = Fo, and @. = Gb is given by Exe Ee Bs eue"[}] (854) (8.50) (851) (8.53) or. after factoring, by which is a state at +45°. This isthe ease since the ampli tudes are equal and the phase difference is zero. In many applications itis not necessary to know the exact amplitudes and phases. n such instances we can normalize the irradiance to unity thereby forfeiting some information but gaining much simpler expressions. This is dane by dividing both elements inthe vector by the same scalar (real or com> plex) quantity, such that the sum of the squares ofthe compo- nents is one. For example, dividing both terms of Eg (8.53) by V2 Faye leads to (8.55) J ei] ase Right-circular light has Fa, ~ Ea. and the y-component leads the x-component by 90°. Since we are using the form (kz ~ 41), We will have to add ~77/2 tog, thus -[,2e | Dividing both components by Eove'® yields, [It Hence the normalized complex Jones vector is* ; [2] an sitaly B v2 ‘The sum By +By is aL 4']-al] ‘This isa horizontal state having an amplitude twice that ofeither component, a result in agreement with our earlier al- culation of Eq, (8.10). The Jones vector for elliptical light can be obtained by the same procedure used to arrive ata and ‘Had we used (ast — kz) for the phase, the terms in Ege would have been interchanged. The present notation, although possibly abit more dificult to heep straight (e.g, ~1/2 fora phase lead), is more often used in moder works, Be wary when consuting references (eg, Shure,, where now Eo, may not be equal to Ea he phase di ference need not be 90" In essence for vertical and horizontal ‘states ll we need to dois sietch ou he circular form into an ellipse by multiplying either component by a seta. Thus if2 describes one possible form of horizontal, right-handed, elliptical ight, “Two veetors K and B are said to be onhogonal when KB = 0; similarly, two complex vectors are orthogonal when A-B*= 0. One refers to two polarization states as being orthogonal when their Jones vectors are orthogonal. For cxample, Day + (Ha = 0 or Ey BS = (O* + O41 = 0 where taking the complex conjugates of real numbers obvi- ously leaves them unaltered. Any polarization state will have corresponding orthogonal state. Notice that = iy ES Baby = and Such vectors form an orthogonal set, as doE., and B., As we have seen, any potarization state can be described bya linear combination ofthe vectors in ether one of the orthonormal sets, These same ideas are of considerable importance in Quantum Mechanics, where one deals with orthonormal ‘wavefunctions. 8.13.3 The Jones and Mueller Matrices Suppose that we have a polarized incident beam represented by its Jones vector E;, which passes through an optical ele- ment, emerging as a new veetor B, corresponding to the tra mitted wave. The optical element has transformed E; into E,, process that can be described mathematically using a 2 2 matrix. Recall that a matrix is just an array of numbers that has Prescribed addition and multiplication operations. Let. rep- resent the transformation matrix of the optical element in question. Then (859) 8.13 A Mathematical Description of Polarization 377 [en] and the column veetors are to be treated like any other matri- ces, As a reminder, write Eq, (8.59) as é)-[2 212] and, upon expanding, where (8.60) on, Be = a By + ark, n= nib, + drab, Table 8.6 contains a brief listing of fones matrices for various optical clement, To appreciate how these are used lets exam ine a few applications. Suppose that E, represents a @ sate at “45°, which passes through a quarter-wave plate whose fast axis vertical i, in the y-direction). The polarization state (ofthe emergent wave is found as follows, where we drop the constant-amplitude factor for convenience: [+ sE-[é) ‘The beam, as you well know, is right-cireular. If the wave passes through a series of optical elements represented by the matrices of f,...fy then ‘and thus Batya b The matrices do not commute; they must be applied inthe proper order. The wave leaving the first optical element in the Series isf; By; afler passing through the second element, i becomes. aff, and so on. Toillstrate the proces, retin to the wave considered above (i.e, Pstate at +45°), but now have it passthrough two quarter-wave plates, both with their fast axes vertical. Thus, again discarding the amplitude factors, we have whereupon378 Chapter 8 Polarization TABLE 8.6 Jones and Mueller matrices. biti 1 110 0] the transmitted beam is a P-state at —45°, having essentially Horizontal nese Fo] L}1 1 0 8} geen fipped through 90° by a half-wave plate. When the same polarizer ° ou Se cents series of optical elements is used to examine various states, it becomes desirable to replace the product, ~.f6f by the single 2% 2 system mairx obtained by earrying out the ml oo] 1f 4 18S) pttation cre oer in wich ities shuld eats Vertical linear a ed en polacizcr 1 ey In 1943 Hans Mueller, then a professor of physics atthe Massachusetts Institute of Technology, devised a matrix 1 0 1 0] method for dealing with the Stokes vectors. Recall that the : las 1] 0 0. 0| Stokes vectors have the atribute of being applicable to both Linear polarizer [1 1] [1 0 1 o| polarized and partially polarized light. The Mueller method a a 00-0 0| skates this quality and thus serves to complement the Jones method. The latter, however, can easily deal with coherent 0] waves, whereas the former cannot. The Mueller, 4% 4, matri- aft | ces-are applied in much the same way as are the Jones mati Linear polarizer | ces. There is therefore litle need to discuss the method at an ©} Iength: a few simple examples, augmented by Table 86, should suffice, Imagine that we passa unit-itradianee unpolar- ©] ized wove through a linear horizontal polarizer. The Stokes Quarewave plate, ors 0] ector ofthe emerging wave S, is fast axis vertical 0 2\0 0 0 o 000 soaf L Quarter-wave plate ‘ast axis horizontal ‘The transmitted wave has an irradiance of Hie, Sy = Hands linesry polarized horizontally (S, > 0). As another example, suppose we have a partially polarized elliptical wave whose Homogeneous ccuar Stokes parameters have been determined to he, say, (4, 2,0, otaier ig Co ———— _—- _-—= - _ polarization of 90%, Since none of he parmneters ba] aft 29 4] eran sy vale of = 3 fay age, ida rtonogenous cies —$]' 7] $1 8 2 8) Chiae resembles circle. the wave snow made travere ; Polarizer eft Go S00 a quarter-wave plate witha vertical fast axis, then 1 0 0 oO =oeeand thus 4 ‘The emergent wave has the same irradiance and degree of polarization but is now partially linearly pofarized. ‘We have only touched on a few of the more important PROBLEMS Problems 379) aspects of the matrix methods. The full extent of the subject {goes far beyond these introduetory remarks.* One can weave a mote elaborate and mathematical satistying devel coment in terms of something cle the coherence matrix. For furter, but more advanced, reading, see O'Neil, troduction to Statistical Optics. ‘Complete solutions to a problems—except those wth an asterisk — can be found in the back of the book 8.1 Describe completely the state of polarization of each ofthe fol- Towing waves: (0) E~ frp costte wn) — feos ~ on (b) B= ie sin 2mc/a ~ v9 ~ feos 2te/A ~ (©) B= ieysin(or~ ke) + sno — ke ~ 2/4 (0) B= 16, c08 (ar ~ ke) + Jp cos (or ~ ke + 7/2) 82 Consider the disturbance piven by the expression Ete 1) Li.cos wr + J eos (on ~ 27/20] sin kz, What kind of wave is it Draw a rough sketch showing is main features. 8.3 Analytically, show that the superposition of an JR- and an state having different amplitudes will yield an #-stae, as shown in Fig. 88, What must c be to duplicate that figure? 8.4 Write an expression fora Pstate lightwave of angular frequen yw and amplitude Ey propagating along the -axis with is plane of ‘vibration at an angle of 25° tothe s-plane, The disturbance i zero a and 85* Write an expression for a P-state lightwave of angular fr quency « and amplitude Ep propagating along a fine inthe x:plane 45° tothe x-axis and having is plane of vibration corresponding to they plane, Atr= 0, = O, and x = O the fields zero, 86 Write an expression for an state Tightwave of frequency’ ‘propagating in the positive x-direction such that at r= O and x = 0 the Eield points inthe negative z-direction 187° A beam of linearly polarized light with ts electric field vertical impinges perpendicularly on an ideal linear potatizer with a vertical transmission axis. Ifthe incoming beam has an iradiance of 20 W/m’, what is the radiance of the ransmited beam? Given that 300 W/m? of light from an ordinary tungsten bulb arrives at an ideal linear polarizer. What is its radiant flux density on ‘emerging? {9° A beam of vertically potarized Tinea light is perpendicularly incident onan ideal linear polarizer, Show tha ifs teansmission axis, ‘makes an angle of 60° with the vertical only 255 ofthe irradiance will be ansmitted by the polarizer. 8.10 If fight sha is initially natural and oF flux density 7, passes ‘heough two sheets of HIN-32 whose transmission axes are parallel, ‘what will be the ux density of the emerging beam? 8.11* What will be the iradiance ofthe emerging beam ifthe ana |yzer ofthe previous problem i rotated 30°? 8.12" The irradiance of a beam of natural light is 400 W/m? It impinges on the firs of two consecutive ideal linear polarzees Whose transmission anes are 40.0" upart. How much light emerges fom the 18.13" As we saw in Section 8.10, substances such as sugar and insulin are optically ative: they rotate the plane of polarization in proportion co besh tbe path length and the concentration of the solu- lion. A glass vessel i placed between a pair of erossed HIV-S0 linear polarizers, and S0% ofthe natural ight incident onthe frst polarizer is transmitted through the second polarizer. By how much did the ‘sugar solution inthe cel rotate the light passed by the fest polarizer? 8.14* The light from an ordinary ashlight i pased through a ar polriee with is ransonssion axis vertical. The resulting beam, having an radiance of 200 W/m is incident normally on a vertical380 Chapter 8 Polazation LIN-50 tnear polarizer whose transmission axis is ited at 30° above the horizontal, How much light is transmited? 8.15° Linearly polarized light (with an ireadiance of 200 W/m") aligned with its eletrie-field vector at -+58° from the vertical impinges perpendicularly on an ideal sheet polarizer whose transmis sim axis is at -+10° from the vertical, What fraction of the incoming light emerges? 8.16* Two ideal linear sheet polarizers are arranged with respect 0 the vertical with their transmission ais at 10” and 60°, respectively. If alineatly polarized bea of light with ils lecrc Field at 40° enters the frst polarizer, what fraction ofits radiance will emerge? 8.17* Imagine a pai of crossed polarizers with transmission axes. vertical and horizontal, The beam emerging from the Ftst polarize: has lox density J, and of course no light passes though the analy ies fy = 0), Now insert a perfect linear polarizer (HN-SO) with is transmission axis at 45° fo the vertical between the to elements ‘compute /. Think about the motion ofthe electrons tha are radiating in each polarizer. 8.18* Imagine that you have two identical perfec linear polarizers and a source of natural light. Place them one behind the other and position their transmission axes at 0° and 50”, respectively. Now Insert between them a third linear polarizer with ts ransmission axes 125°, IF 100 W/m’ of Fights incident, how much will emerge with ‘and without the middle polatizer in place? 8.19* Given that 200 W/m? of randomly polarized tight incident normaly ona stick of deal incar polarizers tht are positioned one behind ihe other withthe tansmission axis ofthe is vertical, the second at 30° the hid at 60°, an he fourth a 90". How much gh: emerges? 8.20* Two 1IN-50 linear polatizers ate positioned one behind the eter. What angle should thei transmission axes make if an nce unpolarized 100-W/m® beam is to be reduced to 30.0 W/m? on ‘merging from the pir? 8.21 An ideal polarizer is rotated at arate a between a similar pair ‘of stationary crossed polarizers. Show tha the emergent flax density will be modulated at four times the rotational frequency. In other words, show that h 1 cus dor ty 7 ‘where J is the flux density emerging from the Fist polarizer and 1s the Final lux density. 8.22 Figure P.8.22 shows a ray traversing a calcite rystal a nearly normal incidence, bouncing off a mirror, and then going through the crystal again, Wil the observer see double image ofthe spot an 3? Figure P.8.22 8.23* A pencil mark ona sheet of paper is covered by acalcite crys tal, With illumination from above, isnt the fight impinging on the paper alealy polarized, having passed through te crystal? Why ten {do we se two images? Test your soluion by polarizing the ight frm flashlight and then reflecting i off a sheet of paper. Try specular reflection off glass isthe reflected light polarized? £8.24 Discuss in detail what you se in Fig. P8.24. The rysta inthe Photograph is caleite, and it has a blunt comer atthe upper eft. The {sto Polaroids have their transmission axes parallel to their shor! eis. Figure P.8.24 8.25 The calcite crystal in Fig, P8.25 is shown in thre diferent of entatons. Is blunt comers on the left in (a), the lower leftin (6), and the bottom in (c). The Polaroids transmission axis is horizontal Explain eack photograph, particularly (6) 8.26 In discussing calcite, we pointed out that its large birelringence arises from the fact that the carbonate groups lie in parle planesFigure P.8.256 Figure P.8.25¢ 4 (cormal to the opti axis). Show in a sketch and explain why the polarization of the group wll be less when Es perpendicular to the 0 plane than when Eis parallel ot, What does this mean ith respect 0.9, and 2, that is, the wave's speeds when F is linearly polvzedperpendiclr ox parallel othe optic axis? 827° Imagine that we have a transmitter of microwaves that rai stesalinearly polarized wave whose E-field is known tobe parallel to the dipole direction, We wish to reflect as much energy as possible of the surface of a pond (having an index of retraction of 9.0), Find the necessary incident angle and comment on the orientation of the beam, 828" Ai what angle will the reflection of the sky coming ofthe sur 13 face of a pond ( completely vanish when seen through & Polaroid filter? Problems 381 £8.29" What is Brewster's angle for reflection of light from the sur 1.65) immersed in water (n= 1.33)? face of apiece of glass (n, 8.30* A beam of light is elected off the surface of some unknown, Tiguid, and the light is examined with a near sheet polarize. tis found that when the centta axis ofthe polarizer (that i, the perpen dicular tothe plane ofthe sheet is tited down from the verti at an angle of 54,30", he reflected light is completely passed, provided the transmission axis is parallel tothe plane ofthe interface, From this, ‘compute the index of reaction ofthe Tiguid informatio c immersed in 8.31* Light reflected from a glass (ng = 1.65) pla ethyl alcohol (n, = 1.36) is Found robe completely Finely polarized, [At what angle will the partially polarized beam be transmitted into the plate? 8.32" A beam of natural light is incident on an air-glass interface (= 1.5) at 40°. Compute the degre of polarization ofthe reflect ed Tigh. 8.33° A beam of natural light incident in aie on a glass ( = 1.5) It reflec imerface at 70° is panially reflected. Compute the ove tance, How would this compare with the ease of incidence at, say, 56.3 Explain 8.34 A ray of yellow light is incident ona caeit plate at 50°. The Plate is eut so thatthe optic axis is parallel wo the front face and per Penglculae to the plane-of incidence. Find the angular separation ‘hetween the two emerging rays £8.35* A beum of light is incident normally on a quart plate whose ‘opie axis is perpendicular to the beam. IEy the wavelengths ofboth the ordinary and extraonlinary waves, What are ther frequencies? ‘589.3 nm, compute 8.36 A beam of light enter calcite prism from the felt as shown in Fig. P.8.36, There are three possible orientations ofthe optie axis of particular intrest, and these correspond tothe x, and z-ditectons. Imagine that we have three such prisms. In each case sketch the entering and emerging beams, showing the state of polarization, How can any one of these be used fo deteemine mand? Figure P.8.36382 Chapter 8 Poerizaton 8,37 ‘The clecric-field vector of an incident state makes an angle ‘of +30° with the horizontal fast axis of a quart Describe, in detail, he state of polarization of the eme 8.38 Compute the critical angle for the ordinary ray, that is, the angle For total intemal reflection atthe calcte-balsam layer of a Nicol prism. £8.39" Draw a quartz Wollaston prism, showing all pertinent rays and ther polarization states £8.40 ‘The prism shown in Fig. P8.a0 is known as a Rochon polaris. cer, Sketch all the pertinent rays, assuming () that itis made of eat () that it is made of quar (©) Why might such u device be more useful than a dichroic polarz cer when functioning with high-fax density laser light? (2) What valuable feature ofthe Rochon is lacking inthe Wollaston polarizer? Figure P.28.40 8.41" Take 1wo ideal Polaroids (the fist with its axis vertical and the second, horizontal) and insert between them a stack of 10 half wave plates the ist with its fast axis rotated 2/40 rad from the ve tical, and each subsequent one rotated 17/40 rad from the previous ‘one. Determine the ratio ofthe emerging to incident irdiance, show = ing your logic clearly. 8,42" Suppose you were given linear polarizer and a quarter-wave plate, Howe contd you determine which was which, assuming you also had source of natural ight? 8.43* An state traverses an eighth-wave plate having a horizontal fast axis, What is its polarization state on emerging? 8.44" Figure P44 shows to Polaroid linear polarizers and between them a microscope slide to which is attached apiece of ce Jophane tape, Explain what you se. Figure P.8.44 8.45. A Babinet compensator is positioned at 45° between crossed illuminated with sodium light. When a thin sheet of miea (indices 1.599 and 1.594) is placed on pensar, the black bands all shift by {of the space separating them. Compute the retardance of the sheet und its thickness. lincar polarizers and is bei 8.46 Imagine that we have randomly polarized room light incident almost normally onthe glass surface oft radar sereen, A portion oft ‘would be specularly reflected back toward the viewer and weld thus tend to obscure the display. Suppose now that we cover the sereen with aightcicular polarizer s shown in Fig. P86, Trace the inc dent and reflected beams, indicating ther polarization states. What happens to the reflected hearn? Figure P.8.46 £8.47 1s it possible for & beam to consist of two orthogonal ineoher cent states and not be natura fight? Explain, How might you arrange 1 have such a bean?8.48* The specific rotatory power for sucrose dissolved in water at 20°C (Ay = 589.3 nm) is +66.45° per 10 em of path traversed through a solution containing 1g of active substance (sugar) per em of solution. A vertical state (sodium light enters at one end of a I~ tube containing 1011 em’ of solution, of which 10g is sucrose. At ‘what orientation will the state emerge? 8.49 On examining apiece of stressed photoclastic material between crossed linear polarizers, we would see a set of colored bans (isochromaties) and, superimposed on these set of dark bands (so clinics). How might we remove the isoctinies, leaving only the isochromaties? Explsin your solution. Incidentally, the proper arrangement is independent of the orientation of the photoelastic. sample 850° Consider Kerr ell whose plates are sepursted by a distance 4 Let é be the effective length of those plates (slighly different from the actual length because of fringing of the field). Show that Ag = Ink eve /a (841) 851 Compute the half-wave voltage fora longitudinal Pockels cell made of ADA (ammonium dihydrogen arsenate) at Ay = 550 am, Where roy = 5.5% 10°! and m= E58 8.52* The Jones vector for an arbitrary linearly polarized state at an angle # with espect tothe horizontal is ‘cos # sind Prove that this matrix isin agreement withthe one in Table 8.5 for a Pestate a 445°, £853 Find aJones vector E> representing a polarization sate orthog- = 7 {854* Two incoherent light beams represented by (1 1,0,0) and (3, 0,0, 3) ate superimposed, (a) Describe in detail the polarization states of each ofthese (b) Determine the resulting Stokes parameters ofthe combined beam and deseribe is polarization state (6) What is its degree of polarization? (@) What isthe resulting light produced by overlapping the incoher- cent beams (1, 1, 0,0) and (1, “1, 0,0)? Explain ‘Sketch both ofthese Problems 383 8,55" Show by direct calculation, using Mueller matrices, that Unit-ieradiance beam of natural Hight passing through a vertieal Finear polarizer is converted int a vertical ?-state. Determine its relative irradiance and degree of polarization. 8.56" Show by ditcct calculation, using Mueller matrices, unit-ieradiance beam of natural light passing through a linear polariz- cr with its transmission axis at +45° is converted into a Pstate at ++45°. Determine its relative irradiance and degree of polarization 8,57* Show by direct calculation, using Mueller matrices, that a ‘beam of horizontal state light passing through a !A-plate with is {ast axis horizontal emerges unchanged. 8.58" Conti that the matin booo oo 0-4 oorg o1o08 will serve as a Mucller mattis for a quarter-wave plate with its fas anisat +45°. Shine linear light polarized at 45° through it. What hap- pens? What emerges when a horizontal state enters the device? 859° The Mueller matsix 1. oO o ° 0 CHS*eosde CS{I~cos Agi ~Ssindg 0 CHI=cosdey SHC eosde Csin dy 0 Ssinde -Csinde cos Ae in which C= cos 2a and S = sin 2a, represents an arbitrary wave- plate having a retanance A and a fast axis at an angle a ‘with respect to the horizontal. Use itt derive the matrix given in the previous problem casured £8,60* Beginning with the Mneller mateix for an arbitrary rtarder provided inthe previous problem, show that i agrees with the mtx in Table 8.6 for a quarter-wave plate with a vertical fast axis, 8.61 Derive the Mueller matrix fora quarter-wave plate with its fast. avis at ~45°. Check that this matrix effectively cancels the one in Problem 8.58, so that a beam passing through the two wave plates successively cemains unaltered, 8.62" Pass a beam of horizontally polarized near Hight through cach one of the !A-plates in the two previous questions and describe384 Chapter 8. Polarization the states of the emerging light. Explain which field component is leading which and how Fig. 8.7 compares with these results. 8.63 Use Table 8.6 to derive « Mueller matey fora half-wave plate having a vertical fast axis. Utilize your result to convert an J-state into an state. Verily that he same wave plate wll convert an Zt0 an Stestate, Advancing or retarding the relative phase by 77/2 should hhave the same effect. Check this by deriving the mattis fora hall wave plate with a horizontal fst axis, {64 Construct one possible Muctler matrix for a right-citculae polarizer made out of a Tineae polarizer and a quarter-wave plate Such a device is obviously an inhomogeneous two-element tain and will differ from the homogeneous circular polarizer of Table 8 6. Test ‘your matrix to determine that it will convert natural Fight (0 an = State, Show that it will pass estates, as will the homogencous matrix. Your matrix should convert states incident om the input Side to S-staes, whereas the homogencous polarizer will totally sorb them, Verify this. 8,65* Ifthe Pockels cell modulator shown in Fig. 8.57 illuminat- ced by light of fradiance it will ansmit x beam of radiance /, such hat 1.= 1 sin?(S/2) “Make a plot of f/1; versus applied voltage. What is the significance of the voltage that coresponds to’ maximum transmission? What i the lowest voltage above zer0 that wil cause I tobe zero for ADP (Ay = 546.1 nm)? How can thingsbe rearranged to yield a maximum val te of, for zt0 voltage? In this new configuration what radiance results when V £8.66 Consiruct a Jones mattis for an isotropic plate of absorbing ‘material having an amplitude transmission coefficient of It might sometimes be desirable to keep track ofthe phase, since even if7 = such a plate is still an isotropic phase retarder. What is the Jones ‘matrix fora region of vacuum? What is it for a perfect absorber? 8,67 Construct a Mueller matrix foram isotropic plate of hsorbing rial having an amplitude transmission evefliient of ¢. What “Mueller matrix will completely depolarize any wave without affect ing is jradiance? (It has no physical counterpart.) 8.68 Keeping Eq. (8.29) in mind, write an expression forthe ran domly polarized flux density component (F,) of a partially polarized ‘beam in terms ofthe Stokes parameters. To check your result, add a randomly polarized Stokes vector of flux density 4 to an ot-state of flux density 1. Then see if you get J, = 4 for the resultant wave 8.69 An optical filter canbe described by a Jones mates, ‘Obtain the Form of the emerging light for each of the following in dent beams: (a) A plane polarized beam polarized at angle @t0 the horizontal (oe Problem 8.52). (b) A lefecitcularly polarized bear. (©) A right-cireularty polarized bear, (2) From the above, idemtfy the filter and explain how it could be consiructed. £8.70 An ptical filter can be described by a Jones matrix (a) Obtain the form ofthe emerging beam when the incident fights plane poloarized at angle to the horizontal (see Problemy 8.52) () Deduce from the esult of part (a) the nature ofthe Filter ©) Confirm your deduetion above with at least one other test 8.71* Two linear optical iter have Jones matrices and Identify these filters. 8.72" A liquid cell conaining an optically active sugar solution has Jones matix given by a fvs 1a ali-va Vi (0) Determine the polation fhe emerging Light if einen teamiea harem tte (by Determine he polarization ofthe emering tii the incident beam saver Psa {} Determine the angle of rotation produced by the optically active material