Professional Documents
Culture Documents
OF
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
TEXTBOOK FOR CLASS XI
ISBN 81-7450-518-0
First Edition
March 2006 Phalguna 1927 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
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October 2006 Kartika 1928
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The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005, recommends that children’s
life at school must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks
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a departure from the legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our
system and causes a gap between the school, home and community. The syllabi
and textbooks developed on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement
this basic idea. They also attempt to discourage rote learning and the
maintenance of sharp boundaries between different subject areas. We hope these
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measures will take us significantly further in the direction of a child-centred
system of education outlined in the National Policy on Education (1986).
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The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and
teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to
pursue imaginative activities and questions. We must recognise that, given space,
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time and freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging with the
information passed on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook as
the sole basis of examination is one of the key reasons why other resources and
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greater consideration for child psychology and the time available for teaching.
The textbook attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority and
space to opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in small
groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience.
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which have generously permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and
personnel. We are especially grateful to the members of the National Monitoring
Committee, appointed by the Department of Secondary and Higher Education,
Ministry of Human Resource Development under the Chairpersonship of
Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P. Deshpande, for their valuable time and
contribution. As an organisation committed to systemic reform and continuous
improvement in the quality of its products, NCERT welcomes comments and
suggestions which will enable us to undertake further revision and refinement.
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Director
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New Delhi National Council of Educational
20 December 2005 Research and Training
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TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE
CHIEF ADVISOR
M. H. Qureshi, Professor, Centre for the Study of Regional Development,
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
MEMBERS
Indu Sharma, PGT, Geography, RIE Demonstration School, Ajmer
K. Kumaraswamy, Professor, Department of Geography, Bharatidasan
University, Tiruchirapalli
K. N. Prudhvi Raju, Professor, Department of Geography, Banaras Hindu
University, Varanasi
K. S. Sivasami, Professor (Retd.), Centre for the Study of Regional Development,
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
L. Cajee, Reader, Department of Geography, North-Eastern Hill University,
Shillong
P. K. Malik, Lecturer, Geography, Govt. College, Tavru, Gurgaon
S. R. Jog, Professor (Retd.), Department of Geography, University of Pune, Pune
MEMBER-COORDINATOR
Aparna Pandey, Lecturer, Geography, DESSH, NCERT, New Delhi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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Gurgaon in the development of this textbook.
The Council also gratefully acknowledges the support of individuals and
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organisations as listed below for providing various photographs, and other materials
such as articles used in this textbook : R. Vaidyanadhan (Fig. 6.3 and 7.1);
N. S. Saini (Fig. 6.4, 6.7 and 7.4); Y. Ramesh and Krishnam Raju, VSVG, (USA)
(Fig. 7.11); K. N. Prudhvi Raju (Fig. 7.2, 7.5, 7.7, 7.9, 7.12 and 7.15); ITDC/Ministry
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of Tourism, Govt. of India, (Fig. 11.1 and 11.2); Ministry of Environment and
Forests, Govt. of India (Fig. 16.1, 16.2, 16.3 and 16.4); The Times of India, New
Delhi (Photograph on earthquake destruction, Collage on tsunami on page 25
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and global warming on page 109); Social Science Textbook for Class VIII, Part II
(NCERT, 2005), (Photographs related to volcanoes on page 26-27).
Acknowledgements are due to Savita Sinha, Professor and Head, Department
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of Education in Social Sciences and Humanties for her support and finalising
this textbook.
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who have helped in giving a final shape to this book. The contribution of the
Publication Department, NCERT are also duly acknowledged.
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C ONTENTS
FOREWORD iii
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UNIT I : GEOGRAPHY AS A DISCIPLINE 1-12
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1. Geography as a Discipline 2
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3. Interior of the Earth 21
4. Distribution of Oceans and Continents 30
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UNIT III : LANDFORMS 39-74
5. Minerals and Rocks
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6. Geomorphic Processes 45
7. Landforms and their Evolution 58
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ON THE
GLOSSARY 141-144
CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
Part III (Articles 12 – 35)
(Subject to certain conditions, some exceptions
and reasonable restrictions)
guarantees these
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Fundamental Rights
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Right to Equality
• before law and equal protection of laws;
• irrespective of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth;
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• of opportunity in public employment;
• by abolition of untouchability and titles.
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Right to Freedom
• of expression, assembly, association, movement, residence and profession;
• of certain protections in respect of conviction for offences;
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• of protection of life and personal liberty;
• of free and compulsory education for children between the age of six and fourteen years;
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• for protection of interests of minorities to conserve their language, script and culture;
• for minorities to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
Right to Constitutional Remedies
• by issuance of directions or orders or writs by the Supreme Court and High
Courts for enforcement of these Fundamental Rights.
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UNIT
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GEOGRAPHY AS A DISCIPLINE
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attributes
Branches of geography; importance of physical geography
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CHAPTER
GEOGRAPHY AS A DISCIPLINE
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ou have studied geography as one of the of the earth’s surface. The understanding and
components of your social studies course the skills obtained in modern scientific
upto the secondary stage. You are techniques such as GIS and computer
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already aware of some of the phenomena of cartography equip you to meaningfully
geographical nature in the world and its contribute to the national endeavour for
different parts. Now, you will study ‘Geography’ development.
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as an independent subject and learn about the Now the next question which you may like
physical environment of the earth, human to ask is — What is geography? You know that
activities and their interactive relationships.
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Therefore, a pertinent question you can ask at other creatures, big and small, which live on
this stage is — Why should we study the earth and sustain. The earth’s surface is
geography? We live on the surface of the earth. not uniform. It has variations in its physical
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Our lives are affected by our surroundings in features. There are mountains, hills, valleys,
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many ways. We depend on the resources to plains, plateaus, oceans, lakes, deserts and
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sustain ourselves in the surrounding areas. wilderness. There are variations in its social
Primitive societies subsisted on ‘natural means and cultural features too. There are villages,
of subsistence’, i.e. edible plants and animals. cities, roads, railways, ports, markets and
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With the passage of time, we developed many other elements created by human beings
technologies and started producing our food across the entire period of their cultural
using natural resources such as land, soil and development.
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water. We adjusted our food habits and This variation provides a clue to the
clothing according to the prevailing weather understanding of the relationship between the
conditions. There are variations in the natural physical environment and social/cultural
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should be curious to know about all the and evolved in the process of their cultural
phenomena which vary over space. You learn development. Now, you should be able to
about the diverse lands and people. You attempt the answer of the question posed
should also be interested in understanding the earlier as to “What is geography”? In very
changes which have taken place over time. simple words, it can be said that geography
Geography equips you to appreciate diversity is the description of the earth. The term
and investigate into the causes responsible for geography was first coined by Eratosthenese,
creating such variations over time and space. a Greek scholar (276-194 BC.). The word has
You will develop skills to understand the globe been derived from two roots from Greek
converted into maps and have a visual sense language geo (earth) and graphos (description).
GEOGRAPHY AS A DISCIPLINE 3
Put together, they mean description of the earth. changing earth and untiring and ever-active
The earth has always been seen as the abode human beings. Primitive human societies were
of human beings and thus, scholars defined directly dependent on their immediate
geography as, “the description of the earth as environment. Geography, thus, is concerned
the abode of human beings”. You are aware of with the study of Nature and Human
the fact that reality is always multifaceted and interactions as an integrated whole. ‘Human’
the ‘earth’ is also multi-dimensional, that is is an integral part of ‘nature’ and ‘nature’ has
why many disciplines from natural sciences the imprints of ‘human’. ‘Nature’ has influenced
such as geology, pedology, oceanography, different aspects of human life. Its imprints can
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botany, zoology and meteorology and a be noticed on food, clothing, shelter and
number of sister disciplines in social sciences occupation. Human beings have come to terms
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such as economics, history, sociology, political with nature through adaptation and
science, anthropology, etc. study different modification. As you already know, the present
aspects of the earth’s surface. Geography is society has passed the stage of primitive
different from other sciences in its subject societies, which were directly dependent on
matter and methodology but at the same time, their immediate physical environment for
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it is closely related to other disciplines. sustenance. Present societies have modified
Geography derives its data base from all the their natural environment by inventing and
natural and social sciences and attempts their using technology and thus, have expanded the
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synthesis. horizon of their operation by appropriating and
We have noted that there exist variations utilising the resources provided by nature. With
over the surface of the earth in its physical as
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well as cultural environment. A number of beings were able to loosen the shackles of their
phenomena are similar and many are dissimilar. physical environment. Technology helped in
It was, therefore, logical to perceive geography reducing the harshness of labour, increased
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as the study of areal differentiation. Thus, labour efficiency and provided leisure to
geography was perceived to study all those
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human beings to attend to the higher needs of
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phenomena which vary over space. life. It also increased the scale of production
Geographers do not study only the variations and the mobility of labour.
in the phenomena over the earth’s surface The interaction between the physical
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(space) but also study the associations with environment and human beings has been very
the other factors which cause these variations. succinctly described by a poet in the following
For example, cropping patterns differ from dialogue between ‘human’ and ‘nature’ (God).
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region to region but this variation in cropping You created the soil, I created the cup, you
pattern, as a phenomenon, is related to created night, I created the lamp. You created
variations in soils, climates, demands in the wilderness, hilly terrains and deserts; I
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market, capacity of the farmer to invest and created flower beds and gardens. Human
technological inputs available to her/him. beings have claimed their contribution using
Thus, the concern of geography is to find out natural resources. With the help of technology,
the causal relationship between any two human beings moved from the stage of
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phenomena or between more than one necessity to a stage of freedom. They have put
phenomenon. their imprints everywhere and created new
A geographer explains the phenomena in possibilities in collaboration with nature. Thus,
a frame of cause and effect relationship, as it we now find humanised nature and
does not only help in interpretation but also naturalised human beings and geography
foresees the phenomena in future. studies this interactive relationship. The space
The geographical phenomena, both the got organised with the help of the means of
physical and human, are not static but highly transportation and communication network.
dynamic. They change over time as a result of The links (routes) and nodes (settlements of all
the interactive processes between ever types and hierarchies) integrated the space and
4 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
gradually, it got organised. As a social science The present world is being perceived as a global
discipline, geography studies the ‘spatial village. The distances have been reduced by
organisation’ and ‘spatial integration’. better means of transportation increasing
Geography as a discipline is concerned with accessibility. The audio-visual media and
three sets of questions: information technology have enriched the data
(i) Some questions are related to the base. Technology has provided better chances
identification of the patterns of natural of monitoring natural phenomena as well as
and cultural features as found over the the economic and social parameters.
surface of the earth. These are the Geography as an integrating discipline has
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questions about what? interface with numerous natural and social
(ii) Some questions are related to the sciences. All the sciences, whether natural or
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distribution of the natural and human/ social, have one basic objective, of
cultural features over the surface of the understanding the reality. Geography
earth. These are the questions about attempts to comprehend the associations of
where? phenomena as related in sections of reality.
Taken together, both these questions take Figure 1.1 shows the relationship of geography
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care of distributional and locational aspects of with other sciences. Every discipline, concerned
the natural and cultural features. These with scientific knowledge is linked with
questions provided inventorised information of geography as many of their elements vary over
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what features and where located. It was a very space. Geography helps in understanding the
popular approach during the colonial period. reality in totality in its spatial perspective.
These two questions did not make geography
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a scientific discipline till the third question was differences in the phenomena from place to
added. place but integrates them holistically which
(iii) The third question is related to the may be different at other places. A geographer
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space and takes note of spatial characteristics itself has been a very potent factor to alter the
and attributes. It studies the patterns of course of history of the world. Spatial depth
distribution, location and concentration of provided defence to many countries,
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phenomena over space and interprets them particularly in the last century. In traditional
providing explanations for these patterns. It warfare, countries with large size in area, gain
takes note of the associations and inter- time at the cost of space. The defence provided
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relationships between the phenomena over by oceanic expanse around the countries of
space and interprets them providing the new world has protected them from wars
explanations for these patterns. It also takes being imposed on their soil. If we look at the
note of the associations and inter-relationships historical events world over, each one of them
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through oceans. The geographical factors have econometrics. Maps are prepared through
modified the course of history in different parts artistic imagination. Making sketches, mental
of the world. maps and cartographic work require
Every geographical phenomenon undergoes proficiency in arts.
change through time and can be explained
temporally. The changes in landforms, climate, Geography and Social Sciences
vegetation, economic activities occupations and
cultural developments have followed a definite Each social science sketched in Figure 1.1 has
historical course. Many geographical features interface with one branch of geography. The
relationships between geography and history
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result from the decision making process by
different institutions at a particular point of have already been outlined in detail. Every
time. It is possible to convert time in terms of discipline has a philosophy which is the raison
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space and space in terms of time. For example, d’etre for that discipline. Philosophy provides
it can be said that place A is 1,500 km from roots to a discipline and in the process of its
place B or alternately, it can also be said that evolution, it also experiences distinct historical
place A is two hours away (if one travels by processes. Thus, the history of geographical
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plane) or seventeen hours away (if one travels thought as mother branch of geography is
by a fast moving train). It is for this reason, included universally in its curricula. All the
time is an integral part of geographical studies social science disciplines, viz. sociology,
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as the fourth dimension. Please mention other political science, economics and demography
three dimensions? study different aspects of social reality. The
Figure1.1 amply depicts the linkages of branches of geography, viz. social, political,
geography with different natural and social
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sciences. This linkage can be put under two
segments.
economic and population and settlements are
closely linked with these disciplines as each
one of them has spatial attributes. The core
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shown in Figure 1.1, have interface with natural spatial unit as well as people and their political
sciences. The traditional physical geography behaviour. Economics deals with basic
is linked with geology, meteorology, hydrology attributes of the economy such as production,
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and pedology, and thus, geomorphology, distribution, exchange and consumption. Each
climatology, oceanography and soil geography of these attributes also has spatial aspects and
respectively have very close link with the
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GEOGRAPHY AS A DISCIPLINE 7
attempt synthesis over space. Maps are very BRANCHES OF GEOGRAPHY (BASED ON
effective tools of geographers in which the SYSTEMATIC APPROACH)
tabular data is converted into visual form to
bring out the spatial pattern. 1. Physical Geography
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interdisciplinary subject of study. The study of structure of atmosphere and elements
every subject is done according to some of weather and climates and climatic
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approach. The major approaches to study types and regions.
geography have been (i) Systematic and (iii) Hydrology studies the realm of water
(ii) Regional. The systematic geography approach over the surface of the earth including
is the same as that of general geography. This oceans, lakes, rivers and other water
approach was introduced by Alexander Von bodies and its effect on different life
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Humboldt, a German geographer (1769-1859) forms including human life and their
while regional geography approach was activities.
(iv) Soil Geography is devoted to study the
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developed by another German geographer and a
contemporary of Humboldt, Karl Ritter processes of soil formation, soil types,
(1779-1859). their fertility status, distribution and
use.
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In systematic approach (Figure 1.2), a
phenomenon is studied world over as a whole,
and then the identification of typologies or
2. Human Geography
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spatial patterns is done. For example, if one is (i) Social/Cultural Geography encom-
interested in studying natural vegetation, the passes the study of society and its
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spatial dynamics as well as the cultural
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forests, etc. will be identified, discussed and (Rural and Urban). It studies population
delimited. In the regional approach, the world growth, distribution, density, sex ratio,
is divided into regions at different hierarchical migration and occupational structure
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levels and then all the geographical phenomena etc. Settlement geography studies the
in a particular region are studied. These characteristics of rural and urban
regions may be natural, political or designated settlements.
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(ii) Zoo Geography which studies the (c) Field Survey Methods
spatial patterns and geographic (d) Geo-informatics comprising
characteristics of animals and their techniques such as Remote
habitats. Sensing, GIS, GPS, etc.
(iii) Ecology /Ecosystem deals with the The above classification gives a
scientific study of the habitats comprehensive format of the branches of
characteristic of species. geography. Generally geography curricula is
(iv) Environmental Geography concerns
taught and learnt in this format but this
world over leading to the realisation of
format is not static. Any discipline is bound
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environmental problems such as land
gradation, pollution and concerns for to grow with new ideas, problems, methods
and techniques. For example, what was once
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conservation has resulted in the
introduction of this new branch in manual cartography has now been
geography. transformed into computer cartography.
Technology has enabled scholars to handle
BRANCHES OF GEOGRAPHY BASED ON REGIONAL large quantum of data. The internet provides
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APPROACH (FIGURE1.3) extensive information. Thus, the capacity to
1. Regional Studies/Area Studies attempt analysis has increased tremendously.
Comprising Macro, Meso and Micro GIS has further opened vistas of knowledge.
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Regional Studies GPS has become a handy tool to find out exact
2. Regional Planning locations. Technologies have enhanced the
Comprising Country/Rural and Town/
pu capacity of attempting synthesis with sound
Urban Planning theoretical understanding.
3. Regional Development You will learn some preliminary aspects of
4. Regional Analysis these techniques in your book, Practical work
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There are two aspects which are common in Geography – Part I (NCERT, 2006). You will
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to every discipline, these are: continue to improve upon your skills and
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Human Ecology
(ii) Methods and Techniques This chapter appears in the book entitled
(a) Cartography including Computer Fundamentals of Physical Geography. The
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Physical geography includes the study of sea-food, oceans are rich in mineral resources.
lithosphere (landforms, drainage, relief and India has developed the technology for
physiography), atmosphere (its composition, collecting manganese nodules from oceanic
structure, elements and controls of weather bed. Soils are renewable resources, which
and climate; temperature, pressure, winds, influence a number of economic activities such
precipitation, climatic types, etc.), hydrosphere as agriculture. The fertility of the soil is both
(oceans, seas, lakes and associated features naturally determined and culturally induced.
with water realm) and biosphere ( life forms Soils also provide the basis for the biosphere
including human being and macro-organism accommodating plants, animals and micro
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and their sustaining mechanism, viz. food organisms.
chain, ecological parameters and ecological
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balance). Soils are formed through the process What is Geography?
of pedogenesis and depend upon the parent
rocks, climate, biological activity and time. Geography is concerned with the description
and explanation of the areal differentiation of
Time provides maturity to soils and helps in
the earth’s surface.
the development of soil profiles. Each element
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Richard Hartshorne
is important for human beings. Landforms
provide the base on which human activities are Geography studies the differences of
located. The plains are utilised for agriculture. phenomena usually related in different parts
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of the earth’s surface.
Plateaus provide forests and minerals.
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Mountains provide pastures, forests, tourist
spots and are sources of rivers providing water
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to lowlands. Climate influences our house The study of physical geography is
types, clothing and food habits. The climate emerging as a discipline of evaluating and
has a profound effect on vegetation, cropping managing natural resources. In order to
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technologies which modify climatic elements physical environment and human beings.
in a restricted space such as air conditioners Physical environment provides resources, and
and coolers. Temperature and precipitation human beings utilise these resources and
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ensure the density of forests and quality of ensure their economic and cultural
grassland. In India, monsoonal rainfall sets the development. Accelerated pace of resource
agriculture rhythm in motion. Precipitation utilisation with the help of modern technology
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recharges the ground water aquifers which has created ecological imbalance in the world.
later provides water for agriculture and Hence, a better understanding of physical
domestic use. We study oceans which are the environment is absolutely essential for
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EXERCISES
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(iii) Make correct pairs from the following two columns and mark the correct
option.
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(a) 1B,2C,3A,4D (c) 1D,2B,3C,4A
(b) 1A,2D,3B,4C (d) 1C,2A,3D,4B
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(iv) Which one of the following questions is related to cause-effect relationship?
(a) Why (c) What
(b) Where (d) When
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(v) Which one of the following disciplines attempts temporal synthesis?
(a) Sociology (c) Anthropology
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(b) Geography (d) History
2.
pu Answer the following questions in about 30 words.
(i) What important cultural features do you observe while going to school?
Are they similar or dissimilar? Should they be included in the study of
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Which one amongst these resembles the shape of the earth? Why have
you chosen this particular item to describe the shape of the earth?
(iii) Do you celebrate Van Mahotsava in your school? Why do we plant so many
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they live or grow? What is the name given to this sphere? Can you describe
some of the important features of this sphere?
(v) How much time do you take to reach your school from your house? Had
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the school been located across the road from your house, how much time
would you have taken to reach school? What is the effect of the distance
between your residence and the school on the time taken in commuting?
Can you convert time into space and vice versa?
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(i) You observe every day in your surroundings that there is variation in
natural as well as cultural phenomena. All the trees are not of the same
variety. All the birds and animals you see, are different. All these different
elements are found on the earth. Can you now argue that geography is
the study of “areal differentiation”?
(ii) You have already studied geography, history, civics and economics as
parts of social studies. Attempt an integration of these disciplines
highlighting their interface.
12 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Project Work
Select forest as a natural resource.
(i) Prepare a map of India showing the distribution of different types of forests.
(ii) Write about the economic importance of forests for the country.
(iii) Prepare a historical account of conservation of forests in India with focus
on Chipko movements in Rajasthan and Uttaranchal.
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THE EARTH
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o you remember the nursery rhyme argument. At a later date, the arguments
“…Twinkle, twinkle little star…”? considered of a companion to the sun to have
been coexisting. These arguments are called
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Starry nights have always attracted us since binary theories. In 1950, Otto Schmidt in
the childhood. You may also have thought of Russia and Carl Weizascar in Germany
somewhat revised the ‘nebular hypothesis’,
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these stars and had numerous questions in
your mind. Questions such as how many stars though differing in details. They considered that
are there in the sky? How did they come into the sun was surrounded by solar nebula
containing mostly the hydrogen and helium
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existence? Can one reach the end of the sky?
May be many more such questions are still
there in your mind. In this chapter, you will
along with what may be termed as dust. The
friction and collision of particles led to formation
of a disk-shaped cloud and the planets were
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by different philosophers and scientists The most popular argument regarding the origin
regarding the origin of the earth. One of the of the universe is the Big Bang Theory. It is also
earlier and popular arguments was by German called expanding universe hypothesis. Edwin
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philosopher Immanuel Kant. Mathematician Hubble, in 1920, provided evidence that the
Laplace revised it in 1796. It is known as universe is expanding. As time passes, galaxies
Nebular Hypothesis. The hypothesis considered move further and further apart. You can
that the planets were formed out of a cloud of experiment and find what does the expanding
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material associated with a youthful sun, which universe mean. Take a balloon and mark some
was slowly rotating. Later in 1900, Chamberlain points on it to represent the galaxies. Now, if
and Moulton considered that a wandering star you start inflating the balloon, the points marked
approached the sun. As a result, a cigar-shaped on the balloon will appear to be moving away
extension of material was separated from the from each other as the balloon expands.
solar surface. As the passing star moved away, Similarly, the distance between the galaxies is
the material separated from the solar surface also found to be increasing and thereby, the
continued to revolve around the sun and it universe is considered to be expanding.
slowly condensed into planets. Sir James Jeans However, you will find that besides the increase
and later Sir Harold Jeffrey supported this in the distances between the points on the
THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH 15
balloon, the points themselves are expanding. The expansion of universe means increase
This is not in accordance with the fact. Scientists in space between the galaxies. An alternative
believe that though the space between the to this was Hoyle’s concept of steady state. It
galaxies is increasing, observations do not considered the universe to be roughly the same
support the expansion of galaxies. So, the at any point of time. However, with greater
balloon example is only partially correct. evidence becoming available about the
expanding universe, scientific community at
present favours argument of expanding
universe.
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The Star Formation
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The distribution of matter and energy was not
even in the early universe. These initial density
differences gave rise to differences in
gravitational forces and it caused the matter
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to get drawn together. These formed the bases
for development of galaxies. A galaxy contains
a large number of stars. Galaxies spread over
bl
vast distances that are measured in thousands
of light-years. The diameters of individual
pu galaxies range from 80,000-150,000 light
years. A galaxy starts to form by accumulation
Figure 2.1 : The Big Bang of hydrogen gas in the form of a very large
The Big Bang Theory considers the cloud called nebula. Eventually, growing
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following stages in the development of the nebula develops localised clumps of gas. These
clumps continue to grow into even denser
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universe.
gaseous bodies, giving rise to formation of
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violently. This led to a huge expansion. the distances the light will travel in one
It is now generally accepted that the year is taken to be one light year. This
equals to 9.461 10 12 km. The mean
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(ii) In the next stage, the gas cloud starts in the same period sometime about 4.6 billion
getting condensed and the matter years ago. Till recently (August 2006), Pluto was
around the core develops into small- also considered a planet. However, in a meeting
rounded objects. These small-rounded of the International Astronomical Union, a
objects by the process of cohesion develop decision was taken that Pluto like other celestial
into what is called planetesimals. objects (2003 UB313)discovered in recent past
Larger bodies start forming by collision, may be called ‘dwarf planet’. Some data regarding
and gravitational attraction causes the our solar system are given in the box below.
material to stick together. Planetesimals
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are a large number of smaller bodies. Why are the inner planets rocky while
(iii) In the final stage, these large number of others are mostly in gaseous form?
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small planetesimals accrete to form a
fewer large bodies in the form of planets. The difference between terrestrial and jovian
planets can be attributed to the following
OUR SOLAR SYSTEM conditions:
(i) The terrestrial planets were formed in the
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Our Solar system consists of eight planets. The close vicinity of the parent star where it
nebula from which our Solar system is supposed was too warm for gases to condense to
to have been formed, started its collapse and core solid particles. Jovian planets were
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formation some time 5-5.6 billion years ago and formed at quite a distant location.
the planets were formed about 4.6 billion years (ii) The solar wind was most intense nearer
ago. Our solar system consists of the sun (the
pu the sun; so, it blew off lots of gas and dust
star), 8 planets, 63 moons, millions of smaller from the terrestrial planets. The solar winds
bodies like asteroids and comets and huge were not all that intense to cause similar
quantity of dust-grains and gases. removal of gases from the Jovian planets.
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Giant planets. Jovian means jupiter-like. Most been attempts to explain how the moon was
of them are much larger than the terrestrial formed. In 1838, Sir George Darwin suggested
planets and have thick atmosphere, mostly of that initially, the earth and the moon formed a
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helium and hydrogen. All the planets were formed single rapidly rotating body. The whole mass
* Distance from the sun in astronomical unit i.e. average mean distance of the earth is 149,598,000
km = 1 @ Density in gm/cm3
# Radius: Equatorial radius 6378.137 km = 1
THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH 17
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impact’ or what is described as “the big splat”. the earth was further heated up. It is through
A body of the size of one to three times that of the process of differentiation that the earth
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mars collided into the earth sometime shortly forming material got separated into different
after the earth was formed. It blasted a large layers. Starting from the surface to the central
part of the earth into space. This portion of parts, we have layers like the crust, mantle,
blasted material then continued to orbit the outer core and inner core. From the crust to the
earth and eventually formed into the present core, the density of the material increases. We
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moon about 4.44 billion years ago. shall discuss in detail the properties of each of
this layer in the next chapter.
EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH
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Do you know that the planet earth initially was Evolution of Atmosphere and Hydrosphere
a barren, rocky and hot object with a thin The present composition of earth’s atmosphere
atmosphere of hydrogen and helium. This is
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far from the present day picture of the earth.
Hence, there must have been some events–
is chiefly contributed by nitrogen and oxygen.
You will be dealing with the composition and
structure of the earth’s atmosphere in Chapter 8.
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processes, which may have caused this change There are three stages in the evolution of
from rocky, barren and hot earth to a beautiful the present atmosphere. The first stage is
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planet with ample amount of water and
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to the Oligocene 24 - 37 million Anthropoid Ape
present Eocene 37 - 58 Million Rabbits and Hare
times)
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Palaeocene 57 - 65 Million Small Mammals :
Rats – Mice
Mesozoic Cretaceous 65 - 144 Million Extinction of Dinosaurs
65 - 245
Jurassic 144 - 208 Million Age of Dinosaurs
Million
Triassic 208 - 245 Million Frogs and turtles
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Mammals
Permian 245 - 286 Million Reptile dominate-replace
amphibians
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Carboniferous 286 - 360 Million First Reptiles:
Palaeozoic Vertebrates: Coal beds
245 - 570 Devonian 360 - 408 Million Amphibians
pu Million Silurian 408 - 438 Million First trace of life on land:
Plants
Ordovician 438 - 505 Million First Fish
Cambrian 505 - 570 Million No terrestrial Life :
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Marine Invertebrate
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Proterozoic 570 - 2,500 Million Soft-bodied arthropods
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to the atmosphere. As the earth cooled, the that the oceans are as old as 4,000 million
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water vapour released started getting years. Sometime around 3,800 million years
condensed. The carbon dioxide in the ago, life began to evolve. However, around
2,500-3,000 million years before the present,
atmosphere got dissolved in rainwater and the
the process of photosynthesis got evolved. Life
temperature further decreased causing more
was confined to the oceans for a long time.
condensation and more rains. The rainwater Oceans began to have the contribution of
falling onto the surface got collected in the oxygen through the process of photosynthesis.
depressions to give rise to oceans. The earth’s Eventually, oceans were saturated with oxygen,
oceans were formed within 500 million years and 2,000 million years ago, oxygen began to
from the formation of the earth. This tells us flood the atmosphere.
THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH 19
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complex organic molecules and assembled evolution of life from unicellular bacteria to the
them. This assemblage was such that they modern man is given in the Geological Time
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could duplicate themselves converting Scale on page 18.
EXERCISES
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1. Multiple choice questions.
(i) Which one of the following figures represents the age of the earth?
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(a) 4.6 million years (c) 4.6 billion years
(b) 13.7 billion years (d) 13.7 trillion years
pu (ii) Which one of the following has the longest duration?
(a) Eons (c) Era
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Project Work
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Collect information about the project “Stardust” (website: www.sci.edu/public.html
and www.nasm.edu) along the following lines.
(i) Which is the agency that has launched this project?
(ii) Why are scientists interested in collecting Stardust?
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(iii) Where from the Stardust is being collected?
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pu
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CHAPTER
d
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W
hat do you imagine about the nature SOURCES OF INFORMATION ABOUT THE INTERIOR
of the earth? Do you imagine it to be The earth’s radius is 6,370 km. No one can
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a solid ball like cricket ball or a reach the centre of the earth and make
hollow ball with a thick cover of rocks i.e. observations or collect samples of the material.
lithosphere? Have you ever seen photographs Under such conditions, you may wonder how
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or images of a volcanic eruption on the scientists tell us about the earth’s interior and
television screen? Can you recollect the the type of materials that exist at such depths.
emergence of hot molten lava, dust, smoke, fire
pu Most of our knowledge about the interior of
and magma flowing out of the volcanic crater? the earth is largely based on estimates and
The interior of the earth can be understood only inferences. Yet, a part of the information is
obtained through direct observations and
by indirect evidences as neither any one has nor
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analysis of materials.
any one can reach the interior of the earth.
Direct Sources
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The configuration of the surface of the earth
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is largely a product of the processes operating The most easily available solid earth material
in the interior of the earth. Exogenic as well as is surface rock or the rocks we get from mining
endogenic processes are constantly shaping areas. Gold mines in South Africa are as deep
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the landscape. A proper understanding of the as 3 - 4 km. Going beyond this depth is not
physiographic character of a region remains possible as it is very hot at this depth. Besides
mining, scientists have taken up a number of
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it is necessary that one gets acquainted with such as “Deep Ocean Drilling Project” and
the forces that influence landscape “Integrated Ocean Drilling Project”. The
development. To understand why the earth deepest drill at Kola, in Arctic Ocean, has so
shakes or how a tsunami wave is generated, it far reached a depth of 12 km. This and many
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is necessary that we know certain details of the deep drilling projects have provided large
interior of the earth. In the previous chapter, volume of information through the analysis of
you have noted that the earth-forming materials collected at different depths.
materials have been distributed in the form of Volcanic eruption forms another source of
obtaining direct information. As and when the
layers from the crust to the core. It is interesting
molten material (magma) is thrown onto the
to know how scientists have gathered
surface of the earth, during volcanic eruption
information about these layers and what are it becomes available for laboratory analysis.
the characteristics of each of these layers. This However, it is difficult to ascertain the depth of
is exactly what this chapter deals with. the source of such magma.
22 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
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rate of change of these characteristics. Knowing all directions.
the total thickness of the earth, scientists have
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estimated the values of temperature, pressure Why does the earth shake?
and the density of materials at different depths. The release of energy occurs along a fault. A
The details of these characteristics with fault is a sharp break in the crustal rocks.
reference to each layer of the interior are Rocks along a fault tend to move in opposite
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discussed later in this chapter. directions. As the overlying rock strata press
Another source of information are the them, the friction locks them together. However,
meteors that at times reach the earth. However, their tendency to move apart at some point of
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it may be noted that the material that becomes time overcomes the friction. As a result, the
available for analysis from meteors, is not from blocks get deformed and eventually, they slide
the interior of the earth. The material and the
pu past one another abruptly. This causes a
structure observed in the meteors are similar release of energy, and the energy waves travel
to that of the earth. They are solid bodies in all directions. The point where the energy is
developed out of materials same as, or similar released is called the focus of an earthquake,
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to, our planet. Hence, this becomes yet another alternatively, it is called the hypocentre. The
source of information about the interior of the
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energy waves travelling in different directions
earth.
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mass of material. The uneven distribution of layers of the earth later in this chapter. It is
mass of material within the earth influences sufficient to note here that the lithosphere refers
this value. The reading of the gravity at different to the portion of depth up to 200 km from the
places is influenced by many other factors. surface of the earth. An instrument called
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These readings differ from the expected values. ‘seismograph’ records the waves reaching the
Such a difference is called gravity anomaly. surface. A curve of earthquake waves recorded
Gravity anomalies give us information about on the seismograph is given in Figure 3.1. Note
the distribution of mass of the material in the that the curve shows three distinct sections
crust of the earth. Magnetic surveys also each representing different types of wave
provide information about the distribution of patterns. Earthquake waves are basically of two
magnetic materials in the crustal portion, and types — body waves and surface waves. Body
thus, provide information about the waves are generated due to the release of energy
distribution of materials in this part. Seismic at the focus and move in all directions travelling
activity is one of the most important sources of through the body of the earth. Hence, the name
INTERIOR OF THE EARTH 23
body waves. The body waves interact with the propagation. As a result, it creates density
surface rocks and generate new set of waves differences in the material leading to stretching
called surface waves. These waves move along and squeezing of the material. Other three
the surface. The velocity of waves changes as waves vibrate perpendicular to the direction of
they travel through materials with different propagation. The direction of vibrations of
densities. The denser the material, the higher S-waves is perpendicular to the wave direction
is the velocity. Their direction also changes as in the vertical plane. Hence, they create troughs
they reflect or refract when coming across and crests in the material through which they
materials with different densities. pass. Surface waves are considered to be the
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most damaging waves.
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Emergence of Shadow Zone
Earthquake waves get recorded in seismo-
graphs located at far off locations. However,
there exist some specific areas where the waves
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are not reported. Such a zone is called the
‘shadow zone’. The study of different events
reveals that for each earthquake, there exists
Figure 3.1 : Earthquake Waves
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an altogether different shadow zone. Figure 3.2
There are two types of body waves. They (a) and (b) show the shadow zones of P and
are called P and S-waves. P-waves move faster
pu S-waves. It was observed that seismographs
and are the first to arrive at the surface. These located at any distance within 105° from the
are also called ‘primary waves’. The P-waves epicentre, recorded the arrival of both P and
are similar to sound waves. They travel S-waves. However, the seismographs located
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through gaseous, liquid and solid materials. beyond 145° from epicentre, record the arrival
S-waves arrive at the surface with some time of P-waves, but not that of S-waves. Thus, a
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lag. These are called secondary waves. An zone between 105° and 145° from epicentre was
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important fact about S-waves is that they can identified as the shadow zone for both the types
travel only through solid materials. This of waves. The entire zone beyond 105° does not
characteristic of the S-waves is quite receive S-waves. The shadow zone of S-wave is
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important. It has helped scientists to much larger than that of the P-waves. The
understand the structure of the interior of the shadow zone of P-waves appears as a band
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earth. Reflection causes waves to rebound around the earth between 105° and 145° away
whereas refraction makes waves move in from the epicentre. The shadow zone of S-waves
different directions. The variations in the is not only larger in extent but it is also a little
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direction of waves are inferred with the help of over 40 per cent of the earth surface. You can
their record on seismograph. The surface draw the shadow zone for any earthquake
waves are the last to report on seismograph. provided you know the location of the epicentre.
These waves are more destructive. They cause (See the activity box on page 28 to know how to
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displacement of rocks, and hence, the collapse locate the epicentre of a quake event).
of structures occurs.
Types of Earthquakes
Propagation of Earthquake Waves
(i) The most common ones are the tectonic
Different types of earthquake waves travel in earthquakes. These are generated due to
different manners. As they move or propagate, sliding of rocks along a fault plane.
they cause vibration in the body of the rocks (ii) A special class of tectonic earthquake is
through which they pass. P-waves vibrate sometimes recognised as volcanic
parallel to the direction of the wave. This exerts earthquake. However, these are confined
pressure on the material in the direction of the to areas of active volcanoes.
24 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Measuring Earthquakes
The earthquake events are scaled either
according to the magnitude or intensity of the
shock. The magnitude scale is known as the
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Richter scale. The magnitude relates to the
energy released during the quake. The
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magnitude is expressed in absolute numbers,
0-10. The intensity scale is named after
Mercalli, an Italian seismologist. The intensity
scale takes into account the visible damage
is
caused by the event. The range of intensity scale
is from 1-12.
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EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKE
Earthquake is a natural hazard. The following
pu are the immediate hazardous effects of
earthquake:
(i) Ground Shaking
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pu
Frequency of Earthquake Occurrences STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
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Himalayan region.
It is made up of heavier rocks having
density of 3 g/cm3. This type of rock found in
the oceanic crust is basalt. The mean density
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The Mantle
The portion of the interior beyond the crust is
A view of the damaged Aman Setu at the LOC called the mantle. The mantle extends from
in Uri, due to an earthquake Moho’s discontinuity to a depth of 2,900 km.
chapter. Note that the quakes of high The upper portion of the mantle is called
magnitude, i.e. 8+ are quite rare; they occur asthenosphere. The word astheno means
once in 1-2 years whereas those of ‘tiny’ types weak. It is considered to be extending upto 400
occur almost every minute. km. It is the main source of magma that finds
26 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
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The material that reaches the ground includes
lava flows, pyroclastic debris, volcanic bombs,
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ash and dust and gases such as nitrogen
compounds, sulphur compounds and minor
amounts of chlorene, hydrogen and argon.
Volcanoes
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Volcanoes are classified on the basis of nature
of eruption and the form developed at the
surface. Major types of volcanoes are as follows:
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Figure 3.4 : The interior of the earth
The Core
As indicated earlier, the earthquake wave
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examples. These volcanoes are mostly made more than 50 m. Individual flows may extend
up of basalt, a type of lava that is very fluid for hundreds of km. The Deccan Traps from
when erupted. For this reason, these volcanoes India, presently covering most of the
are not steep. They become explosive if Maharashtra plateau, are a much larger flood
somehow water gets into the vent; otherwise, basalt province. It is believed that initially the
they are characterised by low-explosivity. The trap formations covered a much larger area
upcoming lava moves in the form of a fountain than the present.
and throws out the cone at the top of the vent
and develops into cinder cone. Mid-Ocean Ridge Volcanoes
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Composite Volcanoes These volcanoes occur in the oceanic areas.
There is a system of mid-ocean ridges more
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These volcanoes are characterised by than 70,000 km long that stretches through
eruptions of cooler and more viscous lavas all the ocean basins. The central portion of this
than basalt. These volcanoes often result in ridge experiences frequent eruptions. We shall
explosive eruptions. Along with lava, large be discussing this in detail in the next chapter.
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quantities of pyroclastic material and ashes
find their way to the ground. This material VOLCANIC LANDFORMS
accumulates in the vicinity of the vent openings
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leading to formation of layers, and this makes Intrusive Forms
the mounts appear as composite volcanoes.
The lava that is released during volcanic
pu eruptions on cooling develops into igneous
rocks. The cooling may take place either on
reaching the surface or also while the lava is
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Caldera
These are the most explosive of the earth’s
volcanoes. They are usually so explosive that
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Lapolith, Phacolith and Sills
Lacoliths As and when the lava moves upwards, a
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These are large dome-shaped intrusive bodies portion of the same may tend to move in a
with a level base and connected by a pipe-like horizontal direction wherever it finds a weak
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For this you will need
Data from 3 seismograph stations about the time of arrival of P-waves, S-waves.
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Procedure
1. Find the time of arrival of P and S-waves of the given quake for the three stations for which
you have the data.
pu
2. Compute the time lag between the arrival of P and S-waves for each station; it is called time
lag. (Note that it is directly related to the distance of the seismograph from the focus.)
A. Basic rule : For every second of time lag, the earthquake is roughly 8 km away from you.
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3. Using the rule quoted above, convert the time lag into distance ( # seconds of time lag * 8)
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for each station.
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the structure of the earth’s crust. The locations with accuracy within a few hundred metres
can be achieved. The procedure outlined here is a much simplified version of what is normally
done, although the principle is the same.
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In the following diagram, the epicentre is located using this procedure. It also contains a
table giving necessary data. Why don’t you try for yourself ?
Data
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Arrival time of
Station P-waves S-waves
Hour Min. Sec. Hour Min. Sec.
S1 03 23 20 03 24 45
S2 03 22 17 03 23 57
S3 03 22 00 03 23 55
Scale of the map 1cm = 40km
INTERIOR OF THE EARTH 29
plane. It may get rested in different forms. In while the thick horizontal deposits are
case it develops into a saucer shape, concave called sills.
to the sky body, it is called lapolith. A wavy
mass of intrusive rocks, at times, is found at Dykes
the base of synclines or at the top of anticline
When the lava makes its way through cracks
in folded igneous country. Such wavy materials
and the fissures developed in the land, it
have a definite conduit to source beneath in
the form of magma chambers (subsequently solidifies almost perpendicular to the ground.
developed as batholiths). These are called the It gets cooled in the same position to develop a
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phacoliths. wall-like structure. Such structures are called
The near horizontal bodies of the dykes. These are the most commonly found
intrusive forms in the western Maharashtra area.
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intrusive igneous rocks are called sill or
sheet, depending on the thickness of the These are considered the feeders for the eruptions
material. The thinner ones are called sheets that led to the development of the Deccan traps.
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EXERCISES
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(i) Which one of the following earthquake waves is more destructive?
(a) P-waves (c) Surface waves
pu (b) S-waves (d) None of the above
(ii) Which one of the following is a direct source of information about the
interior of the earth?
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(ii) Name the direct sources of information about the interior of the earth.
(iii) Why do earthquake waves develop shadow zone?
(iv) Briefly explain the indirect sources of information of the interior of the
earth other than those of seismic activity.
3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.
(i) What are the effects of propagation of earthquake waves on the rock mass
through which they travel?
(ii) What do you understand by intrusive forms? Briefly describe various
intrusive forms.
CHAPTER
DISTRIBUTION OF OCEANS
AND CONTINENTS
d
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In the previous chapter, you have studied the theory” in 1912. This was regarding the
interior of the earth. You are already familiar distribution of the oceans and the continents.
with the world map. You know that continents According to Wegener, all the continents
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cover 29 per cent of the surface of the earth formed a single continental mass and mega
and the remainder is under oceanic waters. ocean surrounded the same. The super
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The positions of the continents and the ocean continent was named PANGAEA, which meant
bodies, as we see them in the map, have not all earth. The mega-ocean was called
been the same in the past. Moreover, it is now PANTHALASSA, meaning all water. He argued
a well-accepted fact that oceans and
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continents will not continue to enjoy their
present positions in times to come. If this is
that, around 200 million years ago, the super
continent, Pangaea, began to split. Pangaea first
broke into two large continental masses as
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so, the question arises what were their positions Laurasia and Gondwanaland forming the
in the past? Why and how do they change their northern and southern components
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positions? Even if it is true that the continents respectively. Subse-quently, Laurasia and
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and oceans have changed and are changing Gondwanaland continued to break into various
their positions, you may wonder as to how smaller continents that exist today. A variety of
scientists know this. How have they determined
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Observe the shape of the coastline of the Atlantic The shorelines of Africa and South America
Ocean. You will be surprised by the symmetry facing each other have a remarkable and
of the coastlines on either side of the ocean. No
unmistakable match. It may be noted that a
wonder, many scientists thought of this
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the vast ocean. The belt of ancient rocks of Force for Drifting
2,000 million years from Brazil coast matches
Wegener suggested that the movement
with those from western Africa. The earliest
responsible for the drifting of the continents
marine deposits along the coastline of South
was caused by pole-fleeing force and tidal force.
America and Africa are of the Jurassic age. The polar-fleeing force relates to the rotation
This suggests that the ocean did not exist prior of the earth. You are aware of the fact that the
to that time. earth is not a perfect sphere; it has a bulge at
the equator. This bulge is due to the rotation
Tillite of the earth. The second force that was
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It is the sedimentary rock formed out of suggested by Wegener—the tidal force—is due
deposits of glaciers. The Gondawana system to the attraction of the moon and the sun that
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of sediments from India is known to have its develops tides in oceanic waters. Wegener
counter parts in six different landmasses of the believed that these forces would become
Southern Hemisphere. At the base the system effective when applied over many million years.
has thick tillite indicating extensive and However, most of scholars considered these
forces to be totally inadequate.
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prolonged glaciation. Counter parts of this
succession are found in Africa, Falkland Island,
Madagascar, Antarctica and Australia besides Post-Drift Studies
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India. Overall resemblance of the Gondawana It is interesting to note that for continental drift,
type sediments clearly demonstrates that these most of the evidence was collected from the
landmasses had remarkably similar histories. continental areas in the form of distribution of
The glacial tillite provides unambiguous
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evidence of palaeoclimates and also of drifting
of continents.
flora and fauna or deposits like tillite. A number
of discoveries during the post-war period
added new information to geological literature.
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two continents lay side by side. the mantle portion. These currents are
generated due to radioactive elements causing
Distribution of Fossils thermal differences in the mantle portion.
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remarkable similarities both in terms of their This forms an interconnected chain of
constituents and their age. mountain system within the ocean. It is the
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longest mountain-chain on the surface of the
Ocean Floor Configuration earth though submerged under the oceanic
In this section we shall note a few things related waters. It is characterised by a central rift
to the ocean floor configuration that help us in system at the crest, a fractionated plateau and
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the understanding of the distribution of flank zone all along its length. The rift system
continents and oceans. You will be studying at the crest is the zone of intense volcanic
the details of ocean floor relief in Chapter activity. In the previous chapter, you have been
bl
13. The ocean floor may be segmented into introduced to this type of volcanoes as mid-
three major divisions based on the depth oceanic volcanoes.
as well as the forms of relief. These divisions
Distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes
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are continental margins, deep-sea basins and
mid-ocean ridges. Study the maps showing the distribution of
seismic activity and volcanoes given in Figure
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pu
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concept of continental drift. Particularly, the unexpectedly very thin. Scientists were
mapping of the ocean floor and palaeomagnetic expecting, if the ocean floors were as old
studies of rocks from oceanic regions revealed as the continent, to have a complete
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crest of mid-oceanic ridges show oceanic ridge areas, the quake foci have
remarkable similarities in terms of period shallow depths.
of formation, chemical compositions and These facts and a detailed analysis of magnetic
magnetic properties. Rocks closer to the properties of the rocks on either sides of the
©
mid-oceanic ridges have normal polarity mid-oceanic ridge led Hess (1961) to propose
and are the youngest. The age of the rocks his hypothesis, known as the “sea floor
increases as one moves away from the spreading”. Hess argued that constant
crest. eruptions at the crest of oceanic ridges cause
(iii) The ocean crust rocks are much younger the rupture of the oceanic crust and the new
than the continental rocks. The age of rocks lava wedges into it, pushing the oceanic crust
in the oceanic crust is nowhere more than on either side. The ocean floor, thus spreads.
200 million years old. Some of the continental The younger age of the oceanic crust as well
rock formations are as old as 3,200 million as the fact that the spreading of one ocean does
years. not cause the shrinking of the other, made Hess
34 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
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Figure 4. 3 : Sea floor spreading
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crust. He further maintained that the ocean Since the advent of the concept of sea floor
floor that gets pushed due to volcanic spreading, the interest in the problem of
eruptions at the crest, sinks down at the
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oceanic trenches and gets consumed. revived. It was in 1967, McKenzie and Parker
The basic concept of sea floor spreading has and also Morgan, independently collected the
been depicted in Figure 4.3. available ideas and came out with another
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concept termed Plate Tectonics. A tectonic (ii) North American (with western Atlantic
plate (also called lithospheric plate) is a floor separated from the South American
massive, irregularly-shaped slab of solid rock, plate along the Caribbean islands) plate
generally composed of both continental and (iii) South American (with western Atlantic
oceanic lithosphere. Plates move horizontally
floor separated from the North American
over the asthenosphere as rigid units. The
plate along the Caribbean islands) plate
lithosphere includes the crust and top mantle
with its thickness range varying between 5-100 (iv) Pacific plate
km in oceanic parts and about 200 km in the (v) India-Australia-New Zealand plate
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continental areas. A plate may be referred to (vi) Africa with the eastern Atlantic floor plate
as the continental plate or oceanic plate (vii) Eurasia and the adjacent oceanic plate.
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depending on which of the two occupy a larger Some important minor plates are listed
portion of the plate. Pacific plate is largely an below:
oceanic plate whereas the Eurasian plate may be (i) Cocos plate : Between Central America
called a continental plate. The theory of plate and Pacific plate
tectonics proposes that the earth’s lithosphere is
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(ii) Nazca plate : Between South America
divided into seven major and some minor plates. and Pacific plate
Young Fold Mountain ridges, trenches, and/or
(iii) Arabian plate : Mostly the Saudi Arabian
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faults surround these major plates (Figure 4.5).
landmass
The major plates are as follows :
(i) Antarctica and the surrounding oceanic (iv) Philippine plate : Between the Asiatic and
plate
pu Pacific plate
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may be noted that all the plates, without
plate away from the axis of the earth. Also, the
exception, have moved in the geological past,
rotation of the earth has its effect on the
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and shall continue to move in the future as well.
separated blocks of the plate portions.
Wegener had thought of all the continents to
have initially existed as a super continent in How do you think the rate of plate
the form of Pangaea. However, later discoveries movement is determined?
reveal that the continental masses, resting on
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the plates, have been wandering all through the
Rates of Plate Movement
geological period, and Pangaea was a result of
bl
converging of different continental masses that The strips of normal and reverse magnetic field
were parts of one or the other plates. Scientists that parallel the mid-oceanic ridges help
using the palaeomagnetic data have determined
pu scientists determine the rates of plate
the positions held by each of the present movement. These rates vary considerably. The
continental landmass in different geological Arctic Ridge has the slowest rate (less than 2.5
periods (Fig 4.4). Position of the Indian sub- cm/yr), and the East Pacific Rise near Easter
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continent (mostly Peninsular India) is traced Island, in the South Pacific about 3,400 km
with the help of the rocks analysed from the west of Chile, has the fastest rate (more than
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Divergent Boundaries
At the time that Wegener proposed his theory
Where new crust is generated as the plates pull of continental drift, most scientists believed
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away from each other. The sites where the that the earth was a solid, motionless body.
plates move away from each other are called However, concepts of sea floor spreading and
spreading sites. The best-known example of the unified theory of plate tectonics have
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divergent boundaries is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. emphasised that both the surface of the earth
At this, the American Plate(s) is/are separated and the interior are not static and motionless
from the Eurasian and African Plates. but are dynamic. The fact that the plates move
is now a well-accepted fact. The mobile rock
©
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and the Australian continental portions. The
subduction zone along the Himalayas forms
the northern plate boundary in the form of
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continent— continent convergence. In the east,
it extends through Rakinyoma Mountains of
Myanmar towards the island arc along the
Java Trench. The eastern margin is a
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spreading site lying to the east of Australia in
the form of an oceanic ridge in SW Pacific. The
Western margin follows Kirthar Mountain of
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Pakistan. It further extends along the Makrana
coast and joins the spreading site from the
Red Sea rift southeastward along the Chagos
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Archipelago. The boundary between India
and the Antarctic plate is also marked by
oceanic ridge (divergent boundary) running
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broke. India collided with Asia about 40-50 Figure 4.6 : Movement of the Indian plate
million years ago causing rapid uplift of the plate towards the Asiatic plate, a major event
Himalayas. The positions of India since about
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EXERCISES
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(a) Revolution of the Earth (c) Rotation of the earth
(b) Gravitation (d) Tides
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(iii) Which one of the following is not a minor plate?
(a) Nazca (c) Philippines
(b) Arabia (d) Antarctica
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(iv) Which one of the following facts was not considered by those while
discussing the concept of sea floor spreading?
(a) Volcanic activity along the mid-oceanic ridges.
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(b) Stripes of normal and reverse magnetic field observed in rocks of ocean
floor.
(c) Distribution of fossils in different continents.
pu (d) Age of rocks from the ocean floor.
(v) Which one of the following is the type of plate boundary of the Indian plate
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(i) What were the forces suggested by Wegener for the movement of the
continents?
(ii) How are the convectional currents in the mantle initiated and maintained?
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(iii) What is the major difference between the transform boundary and the
convergent or divergent boundaries of plates?
(iv) What was the location of the Indian landmass during the formation of the
Deccan Traps?
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Project Work
Prepare a collage related to damages caused by an earthquake.
d
he
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UNIT
III
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pu LANDFORMS
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This unit deals with
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d
he
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he earth is composed of various kinds Though the number of elements making
of elements. These elements are in solid up the lithosphere are limited they are
form in the outer layer of the earth and combined in many different ways to make up
is
in hot and molten form in the interior. many varieties of minerals. There are at least
About 98 per cent of the total crust of the 2,000 minerals that have been named and
earth is composed of eight elements like
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identified in the earth crust; but almost all the
oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron, calcium,
commonly occurring ones are related to six
sodium, potassium and magnesium (Table 5.1),
major mineral groups that are known as major
and the rest is constituted by titanium,
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hydrogen, phosphorous, manganese, sulphur, rock forming minerals.
carbon, nickel and other elements. The basic source of all minerals is the hot
magma in the interior of the earth. When
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4. Iron 5.00
5. Calcium 3.63 liquid and gaseous forms respectively.
6. Sodium 2.83 A brief information about some important
7. Potassium 2.59
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8. Magnesium 2.09
minerals in terms of their nature and physical
9. Others 1.41 characteristics is given below :
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(v) Colour — some minerals have salmon pink colour. It is used in ceramics and
characteristic colour determined glass making.
he
by their molecular structure —
malachite, azurite, chalcopyrite etc., Quartz
and some minerals are coloured by
It is one of the most important components of
impurities. For example, because
sand and granite. It consists of silica. It is a
of impurities quartz may be white,
hard mineral virtually insoluble in water. It is
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green, red, yellow etc.
(vi) Streak — colour of the ground powder
white or colourless and used in radio and radar.
of any mineral. It may be of the
It is one of the most important components of
granite.
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same colour as the mineral or may
differ — malachite is green and gives
green streak, fluorite is purple or Pyroxene
pu green but gives a white streak. Pyroxene consists of calcium, aluminum,
(vii) Transparency — transparent: light magnesium, iron and silica. Pyroxene forms
rays pass through so that objects 10 per cent of the earth’s crust. It is commonly
can be seen plainly; translucent found in meteorites. It is in green or black
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fine, medium or coarse grained; form 7 per cent of the earth’s crust. It is in
fibrous — separable, divergent, green or black colour and is used in asbestos
radiating. industry. Hornblende is another form of
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(iii) Non-ferrous metals : include metals called igneous rock. The process of cooling and
like copper, lead, zinc, tin, aluminium solidification can happen in the earth’s crust
he
etc. or on the surface of the earth.
Igneous rocks are classified based on
Non-Metallic Minerals texture. Texture depends upon size and
arrangement of grains or other physical
These minerals do not contain metal content.
conditions of the materials. If molten material
is
Sulphur, phosphates and nitrates are examples
is cooled slowly at great depths, mineral grains
of non-metallic minerals. Cement is a mixture may be very large. Sudden cooling (at the
of non-metallic minerals. surface) results in small and smooth grains.
bl
Intermediate conditions of cooling would result
ROCKS
in intermediate sizes of grains making up
The earth’s crust is composed of rocks. A igneous rocks. Granite, gabbro, pegmatite,
pu
rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals.
Rock may be hard or soft and in varied
basalt, volcanic breccia and tuff are some of
the examples of igneous rocks.
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studies rocks in all their aspects viz., by different exogenous agencies and
mineral composition, texture, structure, deposited. These deposits through compaction
origin, occurrence, alteration and turn into rocks. This process is called
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requires basic knowledge of rocks. There are rocks like sandstone, shale etc.
many different kinds of rocks which are Depending upon the mode of formation,
grouped under three families on the basis of sedimentary rocks are classified into three major
their mode of formation. They are: (i) Igneous groups: (i) mechanically formed — sandstone,
Rocks — solidified from magma and lava; conglomerate, limestone, shale, loess etc. are
(ii) Sedimentary Rocks — the result of examples; (ii) organically formed — geyserite,
deposition of fragments of rocks by exogenous chalk, limestone, coal etc. are some examples;
processes; (iii) Metamorphic Rocks — formed out (iii) chemically formed — chert, limestone, halite,
of existing rocks undergoing recrystallisation. potash etc. are some examples.
MINERALS AND ROCKS 43
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amounts of pressure by overlying rocks. old rocks are transformed into new ones.
Metamorphism is a process by which already Igneous rocks are primary rocks and other
he
consolidated rocks undergo recrystallisation rocks (sedimentary and metamorphic) form
and reorganisation of materials within original from these primary rocks. Igneous rocks can
rocks. be changed into metamorphic rocks. The
Mechanical disruption and reorganisation fragments derived out of igneous and
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of the original minerals within rocks due to metamorphic rocks form into sedimentary
breaking and crushing without any
appreciable chemical changes is called dynamic
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metamorphism. The materials of rocks
chemically alter and recrystallise due to
thermal metamorphism. There are two types
pu
of thermal metamorphism — contact meta-
morphism and regional metamorphism. In
contact metamorphism the rocks come in
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EXERCISES
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(a) Changeable (c) Crystalline
(b) Quite (d) Foliation
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(iii) Which one of the following is not a single element mineral?
(a) Gold (c) Mica
(b) Silver (d) Graphite
(iv) Which one of the following is the hardest mineral?
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(a) Topaz (c) Quartz
(b) Diamond (d) Feldspar
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(v) Which one of the following is not a sedimentary rock?
(a) Tillite (c) Breccia
2.
pu (b) Borax (d) Marble
Answer the following questions in about 30 words.
(i) What do you mean by rocks? Name the three major classes of rocks.
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(iv) What relationship explained by rock cycle between the major type of rock?
3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.
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(i) Define the term ‘mineral’ and name the major classes of minerals with
their physical characteristics.
(ii) Describe the nature and mode of origin of the chief types of rock at the
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Project Work
Collect different rock samples and try to recognise them from their physical
characteristics and identify their family.
CHAPTER
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES
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A
fter learning about how the earth was forces continuously elevate or build up parts
born, how it evolved its crust and other of the earth’s surface and hence the exogenic
inner layers, how its crustal plates processes fail to even out the relief variations
is
moved and are moving, and other information of the surface of the earth. So, variations remain
on earthquakes, the forms of volcanism and as long as the opposing actions of exogenic and
about the rocks and minerals the crust is endogenic forces continue. In general terms,
bl
composed of, it is time to know in detail about the endogenic forces are mainly land building
the surface of the earth on which we live. Let forces and the exogenic processes are mainly
us start with this question.
pu land wearing forces. The surface of the earth is
sensitive. Humans depend on it for their
Why is the surface of the earth uneven? sustenance and have been using it extensively
and intensively. So, it is essential to understand
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The earth’s crust is dynamic. You are well its nature in order to use it effectively without
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aware that it has moved and moves vertically disturbing its balance and diminishing its
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and horizontally. Of course, it moved a bit faster potential for the future. Almost all organisms
in the past than the rate at which it is moving contribute to sustain the earth’s environment.
now. The differences in the internal forces However, humans have caused extensive
tt E
operating from within the earth which built up damage to the environment through over use
the crust have been responsible for the of resources. Use we must, but must also leave
variations in the outer surface of the crust. The it potential enough to sustain life through the
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earth’s surface is being continuously subjected future. Most of the surface of the earth had and
to external forces induced basically by energy has been shaped over very long periods of time
(sunlight). Of course, the internal forces are still (hundreds and thousands of years) and
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active though with different intensities. That because of its use and misuse by humans its
means, the earth’s surface is being potential is being diminished at a fast rate. If
continuously subjected to by external forces the processes which shaped and are shaping
originating within the earth’s atmosphere and the surface of the earth into varieties of forms
©
by internal forces from within the earth. The (shapes) and the nature of materials of which
external forces are known as exogenic forces it is composed of, are understood, precautions
and the internal forces are known as endogenic can be taken to minimise the detrimental effects
forces. The actions of exogenic forces result in of human use and to preserve it for posterity.
wearing down (degradation) of relief/elevations
and filling up (aggradation) of basins/ GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES
depressions, on the earth’s surface. The You would like to know the meaning of
phenomenon of wearing down of relief geomorphic processes. The endogenic and
variations of the surface of the earth through exogenic forces causing physical stresses and
erosion is known as gradation. The endogenic chemical actions on earth materials and
46 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
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Any exogenic element of nature (like water, variations in geothermal gradients and heat flow
ice, wind, etc.,) capable of acquiring and from within, crustal thickness and strength,
he
transporting earth materials can be called a the action of endogenic forces are not uniform
geomorphic agent. When these elements of and hence the tectonically controlled original
nature become mobile due to gradients, they crustal surface is uneven.
remove the materials and transport them over
is
slopes and deposit them at lower level. Diastrophism
Geomorphic processes and geomorphic agents
All processes that move, elevate or build up
especially exogenic, unless stated separately,
portions of the earth’s crust come under
bl
are one and the same.
diastrophism. They include: (i) orogenic
A process is a force applied on earth
processes involving mountain building
materials affecting the same. An agent is a
pu through severe folding and affecting long and
mobile medium (like running water, moving ice narrow belts of the earth’s crust; (ii) epeirogenic
masses, wind, waves and currents etc.) which processes involving uplift or warping of large
removes, transports and deposits earth parts of the earth’s crust; (iii) earthquakes
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and deposition are possible. So, gravitational Epeirogeny and orogeny, cite the
stresses are as important as the other differences.
geomorphic processes. Gravity is the force that
is keeping us in contact with the surface and it
is the force that switches on the movement of Volcanism
all surface material on earth. All the movements Volcanism includes the movement of molten
either within the earth or on the surface of the rock (magma) onto or toward the earth’s
earth occur due to gradients — from higher surface and also formation of many intrusive
levels to lower levels, from high pressure to low and extrusive volcanic forms. Many aspects of
pressure areas etc. volcanism have already been dealt in detail
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES 47
under volcanoes in the Unit II and under processes and their respective driving forces.
igneous rocks in the preceding chapter in this It should become clear from this chart that for
unit. each process there exists a distinct driving force
or energy.
What do the words volcanism and As there are different climatic regions on
volcanoes indicate? the earth’s surface owing to thermal gradients
created by latitudinal, seasonal and land and
water spread variations, the exogenic
EXOGENIC PROCESSES
geomorphic processes vary from region to
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The exogenic processes derive their energy region. The density, type and distribution of
from atmosphere determined by the ultimate vegetation which largely depend upon
energy from the sun and also the gradients
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created by tectonic factors.
is
Gravitational force acts upon all earth
materials having a sloping surface and tend to
bl
produce movement of matter in down slope
direction. Force applied per unit area is called
stress. Stress is produced in a solid by pushing Figure 6.1 : Denudational processes and their
driving forces
pu
or pulling. This induces deformation. Forces
acting along the faces of earth materials are
shear stresses (separating forces). It is this
precipitation and temperature exert influence
indirectly on exogenic geomorphic processes.
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stress that breaks rocks and other earth Within different climatic regions there may be
materials. The shear stresses result in angular local variations of the effects of different climatic
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displacement or slippage. Besides the elements due to altitudinal differences, aspect
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gravitational stress earth materials become variations and the variation in the amount of
subjected to molecular stresses that may be insolation received by north and south facing
caused by a number of factors amongst which slopes as compared to east and west facing
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in topography. The effects of most of the
exogenic geomorphic processes are small and
slow and may be imperceptible in a short time
he
span, but will in the long run affect the rocks
severely due to continued fatigue.
Finally, it boils down to one fact that the
differences on the surface of the earth though Figure 6.2 : Climatic regimes and depth of weathering
mantles (adapted and modified from Strakhov, 1967)
is
originally related to the crustal evolution
continue to exist in some form or the other due
to differences in the type and structure of earth Activity
bl
materials, differences in geomorphic processes
and in their rates of operation. Mark the latitude values of different
Some of the exogenic geomorphic processes climatic regimes in Figure 6.2 and
compare the details.
pu
have been dealt in detail here.
Weathering is action of elements of weather and processes : (i) chemical; (ii) physical or
mechanical; (iii) biological weathering processes.
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climate over earth materials. There are a
Very rarely does any one of these processes ever
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fragmental state.
Chemical Weathering Processes
Weathering is defined as mechanical A group of weathering processes viz; solution,
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called solution. This process involves removal Many clay minerals swell and contract during
of solids in solution and depends upon wetting and drying and a repetition of this
solubility of a mineral in water or weak acids. process results in cracking of overlying
On coming in contact with water many solids materials. Salts in pore spaces undergo rapid
and repeated hydration and help in rock
disintegrate and mix up as suspension in
fracturing. The volume changes in minerals
water. Soluble rock forming minerals like
due to hydration will also help in physical
nitrates, sulphates, and potassium etc. are weathering through exfoliation and granular
affected by this process. So, these minerals are disintegration.
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easily leached out without leaving any residue
in rainy climates and accumulate in dry Oxidation and Reduction
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regions. Minerals like calcium carbonate and In weathering, oxidation means a combination
calcium magnesium bicarbonate present in of a mineral with oxygen to form oxides or
limestones are soluble in water containing hydroxides. Oxidation occurs where there is
carbonic acid (formed with the addition of ready access to the atmosphere and
is
carbon dioxide in water), and are carried away oxygenated waters. The minerals most
in water as solution. Carbon dioxide produced commonly involved in this process are iron,
by decaying organic matter along with soil manganese, sulphur etc. In the process of
bl
water greatly aids in this reaction. Common oxidation rock breakdown occurs due to the
salt (sodium chloride) is also a rock forming disturbance caused by addition of oxygen. Red
colour of iron upon oxidation turns to brown
mineral and is susceptible to this process of
pu or yellow. When oxidised minerals are placed
solution.
in an environment where oxygen is absent,
reduction takes place. Such conditions exist
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Carbonation
usually below the water table, in areas of
Carbonation is the reaction of carbonate and stagnant water and waterlogged ground. Red
re
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bicarbonate with minerals and is a common colour of iron upon reduction turns to greenish
process helping the breaking down of or bluish grey.
These weathering processes are inter-
feldspars and carbonate minerals. Carbon
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drying cycles. Many of these forces are applied temperatures, this internal movement among
both at the surface and within different earth the mineral grains of the superficial layers of
materials leading to rock fracture. Most of the rocks takes place regularly. This process is
physical weathering processes are caused by most effective in dry climates and high
thermal expansion and pressure release. These elevations where diurnal temperature changes
processes are small and slow but can cause are drastic. As has been mentioned earlier
great damage to the rocks because of though these movements are very small they
continued fatigue the rocks suffer due to make the rocks weak due to continued fatigue.
repetition of contraction and expansion. The surface layers of the rocks tend to expand
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more than the rock at depth and this leads to
Unloading and Expansion the formation of stress within the rock resulting
he
in heaving and fracturing parallel to the
Removal of overlying rock load because of
surface. Due to differential heating and
continued erosion causes vertical pressure
resulting expansion and contraction of surface
release with the result that the upper layers of
layers and their subsequent exfoliation from
the rock expand producing disintegration of
is
the surface results in smooth rounded surfaces
rock masses. Fractures will develop roughly
in rocks. In rocks like granites, smooth
parallel to the ground surface. In areas of
surfaced and rounded small to big boulders
bl
curved ground surface, arched fractures tend
called tors form due to such exfoliation.
to produce massive sheets or exfoliation slabs
of rock. Exfoliation sheets resulting from
pu What is the difference between exfoliation
expansion due to unloading and pressure domes and exfoliated tors?
release may measure hundreds or even
thousands of metres in horizontal extent. Large,
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smooth rounded domes called exfoliation Freezing, Thawing and Frost Wedging
domes (Figure 6.3) result due to this process.
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Frost weathering occurs due to growth of ice
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gypsum crystals in desert areas heave up
overlying layers of materials and with the result
he
polygonal cracks develop all over the heaved
surface. With salt crystal growth, chalk breaks Fig.6.4 : Exfoliation (Flacking) and granular
down most readily, followed by limestone, disintegration
sandstone, shale, gneiss and granite etc. temperature changes. Exfoliation domes and
is
tors result due to unloading and thermal
BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY AND WEATHERING expansion respectively.
Biological weathering is contribution to or
bl
removal of minerals and ions from the SIGNIFICANCE OF WEATHERING
weathering environment and physical changes Weathering processes are responsible for
due to growth or movement of organisms.
pu breaking down the rocks into smaller
Burrowing and wedging by organisms like fragments and preparing the way for formation
earthworms, termites, rodents etc., help in of not only regolith and soils, but also erosion
exposing the new surfaces to chemical attack and mass movements. Biomes and bio-
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and assists in the penetration of moisture and diversity is basically a result of forests
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air. Human beings by disturbing vegetation, (vegetation) and forests depend upon the depth
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ploughing and cultivating soils, also help in of weathering mantles. Erosion cannot be
mixing and creating new contacts between air, significant if the rocks are not weathered. That
water and minerals in the earth materials. means, weathering aids mass wasting, erosion
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Decaying plant and animal matter help in the and reduction of relief and changes in
production of humic, carbonic and other acids landforms are a consequence of erosion.
which enhance decay and solubility of some Weathering of rocks and deposits helps in the
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This has already been explained under materials are removed through chemical
physical weathering processes of unloading, or physical leaching by groundwater and
thermal contraction and expansion and salt thereby the concentration of remaining
weathering. Exfoliation is a result but not a (valuable) materials increases. Without
process. Flaking off of more or less curved such a weathering taking place, the
sheets of shells from over rocks or bedrock concentration of the same valuable
results in smooth and rounded surfaces material may not be sufficient and
(Figures 6.3; 6.4). Exfoliation can occur due economically viable to exploit, process and
to expansion and contraction induced by refine. This is what is called enrichment.
52 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
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affecting shallow to deep columns of materials
and include creep, flow, slide and fall. Gravity
exerts its force on all matter, both bedrock and
he
the products of weathering. So, weathering is
not a pre-requisite for mass movement though
it aids mass movements. Mass movements are
very active over weathered slopes rather than
is
over unweathered materials.
Mass movements are aided by gravity and
no geomorphic agent like running water,
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glaciers, wind, waves and currents participate
in the process of mass movements. That means Figure 6.5 : Relationships among different types of
mass movements, their relative rates of movement
mass movements do not come under erosion
pu and moisture limits (after Whitehead, 2001)
though there is a shift (aided by gravity) of
materials from one place to another. Materials Mass movements can be grouped under
over the slopes have their own resistance to two major classes: (i) slow movements;
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disturbing forces and will yield only when force (ii) rapid movements.
is greater than the shearing resistance of the
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Slow Movements
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precipitation and torrential rains and scarcity slopes. Movement of materials is extremely
of vegetation etc., favour mass movements. slow and imperceptible except through
Several activating causes precede mass extended observation. Materials involved can
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movements. They are : (i) removal of support be soil or rock debris. Have you ever seen fence
from below to materials above through natural posts, telephone poles lean downslope from
or artificial means; (ii) increase in gradient and their vertical position and in their linear
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height of slopes; (iii) overloading through alignment? If you have, that is due to the creep
addition of materials naturally or by artificial effect. Depending upon the type of material
involved, several types of creep viz., soil creep,
filling; (iv) overloading due to heavy rainfall,
talus creep, rock creep, rock-glacier creep etc.,
saturation and lubrication of slope materials;
©
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When slopes are steeper, even the bedrock
especially of soft sedimentary rocks like shale
he
or deeply weathered igneous rock may slide
downslope.
Another type in this category is mudflow.
In the absence of vegetation cover and with
is
heavy rainfall, thick layers of weathered
materials get saturated with water and either
slowly or rapidly flow down along definite
bl
channels. It looks like a stream of mud within
a valley. When the mudflows emerge out of
Figure 6.6 : Slumping of debris with backward rotation
channels onto the piedmont or plains, they can
pu
be very destructive engulfing roads, bridges
of earth debris without backward rotation of
and houses. Mudflows occur frequently on the
mass is known as debris slide. Debris fall is
slopes of erupting or recently erupted volcanoes.
nearly a free fall of earth debris from a vertical
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Landslides
These are relatively rapid and perceptible
movements. The materials involved are
relatively dry. The size and shape of the Figure 6.7 : Landslide scars in Shiwalik Himalayan ranges
detached mass depends on the nature of near river Sarada at India-Nepal border, Uttar Pradesh
54 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
face, an occurrence that distinguishes it from erosion it is not a pre-condition for erosion to
rockslide which affects materials up to a take place. Weathering, mass-wasting and
substantial depth. erosion are degradational processes. It is
erosion that is largely responsible for
Between mass wasting and mass continuous changes that the earth’s surface is
movements, which term do you feel is undergoing. As indicated in Figure 6.1,
most appropriate? Why? Can solifluction denudational processes like erosion and
be included under rapid flow movements? transportation are controlled by kinetic energy.
Why it can be and can’t be? The erosion and transportation of earth
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materials is brought about by wind, running
water, glaciers, waves and ground water. Of
In our country, debris avalanches and
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these the first three agents are controlled by
landslides occur very frequently in the
climatic conditions. They represent three states
Himalayas. There are many reasons for
this. One, the Himalayas are tectonically
of matter —gaseous (wind), liquid (running
active. They are mostly made up of water) and solid (glacier) respectively.
is
sedimentary rocks and unconsolidated
and semi-consolidated deposits. The Can you compare the three climatically
slopes are very steep. Compared to the controlled agents?
Himalayas, the Nilgiris bordering
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Tamilnadu, Karnataka, Kerala and the The erosion can be defined as “application
Western Ghats along the west coast are of the kinetic energy associated with the agent
relatively tectonically stable and are
pu to the surface of the land along which it moves”.
mostly made up of very hard rocks; but,
Kinetic energy is computed as KE = 1/2 mv2
still, debris avalanches and landslides
occur though not as frequently as in the
where ‘m’ is the mass and ‘v’ is the velocity.
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Himalayas, in these hills. Why? Many Hence the energy available to perform work will
slopes are steeper with almost vertical depend on the mass of the material and the
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cliffs and escarpments in the Western velocity with which it is moving. Obviously then
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Ghats and Nilgiris. Mechanical weathering you will find that though the glaciers move at
due to temperature changes and ranges very low velocities due to tremendous mass are
is pronounced. They receive heavy more effective as the agents of erosion and wind,
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amounts of rainfall over short periods. being in gaseous state, is less effective.
So, there is almost direct rock fall quite The work of the other two agents of erosion-
frequently in these places along with
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smaller fragments through weathering and soluble and water is available only then karst
any other process, erosional geomorphic topography develops. In the next chapter we
agents like running water, groundwater, shall be dealing with the landforms produced
glaciers, wind and waves remove and by each of these agents of erosion.
transport it to other places depending upon Deposition is a consequence of erosion. The
the dynamics of each of these agents. Abrasion erosional agents loose their velocity and hence
by rock debris carried by these geomorphic energy on gentler slopes and the materials
agents also aids greatly in erosion. By erosion, carried by them start to settle themselves. In
relief degrades, i.e., the landscape is worn other words, deposition is not actually the work
down. That means, though weathering aids of any agent. The coarser materials get
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES 55
deposited first and finer ones later. By of the weathered material) which is the basic
deposition depressions get filled up. The same input for soil to form. First, the weathered
erosional agents viz., running water, glaciers, material or transported deposits are colonised
wind, waves and groundwater act as by bacteria and other inferior plant bodies like
aggradational or depositional agents also. mosses and lichens. Also, several minor
What happens to the surface of the earth organisms may take shelter within the mantle
due to erosion and deposition is elaborated in and deposits. The dead remains of organisms
the next chapter on landforms and their and plants help in humus accumulation. Minor
evolution. grasses and ferns may grow; later, bushes and
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trees will start growing through seeds brought
There is a shift of materials in mass in by birds and wind. Plant roots penetrate
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movements as well as in erosion from one down, burrowing animals bring up particles,
place to the other. So, why can’t both be mass of material becomes porous and sponge-
treated as one and the same? Can there
like with a capacity to retain water and to permit
be appreciable erosion without rocks
the passage of air and finally a mature soil, a
undergoing weathering?
complex mixture of mineral and organic
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products forms.
SOIL FORMATION
Is weathering solely responsible for soil
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Soil and Soil Contents formation? If not, why?
and supporting or capable of supporting plants. Five basic factors control the formation of soils:
Soil is a dynamic medium in which many (i) parent material; (ii) topography; (iii) climate;
chemical, physical and biological activities go (iv) biological activity; (v) time. In fact soil
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on constantly. Soil is a result of decay, it is also forming factors act in union and affect the
the medium for growth. It is a changing and action of one another.
developing body. It has many characteristics
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soil becomes too cold or too dry. Organic matter soil formation. Parent materials can be any in-
increases when leaves fall or grasses die. The situ or on-site weathered rock debris (residual
soil chemistry, the amount of organic matter, soils) or transported deposits (transported
the soil flora and fauna, the temperature and soils). Soil formation depends upon the texture
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the moisture, all change with the seasons as (sizes of debris) and structure (disposition of
well as with more extended periods of time. individual grains/particles of debris) as well
That means, soil becomes adjusted to as the mineral and chemical composition of the
conditions of climate, landform and vegetation rock debris/deposits.
and will change internally when these Nature and rate of weathering and depth of
controlling conditions change. weathering mantle are important considerations
under parent materials. There may be
Process of Soil Formation differences in soil over similar bedrock and
dissimilar bedrocks may have similar soils
Soil formation or pedogenesis depends first on above them. But when soils are very young
weathering. It is this weathering mantle (depth and have not matured these show strong links
56 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
with the type of parent rock. Also, in case of climates and in areas with intermediate
some limestone areas, where the weathering precipitation conditions, calcium carbonate
processes are specific and peculiar, soils will nodules (kanker) are formed.
show clear relation with the parent rock. Temperature acts in two ways — increasing
or reducing chemical and biological activity.
Topography Chemical activity is increased in higher
Topography like parent materials is another temperatures, reduced in cooler temperatures
passive control factor. The influence of (with an exception of carbonation) and stops
topography is felt through the amount of in freezing conditions. That is why, tropical soils
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exposure of a surface covered by parent with higher temperatures show deeper profiles
materials to sunlight and the amount of and in the frozen tundra regions soils contain
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surface and sub-surface drainage over and largely mechanically broken materials.
through the parent materials. Soils will be thin Biological Activity
on steep slopes and thick over flat upland
areas. Over gentle slopes where erosion is slow The vegetative cover and organisms that occupy
and percolation of water is good, soil formation the parent materials from the beginning and also
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is very favourable. Soils over flat areas may at later stages help in adding organic matter,
develop a thick layer of clay with good moisture retention, nitrogen etc. Dead plants
accumulation of organic matter giving the soil provide humus, the finely divided organic matter
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dark colour. In middle latitudes, the south of the soil. Some organic acids which form
facing slopes exposed to sunlight have different during humification aid in decomposing the
conditions of vegetation and soils and the north
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facing slopes with cool, moist conditions have Intensity of bacterial activity shows up
some other soils and vegetation. differences between soils of cold and warm
climates. Humus accumulates in cold climates
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formation. The climatic elements involved in soil layers of peat develop in sub-arctic and tundra
development are : (i) moisture in terms of its climates. In humid tropical and equatorial
intensity, frequency and duration of climates, bacterial growth and action is intense
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precipitation - evaporation and humidity; and dead vegetation is rapidly oxidised leaving
(ii) temperature in terms of seasonal and very low humus content in the soil. Further,
diurnal variations. bacteria and other soil organisms take gaseous
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Precipitation gives soil its moisture content nitrogen from the air and convert it into a
which makes the chemical and biological chemical form that can be used by plants. This
activities possible. Excess of water helps in the process is known as nitrogen fixation.
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downward transportation of soil components Rhizobium, a type of bacteria, lives in the root
through the soil (eluviation) and deposits the nodules of leguminous plants and fixes nitrogen
same down below (illuviation). In climates like beneficial to the host plant. The influence of large
wet equatorial rainy areas with high rainfall, animals like ants, termites, earthworms, rodents
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EXERCISES
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1. Multiple choice questions.
(i) Which one of the following processes is a gradational process?
(a) Deposition (c) Volcanism
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(b) Diastrophism (d) Erosion
(ii) Which one of the following materials is affected by hydration process?
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(a) Granite (c) Quartz
(b) Clay (d) Salts
pu (iii) Debris avalanche can be included in the category of:
(a) Landslides (c) Rapid flow mass movements
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(iii) What are the various mobile and mighty exogenic geomorphic agents and
what is the prime job they perform?
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(i) “Our earth is a playfield for two opposing groups of geomorphic processes.”
Discuss.
(ii) Exogenic geomorphic processes derive their ultimate energy from the sun’s
heat. Explain.
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Project Work
Depending upon the topography and materials around you, observe and record
climate, possible weathering process and soil contents and characteristics.
CHAPTER
d
he
A
fter weathering processes have had a part of the earth’s surface from one landform
their actions on the earth materials into another or transformation of individual
making up the surface of the earth, the landforms after they are once formed. That
is
geomorphic agents like running water, ground means, each and every landform has a history
water, wind, glaciers, waves perform erosion. of development and changes through time. A
It is already known to you that erosion causes landmass passes through stages of
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changes on the surface of the earth. Deposition development somewhat comparable to the
follows erosion and because of deposition too, stages of life — youth, mature and old age.
changes occur on the surface of the earth.
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As this chapter deals with landforms and
their evolution ‘first’ start with the question,
What are the two important aspects of
the evolution of landforms?
what is a landform? In simple words, small to
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medium tracts or parcels of the earth’s surface The evolutionary history of the continually
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are called landforms. changing surface of the earth is essential to be
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up landscapes, (large tracts of earth’s surface). and the processes that shape it.
Each landform has its own physical shape, size, Changes on the surface of the earth owe
materials and is a result of the action of certain mostly to erosion by various geomorphic
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geomorphic processes and agent(s). Actions agents. Of course, the process of deposition too,
of most of the geomorphic processes and by covering the land surfaces and filling the
agents are slow, and hence the results take a basins, valleys or depressions, brings changes
long time to take shape. Every landform has a in the surface of the land. Deposition follows
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beginning. Landforms once formed may erosion and the depositional surfaces too are
change in their shape, size and nature slowly ultimately subjected to erosion. Running water,
or fast due to continued action of geomorphic ground-water, glaciers, wind and waves are
processes and agents. powerful erosional and depositional agents
Due to changes in climatic conditions and shaping and changing the surface of the earth
vertical or horizontal movements of land- aided by weathering and mass wasting
masses, either the intensity of processes or the processes. These geomorphic agents acting
processes themselves might change leading to over long periods of time produce systematic
new modifications in the landforms. Evolution changes leading to sequential development of
here implies stages of transformation of either landforms. Each geomorphic agent produces
LANDFORMS AND THEIR EVOLUTION 59
its own assemblage of landforms. Not only this, is linear flow as streams and rivers in valleys.
each geomorphic process and agent leave their Most of the erosional landforms made by
distinct imprints on the landforms they running water are associated with vigorous and
produce. You know that most of the youthful rivers flowing over steep gradients.
geomorphic processes are imperceptible With time, stream channels over steep gradients
functions and can only be seen and measured turn gentler due to continued erosion, and as a
through their results. What are the results? consequence, lose their velocity, facilitating
These results are nothing but landforms and active deposition. There may be depositional
their characteristics. Hence, a study of forms associated with streams flowing over steep
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landforms, will reveal to us the process and slopes. But these phenomena will be on a small
agent which has made or has been making scale compared to those associated with rivers
flowing over medium to gentle slopes. The
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those landforms.
gentler the river channels in gradient or slope,
Most of the geomorphic processes are the greater is the deposition. When the stream
imperceptible. Cite a few processes which beds turn gentler due to continued erosion,
can be seen and a few which can’t be downward cutting becomes less dominant and
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seen. lateral erosion of banks increases and as a
consequence the hills and valleys are reduced
As the geomorphic agents are capable of to plains.
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erosion and deposition, two sets — erosional
or destructional and depositional or Is complete reduction of relief of a high
constructional — of landforms are produced
pu land mass possible?
by them. Many varieties of landforms develop
by the action of each of the geomorphic agents Overland flow causes sheet erosion.
depending upon especially the type and Depending upon irregularities of the land
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structure i.e. folds, faults, joints, fractures, surface, the overland flow may concentrate into
hardness and softness, permeability and narrow to wide paths. Because of the sheer
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friction of the column of flowing water, minor
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systematic and sequential stages in the deepen, widen, lengthen and unite to give rise
development and evolution of landforms. to a network of valleys. In the early stages,
In the following pages, under each of the down-cutting dominates during which
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geomorphic regimes i.e. running water, irregularities such as waterfalls and cascades
groundwater, glaciers, waves, and winds, first a will be removed. In the middle stages, streams
brief discussion is presented as to how cut their beds slower, and lateral erosion of
landmasses are reduced in their relief through valley sides becomes severe. Gradually, the
valley sides are reduced to lower and lower
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Youth
Streams are few during this stage with poor
integration and flow over original slopes
showing shallow V-shaped valleys with no
floodplains or with very narrow floodplains
along trunk streams. Streams divides are broad
and flat with marshes, swamp and lakes.
Meanders if present develop over these broad
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upland surfaces. These meanders may
eventually entrench themselves into the
uplands. Waterfalls and rapids may exist where
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local hard rock bodies are exposed.
Mature
During this stage streams are plenty with good
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integration. The valleys are still V-shaped but
deep; trunk streams are broad enough to have
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wider floodplains within which streams may
flow in meanders confined within the valley.
The flat and broad inter stream areas and
swamps and marshes of youth disappear and
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the stream divides turn sharp. Waterfalls and
rapids disappear.
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Old
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Smaller tributaries during old age are few with Figure 7.1 : The Valley of Kaveri river near Hogenekal,
gentle gradients. Streams meander freely over Dharmapuri district, Tamilnadu in the form of gorge
vast floodplains showing natural levees, oxbow
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EROSIONAL LANDFORMS
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Valleys
Valleys start as small and narrow rills; the rills
will gradually develop into long and wide
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depressions eventually join and the stream heights indicating former river bed levels. The
valley gets deepened. At the foot of waterfalls river terraces may occur at the same elevation
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also, large potholes, quite deep and wide, form on either side of the rivers in which case they
because of the sheer impact of water and are called paired terraces (Figure 7.3).
rotation of boulders. Such large and deep holes
at the base of waterfalls are called plunge pools.
These pools also help in the deepening of valleys.
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Waterfalls are also transitory like any other
landform and will recede gradually and bring
the floor of the valley above waterfalls to the
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level below.
the bottom of the stream channel. Also, in the Figure 7.3 : Paired and unpaired river terraces
case of steep gradient streams, lateral erosion
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on the sides of the valleys is not much when
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compared to the streams flowing on low and When a terrace is present only on one side
gentle slopes. Because of active lateral erosion, of the stream and with none on the other side
streams flowing over gentle slopes, develop or one at quite a different elevation on the other
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sinuous or meandering courses. It is common side, the terraces are called unpaired terraces.
to find meandering courses over floodplains Unpaired terraces are typical in areas of slow
and delta plains where stream gradients are uplift of land or where the water column
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very gentle. But very deep and wide meanders changes are not uniform along both the banks.
can also be found cut in hard rocks. Such The terraces may result due to (i) receding water
meanders are called incised or entrenched after a peak flow; (ii) change in hydrological
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meanders (Figure 7.2). Meander loops develop regime due to climatic changes; (iii) tectonic
over original gentle surfaces in the initial stages uplift of land; (iv) sea level changes in case of
of development of streams and the same loops rivers closer to the sea.
get entrenched into the rocks normally due to
©
gradients and gets dumped and spread as a as a low cone. Unlike in alluvial fans, the
broad low to high cone shaped deposit called deposits making up deltas are very well sorted
alluvial fan. Usually, the streams which flow with clear stratification. The coarsest materials
over fans are not confined to their original settle out first and the finer fractions like silts
channels for long and shift their position across and clays are carried out into the sea. As the
the fan forming many channels called delta grows, the river distributaries continue
distributaries. Alluvial fans in humid areas to increase in length (Figure 7.5) and delta
show normally low cones with gentle slope from continues to build up into the sea.
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Floodplains, Natural Levees and Point Bars
Deposition develops a floodplain just as
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erosion makes valleys. Floodplain is a major
landform of river deposition. Large sized
materials are deposited first when stream
channel breaks into a gentle slope. Thus,
normally, fine sized materials like sand, silt and
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clay are carried by relatively slow moving
waters in gentler channels usually found in the
plains and deposited over the bed and when
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the waters spill over the banks during flooding
Figure 7.4 : An alluvial fan deposited by a hill stream above the bed. A river bed made of river
on the way to Amarnath, Jammu and Kashmir
pu deposits is the active floodplain. The floodplain
above the bank is inactive floodplain. Inactive
head to toe and they appear as high cones with
floodplain above the banks basically contain
steep slope in arid and semi-arid climates.
two types of deposits — flood deposits and
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Deltas are like alluvial fans but develop at a leaving cut-off courses which get filled up
different location. The load carried by the rivers gradually. Such areas over flood plains built
is dumped and spread into the sea. If this load up by abandoned or cut-off channels contain
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is not carried away far into the sea or distributed coarse deposits. The flood deposits of spilled
along the coast, it spreads and accumulates waters carry relatively finer materials like silt
and clay. The flood plains in a delta are called
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delta plains.
Natural levees and point bars (Figure 7.6)
are some of the important landforms found
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water deflecting it like it deflects the wind. When
the gradient of the channel becomes extremely
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low, water flows leisurely and starts working
Figure 7.6 : Natural levee and point bars
laterally. Slight irregularities along the banks
slowly get transformed into a small curvature
Point bars are also known as meander bars. in the banks; the curvature deepens due to
They are found on the convex side of meanders deposition on the inside of the curve and
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of large rivers and are sediments deposited in
erosion along the bank on the outside. If there
a linear fashion by flowing waters along the
is no deposition and no erosion or undercutting,
bank. They are almost uniform in profile and in
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width and contain mixed sizes of sediments. If the tendency to meander is reduced. Normally,
there more than one ridge, narrow and elongated in meanders of large rivers, there is active
depressions are found in between the point bars.
pu deposition along the convex bank and
Rivers build a series of them depending upon undercutting along the concave bank.
the water flow and supply of sediment. As the
rivers build the point bars on the convex side,
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point bars?
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Meanders
In large flood and delta plains, rivers rarely flow
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The concave bank is known as cut-off bank is more in the valley, channel bars and islands
which shows up as a steep scarp and the of sand, gravel and pebbles develop on the floor
convex bank presents a long, gentle profile and of the channel and the water flow is divided
is known as slip-off bank (Figure 7.8). As into multiple threads. These thread-like streams
meanders grow into deep loops, the same may of water rejoin and subdivide repeatedly to give
get cut-off due to erosion at the inflection points a typical braided pattern (Figure 7.9).
and are left as ox-bow lakes.
Braided Channels
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When rivers carry coarse material, there can be
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selective deposition of coarser materials causing
formation of a central bar which diverts the flow
towards the banks; and this flow increases
lateral erosion on the banks. As the valley
widens, the water column is reduced and more
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and more materials get deposited as islands
and lateral bars developing a number of
separate channels of water flow. Deposition
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and lateral erosion of banks are essential for Figure 7.9 : Satellite scenes showing braided channel
the formation of braided pattern. Or, segments of Gandak (right) and Son (left) rivers
alternatively, when discharge is less and load
pu Arrows show the direction of flow
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C
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sometimes used to refer the collapse sinks.
through the bedding planes, joints or through Solution sinks are more common than collapse
the materials themselves. It is this downward sinks. Quite often the surface run-off simply
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and horizontal movement of water which goes down swallow and sink holes and flow as
causes the rocks to erode. Physical or underground streams and re-emerge at a
mechanical removal of materials by moving distance downstream through a cave opening.
groundwater is insignificant in developing When sink holes and dolines join together
landforms. That is why, the results of the work because of slumping of materials along their
is
of groundwater cannot be seen in all types of margins or due to roof collapse of caves, long,
rocks. But in rocks like limestones or dolomites narrow to wide trenches called valley sinks or
rich in calcium carbonate, the surface water Uvalas form. Gradually, most of the surface of
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as well as groundwater through the chemical the limestone is eaten away by these pits and
process of solution and precipitation trenches, leaving it extremely irregular with a
deposition develop varieties of landforms. These
pu maze of points, grooves and ridges or lapies.
two processes of solution and precipitation are Especially, these ridges or lapies form due to
active in limestones or dolomites occurring differential solution activity along parallel to
either exclusively or interbedded with other sub-parallel joints. The lapie field may
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rocks. Any limestone or dolomitic region eventually turn into somewhat smooth
showing typical landforms produced by the limestone pavements.
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action of groundwater through the processes
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in the Balkans adjacent to Adriatic sea. rocks (shales, sandstones, quartzites) with
The karst topography is also characterised limestones or dolomites in between or in areas
where limestones are dense, massive and
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diameters. Normally they are broad at their
bases and taper towards the free ends showing
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up in a variety of forms. Stalagmites rise up
from the floor of the caves. In fact, stalagmites
form due to dripping water from the surface or
through the thin pipe, of the stalactite,
immediately below it (Figure 7.11).
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Figure 7.12 : A glacier in its valley
pu is slow unlike water flow. The movement could
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As glaciers continue to move, debris gets the glacier disappears. Such lakes are called
removed, divides get lowered and eventually cirque or tarn lakes. There can be two or more
the slope is reduced to such an extent that cirques one leading into another down below
glaciers will stop moving leaving only a mass in a stepped sequence.
of low hills and vast outwash plains along with
other depositional features. Figures 7.13 and Horns and Serrated Ridges
7.14 show various glacial erosional and Horns form through head ward erosion of the
depositional forms described in the text. cirque walls. If three or more radiating glaciers
cut headward until their cirques meet, high,
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EROSIONAL LANDFORMS sharp pointed and steep sided peaks called
horns form. The divides between cirque side
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Cirque walls or head walls get narrow because of
Cirques are the most common of landforms in progressive erosion and turn into serrated or
glaciated mountains. The cirques quite often saw-toothed ridges sometimes referred to as
are found at the heads of glacial valleys. The arêtes with very sharp crest and a zig-zag
is
accumulated ice cuts these cirques while outline.
moving down the mountain tops. They are
deep, long and wide troughs or basins with The highest peak in the Alps, Matterhorn
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and the highest peak in the Himalayas,
very steep concave to vertically dropping high
Everest are in fact horns formed through
walls at its head as well as sides. A lake of water
headward erosion of radiating cirques.
can be seen quite often within the cirques after
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re
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Figure 7.13 : Some glacial erosional and depositional forms (adapted and modified from Spencer, 1962)
68 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
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in glaciated areas.
glacial valley. The faces of divides or spurs of
such hanging valleys opening into main glacial
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Moraines
valleys are quite often truncated to give them
an appearance like triangular facets. Very deep They are long ridges of deposits of glacial till.
glacial troughs filled with sea water and Terminal moraines are long ridges of debris
making up shorelines (in high latitudes) are deposited at the end (toe) of the glaciers. Lateral
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called fjords/fiords. moraines form along the sides parallel to the
glacial valleys. The lateral moraines may join a
What are the basic differences between terminal moraine forming a horse-shoe shaped
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glacial valleys and river valleys? ridge (Fig. 7.13). There can be many lateral
moraines on either side in a glacial valley. These
moraines partly or fully owe their origin to glacio-
Depositional Landforms
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The unassorted coarse and fine debris dropped
fluvial waters pushing up materials to the sides
of glaciers. Many valley glaciers retreating
by the melting glaciers is called glacial till. Most rapidly leave an irregular sheet of till over their
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of the rock fragments in till are angular to sub- valley floors. Such deposits varying greatly in
angular in form. Streams form by melting ice thickness and in surface topography are called
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ground moraines. The moraine in the centre of the
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Figure 7.14 : A panoramic diagram of glacial landscape with various depositional landforms
(adapted and modified from Spencer, 1962)
LANDFORMS AND THEIR EVOLUTION 69
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on the surface of the ice or seeps down along processes and forms?
the margins or even moves through holes in Some of the changes along the coasts take
the ice. These waters accumulate beneath the
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place very fast. At one place, there can be
glacier and flow like streams in a channel erosion in one season and deposition in
beneath the ice. Such streams flow over the another. Most of the changes along the coasts
ground (not in a valley cut in the ground) with are accomplished by waves. When waves break,
ice forming its banks. Very coarse materials like the water is thrown with great force onto the
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boulders and blocks along with some minor shore, and simultaneously, there is a great
fractions of rock debris carried into this stream churning of sediments on the sea bottom.
settle in the valley of ice beneath the glacier Constant impact of breaking waves drastically
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and after the ice melts can be found as a affects the coasts. Storm waves and tsunami
sinuous ridge called esker. waves can cause far-reaching changes in a
pu short period of time than normal breaking
Outwash Plains waves. As wave environment changes, the
intensity of the force of breaking waves changes.
The plains at the foot of the glacial mountains
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or beyond the limits of continental ice sheets Do you know about the generating forces
are covered with glacio-fluvial deposits in the behind waves and currents? If not, refer
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form of broad flat alluvial fans which may join
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Drumlins are smooth oval shaped ridge-like to explain the concept of evolution of coastal
features composed mainly of glacial till with landforms: (i) high, rocky coasts (submerged
some masses of gravel and sand. The long axes coasts); (ii) low, smooth and gently sloping
of drumlins are parallel to the direction of ice sedimentary coasts (emerged coasts).
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Along high rocky coasts, waves break with Storm and tsunami waves cause drastic
great force against the land shaping the hill changes irrespective of supply of sediments.
sides into cliffs. With constant pounding by Large rivers which bring lots of sediments build
waves, the cliffs recede leaving a wave-cut deltas along low sedimentary coasts.
platform in front of the sea cliff. Waves
gradually minimise the irregularities along the The west coast of our country is a high
shore. rocky retreating coast. Erosional forms
The materials which fall off, and removed dominate in the west coast. The east
from the sea cliffs, gradually break into smaller coast of India is a low sedimentary coast.
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fragments and roll to roundness, will get Depositional forms dominate in the east
deposited in the offshore. After a considerable coast.
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period of cliff development and retreat when
coastline turns somewhat smooth, with the
addition of some more material to this deposit What are the various differences between
in the offshore, a wave-built terrace would a high rocky coast and a low sedimentary
coast in terms of processes and
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develop in front of wave-cut terrace. As the
erosion along the coast takes place a good landforms?
supply material becomes available to longshore
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currents and waves to deposit them as beaches EROSIONAL LANDFORMS
along the shore and as bars (long ridges of sand
and/or shingle parallel to the coast) in the
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nearshore zone. Bars are submerged features
and when bars show up above water, they are Wave-cut cliffs and terraces are two forms
called barrier bars. Barrier bar which get keyed usually found where erosion is the dominant
shore process. Almost all sea cliffs are steep
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lagoons would gradually get filled up by flat or gently sloping platform covered by rock
sediments from the land giving rise to a coastal debris derived from the sea cliff behind. Such
plain. platforms occurring at elevations above the
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Along low sedimentary coasts the rivers appear smashed against the cliff along with lashing
to extend their length by building coastal waves create hollows and these hollows get
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plains and deltas. The coastline appears widened and deepened to form sea caves. The
smooth with occasional incursions of water in roofs of caves collapse and the sea cliffs recede
the form of lagoons and tidal creeks. The land further inland. Retreat of the cliff may leave
slopes gently into the water. Marshes and some remnants of rock standing isolated as
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swamps may abound along the coasts. small islands just off the shore. Such resistant
Depositional features dominate. masses of rock, originally parts of a cliff or hill
When waves break over a gently sloping are called sea stacks. Like all other features,
sedimentary coast, the bottom sediments get sea stacks are also temporary and eventually
churned and move readily building bars, coastal hills and cliffs will disappear because
barrier bars, spits and lagoons. Lagoons of wave erosion giving rise to narrow coastal
would eventually turn into a swamp which plains, and with onrush of deposits from over
would subsequently turn into a coastal plain. the land behind may get covered up by
The maintenance of these depositional features alluvium or may get covered up by shingle or
depends upon the steady supply of materials. sand to form a wide beach.
LANDFORMS AND THEIR EVOLUTION 71
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from wave erosion. Beaches are temporary
features. The sandy beach which appears so Do you know, the coastal off-shore bars
permanent may be reduced to a very narrow
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offer the first buffer or defence against
strip of coarse pebbles in some other season. storm or tsunami by absorbing most of
Most of the beaches are made up of sand sized their destructive force. Then come the
materials. Beaches called shingle beaches barriers, beaches, beach dunes and
contain excessively small pebbles and even mangroves, if any, to absorb the
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cobbles. destructive force of storm and tsunami
Just behind the beach, the sands lifted and waves. So, if we do anything which
winnowed from over the beach surfaces will be disturbs the ‘sediment budget’ and the
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deposited as sand dunes. Sand dunes forming mangroves along the coast, these coastal
long ridges parallel to the coastline are very forms will get eroded away leaving human
common along low sedimentary coasts.
pu habitations to bear first strike of storm
and tsunami waves.
Bars, Barriers and Spits
WINDS
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formation to mass wasting and running water deposition of sediment from basin margins, a
as sheet floods. Though rain is scarce in deserts, nearly level plain forms at the centre of the
it comes down torrentially in a short period of basin. In times of sufficient water, this plain is
time. The desert rocks devoid of vegetation, covered up by a shallow water body. Such
exposed to mechanical and chemical types of shallow lakes are called as playas
weathering processes due to drastic diurnal where water is retained only for short duration
temperature changes, decay faster and the due to evaporation and quite often the playas
torrential rains help in removing the weathered contain good deposition of salts. The playa
materials easily. That means, the weathered plain covered up by salts is called alkali flats.
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debris in deserts is moved by not only wind
but also by rain/sheet wash. The wind moves Deflation Hollows and Caves
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fine materials and general mass erosion is
Weathered mantle from over the rocks or bare
accomplished mainly through sheet floods or
soil, gets blown out by persistent movement
sheet wash. Stream channels in desert areas
of wind currents in one direction. This process
are broad, smooth and indefinite and flow for
may create shallow depressions called
a brief time after rains.
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deflation hollows. Deflation also creates
numerous small pits or cavities over rock
EROSIONAL LANDFORMS surfaces. The rock faces suffer impact and
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abrasion of wind-borne sand and first shallow
Pediments and Pediplains
depressions called blow outs are created, and
Landscape evolution in deserts is primarily
pu some of the blow outs become deeper and
concerned with the formation and extension of wider fit to be called caves.
pediments. Gently inclined rocky floors close
to the mountains at their foot with or without Mushroom, Table and Pedestal Rocks
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a thin cover of debris, are called pediments. Many rock-outcrops in the deserts easily
Such rocky floors form through the erosion of
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susceptible to wind deflation and abrasion are
mountain front through a combination of
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termed as parallel retreat of slopes through wind action and action of sheet floods.
backwasting. So, through parallel retreat of
slopes, the pediments extend backwards at the
Depositional Landforms
expense of mountain front, and gradually, the
©
mountain gets reduced leaving an inselberg Wind is a good sorting agent. Depending upon
which is a remnant of the mountain. That’s how the velocity of wind, different sizes of grains are
the high relief in desert areas is reduced to low moved along the floors by rolling or saltation
featureless plains called pediplains. and carried in suspension and in this process
of transportation itself, the materials get sorted.
Playas When the wind slows or begins to die down,
Plains are by far the most prominent landforms depending upon sizes of grains and their
in the deserts. In basins with mountains and critical velocities, the grains will begin to settle.
hills around and along, the drainage is towards So, in depositional landforms made by wind,
the centre of the basin and due to gradual good sorting of grains can be found. Since
LANDFORMS AND THEIR EVOLUTION 73
wind is there everywhere and wherever there are equally important. There can be a great
is good source of sand and with constant wind variety of dune forms (Figure 7.16).
directions, depositional features in arid regions Crescent shaped dunes called barchans
can develop anywhere. with the points or wings directed away from
wind direction i.e., downwind, form where the
Sand Dunes wind direction is constant and moderate and
Dry hot deserts are good places for sand dune where the original surface over which sand is
formation. Obstacles to initiate dune formation moving is almost uniform. Parabolic dunes
form when sandy surfaces are partially covered
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with vegetation. That means parabolic dunes
are reversed barchans with wind direction
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being the same. Seif is similar to barchan with
a small difference. Seif has only one wing or
point. This happens when there is shift in wind
conditions. The lone wings of seifs can grow
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very long and high. Longitudinal dunes form
when supply of sand is poor and wind
direction is constant. They appear as long
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ridges of considerable length but low in height.
Transverse dunes are aligned perpendicular
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wind direction is constant and the source of
sand is an elongated feature at right angles to
the wind direction. They may be very long and
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EXERCISES
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(iv) Which one of the following sentences best defines the term ‘Lapies’ ?
(a) A small to medium sized shallow depression
(b) A landform whose opening is more or less circular at the top and
funnel shaped towards bottom
(c) A landform formed due to dripping water from surface
(d) An irregular surface with sharp pinnacles, grooves and ridges
(v) A deep, long and wide trough or basin with very steep concave high walls
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at its head as well as in sides is known as:
(a) Cirque (c) Lateral Moraine
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(b) Glacial valley (d) Esker
2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.
(i) What do incised meanders in rocks and meanders in plains of alluvium
indicate?
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(ii) Explain the evolution of valley sinks or uvalas.
(iii) Underground flow of water is more common than surface run-off in
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limestone areas. Why?
(iv) Glacial valleys show up many linear depositional forms. Give their
pu locations and names.
(v) How does wind perform its task in desert areas? Is it the only agent
responsible for the erosional features in the deserts?
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(ii) Limestones behave differently in humid and arid climates. Why? What is
the dominant and almost exclusive geomorphic process in limestone areas
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Project Work
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IV
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CLIMATE
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This unit deals with
• Atmosphere — compositions and structure; elements of weather
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and climate
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• Insolation — angle of incidence and distribution; heat budget
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an a person live without air? We eat Table 8.1 : Permanent Gases of the Atmosphere
food two - three times a day and drink
Constituent Formula Percentage by Volume
water more frequently but breathe
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every few seconds. Air is essential to the Nitrogen N2 78.08
survival of all organisms. Some organisms like Oxygen O2 20.95
Argon Ar 0.93
humans may survive for some time without
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Carbon dioxide CO2 0.036
food and water but can’t survive even a few
Neon Ne 0.002
minutes without breathing air. That shows the Helium He 0.0005
reason why we should understand the
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atmosphere in greater detail. Atmosphere is a
mixture of different gases and it envelopes the
Krypto
Xenon
Hydrogen
Kr
Xe
H2
0.001
0.00009
0.00005
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atmosphere?
the past few decades mainly because of the
burning of fossil fuels. This has also increased
the temperature of the air. Ozone is another
COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE important component of the atmosphere found
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The atmosphere is composed of gases, water between 10 and 50 km above the earth’s
vapour and dust particles. Table 8.1 shows surface and acts as a filter and absorbs the
details of various gases in the air, particularly ultra-violet rays radiating from the sun and
in the lower atmosphere. The proportion of prevents them from reaching the surface of the
gases changes in the higher layers of the earth.
atmosphere in such a way that oxygen will be
almost in negligible quantity at the height of Water Vapour
120 km. Similarly, carbon dioxide and water Water vapour is also a variable gas in the
vapour are found only up to 90 km from the atmosphere, which decreases with altitude. In
surface of the earth. the warm and wet tropics, it may account for
COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE 77
four per cent of the air by volume, while in the The zone separating the tropsophere from
dry and cold areas of desert and polar regions, stratosphere is known as the tropopause. The
it may be less than one per cent of the air. Water air temperature at the tropopause is about
vapour also decreases from the equator minus 800C over the equator and about minus
towards the poles. It also absorbs parts of the 45oC over the poles. The temperature here is
insolation from the sun and preserves the nearly constant, and hence, it is called the
earth’s radiated heat. It thus, acts like a blanket tropopause. The stratosphere is found above
allowing the earth neither to become too cold the tropopause and extends up to a height of
nor too hot. Water vapour also contributes to 50 km. One important feature of the
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the stability and instability in the air. stratosphere is that it contains the ozone layer.
This layer absorbs ultra-violet radiation and
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Dust Particles shields life on the earth from intense, harmful
form of energy.
Atmosphere has a sufficient capacity to keep The mesosphere lies above the stratosphere,
small solid particles, which may originate from which extends up to a height of 80 km. In this
different sources and include sea salts, fine soil, layer, once again, temperature starts
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smoke-soot, ash, pollen, dust and disintegrated decreasing with the increase in altitude and
particles of meteors. Dust particles are reaches up to minus 100°C at the height of 80
generally concentrated in the lower layers of km. The upper limit of mesosphere is known
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the atmosphere; yet, convectional air currents as the mesopause. The ionosphere is located
may transport them to great heights. The between 80 and 400 km above the mesopause.
higher concentration of dust particles is found
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in subtropical and temperate regions due to as ions, and hence, it is known as ionosphere.
dry winds in comparison to equatorial and Radio waves transmitted from the earth are
polar regions. Dust and salt particles act as reflected back to the earth by this layer.
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hygroscopic nuclei around which water vapour Temperature here starts increasing with height.
condenses to produce clouds. The uppermost layer of the atmosphere above
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EXERCISES
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1. Multiple choice questions.
(i) Which one of the following gases constitutes the major portion of the
atmosphere?
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(a) Oxygen (c) Argon
(b) Nitrogen (d) Carbon dioxide
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(ii) Atmospheric layer important for human beings is:
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D
o you feel air around you? Do you The solar output received at the top of the
know that we live at the bottom of a atmosphere varies slightly in a year due to the
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huge pile of air? We inhale and exhale variations in the distance between the earth and
but we feel the air when it is in motion. It means the sun. During its revolution around the sun,
air in motion is wind. You have already learnt the earth is farthest from the sun (152 million
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about the fact that earth is surrounded by air km) on 4th July. This position of the earth is
all around. This envelop of air is atmosphere called aphelion. On 3rd January, the earth is
which is composed of numerous gases. These
pu the nearest to the sun (147 million km). This
gases support life over the earth’s surface. position is called perihelion. Therefore, the
The earth receives almost all of its energy annual insolation received by the earth on 3rd
from the sun. The earth in turn radiates back January is slightly more than the amount
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to space the energy received from the sun. As received on 4th July. However, the effect of this
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a result, the earth neither warms up nor does variation in the solar output is masked by
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it get cooled over a period of time. Thus, the other factors like the distribution of land and
amount of heat received by different parts of sea and the atmospheric circulation. Hence, this
the earth is not the same. This variation causes variation in the solar output does not have
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pressure differences in the atmosphere. This great effect on daily weather changes on the
leads to transfer of heat from one region to the surface of the earth.
other by winds. This chapter explains the
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Variability of Insolation at
process of heating and cooling of the
the Surface of the Earth
atmosphere and the resultant temperature
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distribution over the earth’s surface. The amount and the intensity of insolation vary
during a day, in a season and in a year. The factors
SOLAR RADIATION that cause these variations in insolation are : (i)
the rotation of earth on its axis; (ii) the angle of
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The earth’s surface receives most of its energy inclination of the sun’s rays; (iii) the length of the
in short wavelengths. The energy received by day; (iv) the transparency of the atmosphere; (v)
the earth is known as incoming solar radiation the configuration of land in terms of its aspect.
which in short is termed as insolation. The last two however, have less influence.
As the earth is a geoid resembling a sphere, The fact that the earth’s axis makes an angle
the sun’s rays fall obliquely at the top of the of 66 with the plane of its orbit round the sun
atmosphere and the earth intercepts a very has a greater influence on the amount of
small portion of the sun’s energy. On an insolation received at different latitudes. Note the
average the earth receives 1.94 calories per sq. variations in the duration of the day at different
cm per minute at the top of its atmosphere. latitudes on solstices given in Table 9.1.
80 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
The second factor that determines the colour of the sky are the result of scattering of
amount of insolation received is the angle of light within the atmosphere.
Table 9.1 : Length of the Day in Hours and Minutes on Winter and Summer Solstices in the Northern Hemisphere
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inclination of the rays. This depends on the Spatial Distribution of Insolation
latitude of a place. The higher the latitude the at the Earth’s Surface
less is the angle they make with the surface of
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the earth resulting in slant sun rays. The area The insolation received at the surface varies
covered by vertical rays is always less than the from about 320 Watt/m2 in the tropics to about
slant rays. If more area is covered, the energy 70 Watt/m2 in the poles. Maximum insolation
gets distributed and the net energy received is received over the subtropical deserts, where
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per unit area decreases. Moreover, the slant rays the cloudiness is the least. Equator receives
are required to pass through greater depth of comparatively less insolation than the tropics.
the atmosphere resulting in more absorption, Generally, at the same latitude the insolation
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scattering and diffusion. is more over the continent than over the oceans.
In winter, the middle and higher latitudes
pu receive less radiation than in summer.
of the atmosphere.
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The earth after being heated by insolation
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The Passage of Solar Radiation to cooler body. The transfer of heat continues until
through the Atmosphere both the bodies attain the same temperature or
the contact is broken. Conduction is important
The atmosphere is largely transparent to short in heating the lower layers of the atmosphere.
wave solar radiation. The incoming solar
©
than the vertical movement. In middle latitudes, accumulate or loose heat. It maintains its
most of dirunal (day and night) variation in temperature. This can happen only if the
daily weather are caused by advection alone. amount of heat received in the form of insolation
In tropical regions particularly in northern equals the amount lost by the earth through
India during summer season local winds called terrestrial radiation.
‘loo’ is the outcome of advection process. Consider that the insolation received at the
top of the atmosphere is 100 per cent. While
Terrestrial Radiation passing through the atmosphere some amount
The insolation received by the earth is in short of energy is reflected, scattered and absorbed.
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waves forms and heats up its surface. The earth Only the remaining part reaches the earth
after being heated itself becomes a radiating surface. Roughly 35 units are reflected back
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body and it radiates energy to the atmosphere to space even before reaching the earth’s
in long wave form. This energy heats up the surface. Of these, 27 units are reflected back
atmosphere from below. This process is known from the top of the clouds and 2 units from the
as terrestrial radiation. snow and ice-covered areas of the earth. The
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The long wave radiation is absorbed by the reflected amount of radiation is called the
atmospheric gases particularly by carbon albedo of the earth.
dioxide and the other green house gases. Thus, The remaining 65 units are absorbed, 14
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the atmosphere is indirectly heated by the units within the atmosphere and 51 units by
earth’s radiation. the earth’s surface. The earth radiates back
The atmosphere in turn radiates and 51 units in the form of terrestrial radiation.
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transmits heat to the space. Finally the amount
of heat received from the sun is returned to
Of these, 17 units are radiated to space
directly and the remaining 34 units are
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terrestrial radiation) are also radiated back heat which is measured in terms of
into space. Thus, the total radiation temperature. While heat represents the
returning from the earth and the atmosphere molecular movement of particles comprising a
respectively is 17+48=65 units which substance, the temperature is the measurement
balance the total of 65 units received from in degrees of how hot (or cold) a thing (or a
the sun. This is termed the heat budget or place) is.
heat balance of the earth.
This explains, why the earth neither warms Factors Controlling Temperature Distribution
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up nor cools down despite the huge transfer of The temperature of air at any place is influenced
heat that takes place. by (i) the latitude of the place; (ii) the altitude
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of the place; (iii) distance from the sea, the air-
Variation in the Net Heat Budget at the mass circulation; (iv) the presence of warm and
Earth’s Surface cold ocean currents; (v) local aspects.
As explained earlier, there are variations in the
amount of radiation received at the earth’s The latitude : The temperature of a place
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surface. Some part of the earth has surplus depends on the insolation received. It has been
radiation balance while the other part has explained earlier that the insolation varies
according to the latitude hence the
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deficit.
Figure 9.3 depicts the latitudinal variation temperature also varies accordingly.
in the net radiation balance of the earth — the
pu The altitude : The atmosphere is indirectly
atmosphere system. The figure shows that heated by terrestrial radiation from below.
there is a surplus of net radiation balance Therefore, the places near the sea-level record
between 40 degrees north and south and the higher temperature than the places situated
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regions near the poles have a deficit. The at higher elevations. In other words, the
surplus heat energy from the tropics is
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temperature generally decreases with
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redistributed pole wards and as a result the increasing height. The rate of decrease of
tropics do not get progressively heated up due temperature with height is termed as the
to the accumulation of excess heat or the high normal lapse rate. It is 6.5°C per 1,000 m.
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the places located on the coast where the warm northern hemisphere the land surface area is
ocean currents flow record higher temperature much larger than in the southern hemisphere.
than the places located on the coast where the Hence, the effects of land mass and the ocean
cold currents flow. currents are well pronounced. In January the
isotherms deviate to the north over the ocean
Distribution of Temperature and to the south over the continent. This can
be seen on the North Atlantic Ocean. The
The global distribution of temperature can well presence of warm ocean currents, Gulf Stream
be understood by studying the temperature and North Atlantic drift, make the Northern
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distribution in January and July. The Atlantic Ocean warmer and the isotherms bend
temperature distribution is generally shown towards the north. Over the land the
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on the map with the help of isotherms. The temperature decreases sharply and the
Isotherms are lines joining places having equal isotherms bend towards south in Europe.
temperature. Figure 9.4 (a) and (b) show the It is much pronounced in the Siberian
distribution of surface air temperature in the plain. The mean January temperature along
is
month of January and July. 60° E longitude is minus 20° C both at 80° N
In general the effect of the latitude on and 50° N latitudes. The mean monthly
temperature is well pronounced on the map, temperature for January is over 27° C, in
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as the isotherms are generally parallel to the equatorial oceans over 24° C in the tropics
latitude. The deviation from this general trend and 2° C - 0° C in the middle latitudes
is more pronounced in January than in July,
pu and –18° C to –48° C in the Eurasian
especially in the northern hemisphere. In the continental interior.
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Figure 9.4 (a) : The distribution of surface air temperature in the month of January
84 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
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Figure 9.4 (b) : The distribution of surface air temperature in the month of July
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The effect of the ocean is well pronounced inversion. The heat of the day is radiated off
in the southern hemisphere. Here the isotherms during the night, and by early morning hours,
are more or less parallel to the latitudes and the earth is cooler than the air above. Over polar
the variation in temperature is more gradual areas, temperature inversion is normal
than in the northern hemisphere. The isotherm throughout the year.
of 20° C, 10° C, and 0° C runs parallel to 35° S, Surface inversion promotes stability in the
45° S and 60° S latitudes respectively. lower layers of the atmosphere. Smoke and
In July the isotherms generally run dust particles get collected beneath the
parallel to the latitude. The equatorial oceans inversion layer and spread horizontally to fill
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record warmer temperature, more than 27°C. the lower strata of the atmosphere. Dense fogs
Over the land more than 30°C is noticed in in mornings are common occurrences
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the subtropical continental region of Asia, especially during winter season. This inversion
along the 30° N latitude. Along the 40° N runs commonly lasts for few hours until the sun
the isotherm of 10° C and along the 40° S the comes up and beings to warm the earth.
temperature is 10° C. The inversion takes place in hills and
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Figure 9.5 shows the range of mountains due to air drainage. Cold air at the
temperature between January and July. The hills and mountains, produced during night,
highest range of temperature is more than 60° flows under the influence of gravity. Being
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C over the north-eastern part of Eurasian heavy and dense, the cold air acts almost like
continent. This is due to continentality. The water and moves down the slope to pile up
least range of temperature, 3°C, is found
pu deeply in pockets and valley bottoms with
between 20° S and 15° N. warm air above. This is called air drainage. It
protects plants from frost damages.
INVERSION TEMPERATURE
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OF
Normally, temperature decreases with increase Plank’s law states that hotter a body,
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in elevation. It is called normal lapse rate. At the more energy it will radiate and
times, the situations is reversed and the shorter the wavelength of that
normal lapse rate is inverted. It is called radiation.
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EXERCISES
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(ii) Albedo (b) The lines joining the places of equal
temperature
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(iii) Isotherm (c) The incoming solar radiation
(iv) Annual range (d) The percentage of visible light reflected by
an object
(v) The main reason that the earth experiences highest temperatures in the
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subtropics in the northern hemisphere rather than at the equator is :
(a) Subtropical areas tend to have less cloud cover than equatorial areas.
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(b) Subtropical areas have longer day hours in the summer than the
equatorial.
pu (c) Subtropical areas have an enhanced “green house effect” compared
to equatorial areas.
(d) Subtropical areas are nearer to the oceanic areas than the equatorial
locations.
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(i) How does the unequal distribution of heat over the planet earth in space
and time cause variations in weather and climate?
(ii) What are the factors that control temperature distribution on the surface
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of the earth?
(iii) In India, why is the day temperature maximum in May and why not after
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Project Work
Select a meteorological observatory located in your city or near your town. Tabulate
the temperature data as given in the climatological table of observatories :
(i) Note the altitude, latitude of the observatory and the period for which the
mean is calculated.
SOLAR RADIATION, HEAT BALANCE AND TEMPERATURE 87
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causes for temperature variation in the months of January, May, July and October.
Example
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Observatory : New Delhi (Safdarjung)
Latitude : 28°35°’ N
Based on observations : 1951 - 1980
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Altitude above mean sea level : 216 m
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Daily Daily Recorded Recorded
Max.(°C) Min.(°C) (°C) (°C)
pu January 21.1 7.3 29.3 0.6
May 39.6 25.9 47.2 17.5
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January = 14.2OC
2
39.6+25.9
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May = 32.75OC
2
ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION
AND WEATHER SYSTEMS
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E
arlier Chapter 9 described the uneven pressure is measured with the help of a
distribution of temperature over the mercury barometer or the aneroid barometer.
surface of the earth. Air expands when Consult your book, Practical Work in
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heated and gets compressed when cooled. This Geography — Part I (NCERT, 2006) and learn
results in variations in the atmospheric about these instruments. The pressure
pressure. The result is that it causes the decreases with height. At any elevation it varies
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movement of air from high pressure to low from place to place and its variation is the
pressure, setting the air in motion. You already primary cause of air motion, i.e. wind which
know that air in horizontal motion is wind. moves from high pressure areas to low
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Atmospheric pressure also determines when
the air will rise or sink. The wind redistributes
pressure areas.
the heat and moisture across the planet, Vertical Variation of Pressure
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atmosphere.
disturbed weather when air masses interact
with each other and the phenomenon of violent Table 10.1 : Standard Pressure and Temperature at
tropical storms.
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Selected Levels
Level Pressure in mb Temperature °C
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Sea Level 1,013.25 15.2
Do you realise that our body is subjected to a
©
1 km 898.76 8.7
lot of air pressure. As one moves up the air
gets varified and one feels breathless. 5 km 540.48 –17. 3
The weight of a column of air contained in 10 km 265.00 – 49.7
a unit area from the mean sea level to the top
of the atmosphere is called the atmospheric The vertical pressure gradient force is much
pressure. The atmospheric pressure is larger than that of the horizontal pressure
expressed in units of milibar. At sea level the gradient. But, it is generally balanced by a
average atmospheric pressure is 1,013.2 nearly equal but opposite gravitational force.
milibar. Due to gravity the air at the surface is Hence, we do not experience strong upward
denser and hence has higher pressure. Air winds.
ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION AND WEATHER SYSTEMS 89
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World Distribution of Sea Level Pressure
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The world distribution of sea level pressure in
January and July has been shown in Figures
10.2 and 10.3. Near the equator the sea level
Figure 10.1 : Isobars, pressure and wind systems in pressure is low and the area is known as
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Northern Hemisphere
equatorial low. Along 30° N and 30o S are
velocity. Horizontal distribution of pressure is found the high-pressure areas known as the
studied by drawing isobars at constant levels. subtropical highs. Further pole wards along
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Isobars are lines connecting places having 60o N and 60o S, the low-pressure belts are
equal pressure. In order to eliminate the effect termed as the sub polar lows. Near the poles
of altitude on pressure, it is measured at any
pu the pressure is high and it is known as the polar
station after being reduced to sea level for high. These pressure belts are not permanent
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to the left in the southern hemisphere. The The wind circulation around a low is
deflection is more when the wind velocity is called cyclonic circulation. Around a high
high. The Coriolis force is directly proportional it is called anti cyclonic circulation. The
to the angle of latitude. It is maximum at the direction of winds around such systems
poles and is absent at the equator. changes according to their location in
The Coriolis force acts perpendicular to the different hemispheres (Table 10.2).
pressure gradient force. The pressure gradient The wind circulation at the earth’s surface
force is perpendicular to an isobar. The higher around low and high on many occasions is
the pressure gradient force, the more is the closely related to the wind circulation at higher
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velocity of the wind and the larger is the level. Generally, over low pressure area the air
deflection in the direction of wind. As a result of will converge and rise. Over high pressure area
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these two forces operating perpendicular to each the air will subside from above and diverge at
other, in the low-pressure areas the wind blows the surface (Figure10.5). Apart from
around it. At the equator, the Coriolis force is convergence, some eddies, convection
zero and the wind blows perpendicular to the currents, orographic uplift and uplift along
isobars. The low pressure gets filled instead of
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fronts cause the rising of air, which is essential
getting intensified. That is the reason why tropical for the formation of clouds and precipitation.
cyclones are not formed near the equator.
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Pressure and Wind
The velocity and direction of the wind are the
net result of the wind generating forces. The
pu
winds in the upper atmosphere, 2 - 3 km above
the surface, are free from frictional effect of the
surface and are controlled mainly by the
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as the geostrophic wind (Figure 10.4). The pattern of planetary winds largely depends
on : (i) latitudinal variation of atmospheric
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climate. A schematic description of the general The general circulation of the atmosphere
circulation is shown in Figure 10.6. also affects the oceans. The large-scale winds
of the atmosphere initiate large and slow
moving currents of the ocean. Oceans in turn
provide input of energy and water vapour into
the air. These interactions take place rather
slowly over a large part of the ocean.
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Warming and cooling of the Pacific Ocean
he
is most important in terms of general
atmospheric circulation. The warm water
of the central Pacific Ocean slowly drifts
towards South American coast and
replaces the cool Peruvian current. Such
is
appearance of warm water off the coast
Figure 10. 6 : Simplified general circulation
of Peru is known as the El Nino. The El
of the atmosphere Nino event is closely associated with the
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pressure changes in the Central Pacific
The air at the Inter Tropical Convergence and Australia. This change in pressure
Zone (ITCZ) rises because of convection caused condition over Pacific is known as the
by high insolation and a low pressure is southern oscillation. The combined
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created. The winds from the tropics converge
at this low pressure zone. The converged air
phenomenon of southern oscillation and
El Nino is known as ENSO. In the years
rises along with the convective cell. It reaches when the ENSO is strong, large-scale
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the top of the troposphere up to an altitude of variations in weather occur over the
14 km. and moves towards the poles. This world. The arid west coast of South
re
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causes accumulation of air at about 30o N and America receives heavy rainfall, drought
S. Part of the accumulated air sinks to the occurs in Australia and sometimes in
ground and forms a subtropical high. Another India and floods in China. This
reason for sinking is the cooling of air when it phenomenon is closely monitored and is
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reaches 30o N and S latitudes. Down below used for long range forecasting in major
near the land surface the air flows towards the parts of the world.
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vice-versa are called cells. Such a cell in the different seasons due to the shifting of regions
tropics is called Hadley Cell. In the middle of maximum heating, pressure and wind belts.
latitudes the circulation is that of sinking cold The most pronounced effect of such a shift is
air that comes from the poles and the rising noticed in the monsoons, especially over
©
warm air that blows from the subtropical high. southeast Asia. You would be studying the
At the surface these winds are called westerlies details of monsoon in the book India : Physical
and the cell is known as the Ferrel cell. At polar Environment (NCERT, 2006). The other local
latitudes the cold dense air subsides near the deviations from the general circulation system
poles and blows towards middle latitudes as are as follows.
the polar easterlies. This cell is called the polar
Local Winds
cell. These three cells set the pattern for the
general circulation of the atmosphere. The Differences in the heating and cooling of earth
transfer of heat energy from lower latitudes to surfaces and the cycles those develop daily or
higher latitudes maintains the general annually can create several common, local or
circulation. regional winds.
ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION AND WEATHER SYSTEMS 93
Land and Sea Breezes as the valley breeze. During the night the
slopes get cooled and the dense air descends
As explained earlier, the land and sea absorb
into the valley as the mountain wind. The cool
and transfer heat differently. During the day the
air, of the high plateaus and ice fields draining
land heats up faster and becomes warmer than
into the valley is called katabatic wind. Another
the sea. Therefore, over the land the air rises
type of warm wind occurs on the leeward side
giving rise to a low pressure area, whereas the
of the mountain ranges. The moisture in these
sea is relatively cool and the pressure over sea
winds, while crossing the mountain ranges
is relatively high. Thus, pressure gradient from
condense and precipitate. When it descends
sea to land is created and the wind blows from
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down the leeward side of the slope the dry air
the sea to the land as the sea breeze. In the night
gets warmed up by adiabatic process. This dry
the reversal of condition takes place. The land
he
air may melt the snow in a short time.
loses heat faster and is cooler than the sea. The
pressure gradient is from the land to the sea
Air Masses
and hence land breeze results (Figure 10.7).
When the air remains over a homogenous area
is
for a sufficiently longer time, it acquires the
characteristics of the area. The homogenous
regions can be the vast ocean surface or vast
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plains. The air with distinctive characteristics
in terms of temperature and humidity is called
pu an airmass. It is defined as a large body of air
having little horizontal variation in temperature
and moisture. The homogenous surfaces, over
which air masses form, are called the source
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regions.
The air masses are classified according to
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the source regions. There are five major source
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Fronts
When two different air masses meet, the
Figure 10.7 : Land and sea breezes boundary zone between them is called a
front. The process of formation of the
Mountain and Valley Winds
fronts is known as frontogenesis. There
In mountainous regions, during the day the are four types of fronts: (a) Cold; (b) Warm;
slopes get heated up and air moves upslope (c) Stationary; (d) Occluded. When the
and to fill the resulting gap the air from the front remains stationary, it is called a
valley blows up the valley. This wind is known stationary front. When the cold air moves
94 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
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the sky ahead of the warm front and cause
precipitation. The cold front approaches the
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warm air from behind and pushes the warm
air up. As a result, cumulus clouds develop
along the cold front. The cold front moves faster
than the warm front ultimately overtaking the
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warm front. The warm air is completely lifted
up and the front is occluded and the cyclone
dissipates.
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The processes of wind circulation both at
the surface and aloft are closely interlinked.
Figure 10.8 : Vertical Sections of : (a) Warm Front;
pu The extra tropical cyclone differs from the
(b) Cold Front; (c) Occluded Front tropical cyclone in number of ways. The extra
tropical cyclones have a clear frontal system
towards the warm air mass, its contact zone is
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which is not present in the tropical cyclones. A schematic representation of the vertical
They cover a larger area and can originate over structure of a mature tropical cyclonic storm
the land and sea. Whereas the tropical cyclones is shown in Figure 10.10.
originate only over the seas and on reaching A mature tropical cyclone is characterised
the land they dissipate. The extra tropical by the strong spirally circulating wind around
cyclone affects a much larger area as the centre, called the eye. The diameter of the
compared to the tropical cyclone. The wind circulating system can vary between 150 and
velocity in a tropical cyclone is much higher 250 km.
The eye is a region of calm with subsiding
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and it is more destructive. The extra tropical
cyclones move from west to east but tropical air. Around the eye is the eye wall, where there
cyclones, move from east to west. is a strong spiralling ascent of air to greater
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height reaching the tropopause. The wind
reaches maximum velocity in this region,
Tropical Cyclones
reaching as high as 250 km per hour.
Tropical cyclones are violent storms that Torrential rain occurs here. From the eye wall
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originate over oceans in tropical areas and rain bands may radiate and trains of cumulus
move over to the coastal areas bringing about and cumulonimbus clouds may drift into the
large scale destruction caused by violent outer region. The diameter of the storm over
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winds, very heavy rainfall and storm surges. the Bay of Bengal, Arabian sea and Indian
This is one of the most devastating natural ocean is between 600 - 1200 km. The system
calamities. They are known as Cyclones in the
pu moves slowly about 300 - 500 km per day.
Indian Ocean, Hurricanes in the Atlantic, The cyclone creates storm surges and they
Typhoons in the Western Pacific and South inundate the coastal low lands. The storm
China Sea, and Willy-willies in the Western peters out on the land.
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Australia.
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Tropical cyclones originate and intensify
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level system.
The energy that intensifies the storm, comes
from the condensation process in the towering
cumulonimbus clouds, surrounding the
©
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is called water sprouts.
temperature prevails, hails are formed and they These violent storms are the manifestation
come down as hailstorm. If there is insufficient of the atmosphere’s adjustments to varying
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moisture, a thunderstorm can generate dust- energy distribution. The potential and heat
storms. A thunderstorm is characterised by energies are converted into kinetic energy in
intense updraft of rising warm air, which these storms and the restless atmosphere again
causes the clouds to grow bigger and rise to returns to its stable state.
is
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EXERCISES
1.
pu Multiple choice questions.
(i) If the surface air pressure is 1,000 mb, the air pressure at 1 km above the
surface will be:
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(c) near the Tropic of Capricorn (d) near the Arctic Circle
(iii) The direction of wind around a low pressure in northern hemisphere is:
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(iv) Which one of the following is the source region for the formation of air
masses?
(a) the Equatorial forest (c) the Siberian Plain
(b) the Himalayas (d) the Deccan Plateau
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d
Project Work
(i) Collect weather information over media such as newspaper, TV and radio
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for understanding the weather systems.
(ii) Read the section on weather in any newspaper, preferably, one having a
map showing a satellite picture. Mark the area of cloudiness. Attempt to
infer the atmospheric circulation from the distribution of clouds. Compare
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the forecast given in the newspaper with the TV coverage, if you have
access to TV. Estimate, how many days in a week was the forecast were
accurate.
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pu
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re
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C
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CHAPTER
d
he
Y
ou have already learnt that the air EVAPORATION AND CONDENSATION
contains water vapour. It varies from
zero to four per cent by volume of the The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere
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atmosphere and plays an important role in the is added or withdrawn due to evaporation and
weather phenomena. Water is present in the condensation respectively. Evaporation is a
atmosphere in three forms namely – gaseous, process by which water is transformed from
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liquid and solid. The moisture in the liquid to gaseous state. Heat is the main cause
atmosphere is derived from water bodies for evaporation. The temperature at which the
through evaporation and from plants through water starts evaporating is referred to as the
latent heat of vapourisation.
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transpiration. Thus, there is a continuous
exchange of water between the atmosphere, the
oceans and the continents through the
Increase in temperature increases water
absorption and retention capacity of the given
parcel of air. Similarly, if the moisture content
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as humidity. It is expressed quantitatively in the saturated layer with the unsaturated layer.
different ways. The actual amount of the water Hence, the greater the movement of air, the
vapour present in the atmosphere is known as greater is the evaporation.
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the absolute humidity. It is the weight of water The transformation of water vapour into
vapour per unit volume of air and is expressed water is called condensation. Condensation is
in terms of grams per cubic metre. The ability caused by the loss of heat. When moist air is
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of the air to hold water vapour depends entirely cooled, it may reach a level when its capacity
on its temperature. The absolute humidity to hold water vapour ceases. Then, the excess
differs from place to place on the surface of the water vapour condenses into liquid form. If it
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earth. The percentage of moisture present in directly condenses into solid form, it is known
the atmosphere as compared to its full capacity as sublimation. In free air, condensation results
at a given temperature is known as the relative from cooling around very small particles
humidity. With the change of air temperature, termed as hygroscopic condensation nuclei.
©
the capacity to retain moisture increases or Particles of dust, smoke and salt from the ocean
decreases and the relative humidity is also are particularly good nuclei because they
affected. It is greater over the oceans and least absorb water. Condensation also takes place
over the continents. when the moist air comes in contact with some
The air containing moisture to its full colder object and it may also take place when
capacity at a given temperature is said to be the temperature is close to the dew point.
saturated. It means that the air at the given Condensation, therefore, depends upon the
temperature is incapable of holding any amount of cooling and the relative humidity of
additional amount of moisture at that stage. the air. Condensation is influenced by the
The temperature at which saturation occurs volume of air, temperature, pressure and
in a given sample of air is known as dew point. humidity. Condensation takes place: (i) when
WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE 99
the temperature of the air is reduced to dew condition when fog is mixed with smoke, is
point with its volume remaining constant; (ii) described as smog. The only difference between
when both the volume and the temperature are the mist and fog is that mist contains more
reduced; (iv) when moisture is added to the air moisture than the fog. In mist each nuceli
through evaporation. However, the most contains a thicker layer of moisture. Mists are
favourable condition for condensation is the frequent over mountains as the rising warm
decrease in air temperature. air up the slopes meets a cold surface. Fogs
After condensation the water vapour or the are drier than mist and they are prevalent where
moisture in the atmosphere takes one of the warm currents of air come in contact with cold
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following forms — dew, frost, fog and clouds. currents. Fogs are mini clouds in which
Forms of condensation can be classified on the condensation takes place around nuclei
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basis of temperature and location. provided by the dust, smoke, and the salt
Condensation takes place when the dew point particles.
is lower than the freezing point as well as
higher than the freezing point. Clouds
Cloud is a mass of minute water droplets or
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Dew
tiny crystals of ice formed by the condensation
When the moisture is deposited in the form of of the water vapour in free air at considerable
water droplets on cooler surfaces of solid
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elevations. As the clouds are formed at some
objects (rather than nuclei in air above the height over the surface of the earth, they take
surface) such as stones, grass blades and plant various shapes. According to their height,
leaves, it is known as dew. The ideal conditions expanse, density and transparency or
pu
for its formation are clear sky, calm air, high
relative humidity, and cold and long nights.
opaqueness clouds are grouped under four
types : (i) cirrus; (ii) cumulus; (iii) stratus;
For the formation of dew, it is necessary that (iv) nimbus.
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Frost
Cirrus clouds are formed at high altitudes
Frost forms on cold surfaces when (8,000 - 12,000m). They are thin and detatched
condensation takes place below freezing point clouds having a feathery appearance. They are
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(00C), i.e. the dew point is at or below the always white in colour.
freezing point. The excess moisture is deposited
C
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form of water is called rainfall, when the
temperature is lower than the 00C, precipitation
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takes place in the form of fine flakes of snow
and is called snowfall. Moisture is released in
the form of hexagonal crystals. These crystals
form flakes of snow. Besides rain and snow,
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other forms of precipitation are sleet and hail,
Figure 11.1 though the latter are limited in occurrence and
are sporadic in both time and space.
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Sleet is frozen raindrops and refrozen
melted snow-water. When a layer of air with
pu the temperature above freezing point overlies
a subfreezing layer near the ground,
precipitation takes place in the form of sleet.
Raindrops, which leave the warmer air,
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the other.
Types of Rainfall
Figure 11.2
On the basis of origin, rainfall may be classified
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long. Such rain is common in the summer or the continents. The rainfall is more over the
in the hotter part of the day. It is very common oceans than on the landmasses of the world
in the equatorial regions and interior parts of because of being great sources of water.
the continents, particularly in the northern Between the latitudes 350 and 400 N and S of
hemisphere. the equator, the rain is heavier on the eastern
coasts and goes on decreasing towards the
Orographic Rain west. But, between 450 and 650 N and S of
equator, due to the westerlies, the rainfall is
When the saturated air mass comes across a first received on the western margins of the
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mountain, it is forced to ascend and as it rises, continents and it goes on decreasing towards
it expands; the temperature falls, and the the east. Wherever mountains run parallel to
moisture is condensed. The chief characteristic the coast, the rain is greater on the coastal
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of this sort of rain is that the windward slopes plain, on the windward side and it decreases
receive greater rainfall. After giving rain on the towards the leeward side.
windward side, when these winds reach the On the basis of the total amount of annual
other slope, they descend, and their precipitation, major precipitation regimes of the
is
temperature rises. Then their capacity to take world are identified as follows.
in moisture increases and hence, these leeward The equatorial belt, the windward slopes
slopes remain rainless and dry. The area of the mountains along the western coasts in
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situated on the leeward side, which gets less the cool temperate zone and the coastal areas
rainfall is known as the rain-shadow area. It of the monsoon land receive heavy rainfall of
is also known as the relief rain.
pu over 200 cm per annum. Interior continental
areas receive moderate rainfall varying from
Cyclonic Rain 100 - 200 cm per annum. The coastal areas of
the continents receive moderate amount of
You have already read about extra tropical
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cyclonic rainfall.
between 50 - 100 cm per annum. Areas lying
in the rain shadow zone of the interior of the
World Distribution of Rainfall continents and high latitudes receive very low
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Different places on the earth’s surface receive rainfall-less than 50 cm per annum. Seasonal
different amounts of rainfall in a year and that distribution of rainfall provides an important
aspect to judge its effectiveness. In some
C
steadily. The coastal areas of the world receive belt and in the western parts of cool temperate
greater amounts of rainfall than the interior of regions.
©
EXERCISES
(ii) Which one of the following process is responsible for transforming liquid
into vapour?
(a) Condensation (c) Evaporation
(b) Transpiration (d) Precipitation
(iii) The air that contains moisture to its full capacity :
(a) Relative humidity (c) Absolute humidity
(b) Specific humidity (d) Saturated air
d
(iv) Which one of the following is the highest cloud in the sky?
(a) Cirrus (c) Nimbus
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(b) Stratus (d) Cumulus
2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.
(i) Name the three types of precipitation.
is
(ii) Explain relative humidity.
(iii) Why does the amount of water vapour decreases rapidly with altitude?
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(iv) How are clouds formed? Classify them.
3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.
pu (i)
(ii)
Discuss the salient features of the world distribution of precipitation.
What are forms of condensation? Describe the process of dew and frost
formation.
be T
re
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Project Work
Browse through the newspaper from 1st June to 31st December and note the news
about extreme rainfall in different parts of the country.
tt E
C
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CHAPTER
d
he
T
he world climate can be studied by related them to the distribution of vegetation
organising information and data on and used these values for classifying the
climate and synthesising them in climates. It is an empirical classification based
is
smaller units for easy understanding, on mean annual and mean monthly
description and analysis. Three broad temperature and precipitation data. He
approaches have been adopted for classifying introduced the use of capital and small letters
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climate. They are empirical, genetic and to designate climatic groups and types.
applied. Empirical classification is based on Although developed in 1918 and modified over
observed data, particularly on temperature
pu a period of time, Koeppen’s scheme is still
and precipitation. Genetic classification popular and in use.
attempts to organise climates according to their Koeppen recognised five major climatic
causes. Applied classification is for specific groups, four of them are based on temperature
be T
The most widely used classification of climate The climatic groups are subdivided into
is the empirical climate classification scheme types, designated by small letters, based on
developed by V. Koeppen. Koeppen identified seasonality of precipitation and temperature
C
a close relationship between the distribution characteristics. The seasons of dryness are
of vegetation and climate. He selected certain indicated by the small letters : f, m, w and s,
values of temperature and precipitation and where f corresponds to no dry season,
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Group Characteristics
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C - Warm Temperate The average temperature of the coldest month of the (Mid-latitude) climates
years is higher than minus 3°C but below 18°C
D - Cold Snow Forest Climates The average temperature of the coldest month is minus 3° C or below
m - monsoon climate, w- winter dry season and islands of East Indies. Significant amount of
s - summer dry season. The small letters a, b, rainfall occurs in every month of the year as
c and d refer to the degree of severity of thunder showers in the afternoon. The
temperature. The B- Dry Climates are temperature is uniformly high and the annual
subdivided using the capital letters S for steppe range of temperature is negligible. The
or semi-arid and W for deserts. The climatic maximum temperature on any day is around
30°C while the minimum temperature is
types are listed in Table 12.2. The distribution
around 20°C. Tropical evergreen forests with
of climatic groups and types is shown in
dense canopy cover and large biodiversity are
Table 12.1.
d
found in this climate.
Table 12.2 : Climatic Types According to Koeppen
he
Group Type Letter Code Characteristics
Tropical wet Af No dry season
A-Tropical Humid
Climate Tropical monsoon Am Monsoonal, short dry season
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Tropical wet and dry Aw Winter dry season
Subtropical steppe BSh Low-latitude semi arid or dry
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Subtropical desert BWh Low-latitude arid or dry
B-Dry Climate
Mid-latitude steppe BSk Mid-latitude semi arid or dry
pu Mid-latitude desert BWk Mid-latitude arid or dry
Humid subtropical Cfa No dry season, warm summer
C-Warm
temperate (Mid- Mediterranean Cs Dry hot summer
latitude) Climates
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Marine west coast Cfb No dry season, warm and cool summer
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D-Cold Snow- Humid continental Df No dry season, severe winter
o R
of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. The sun the Indian sub-continent, North Eastern part
being overhead throughout the year and the of South America and Northern Australia.
presence of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone Heavy rainfall occurs mostly in summer. Winter
(ITCZ) make the climate hot and humid. is dry. The detailed climatic account of this
©
Annual range of temperature is very low and climatic type is given in the book on India:
annual rainfall is high. The tropical group is Physical Environment.
divided into three types, namely (i) Af- Tropical
wet climate; (ii) Am - Tropical monsoon climate; Tropical Wet and Dry Climate (Aw)
(iii) Aw- Tropical wet and dry climate.
Tropical wet and dry climate occurs north and
south of Af type climate regions. It borders with
Tropical Wet Climate (Af)
dry climate on the western part of the continent
Tropical wet climate is found near the equator. and Cf or Cw on the eastern part. Extensive
The major areas are the Amazon Basin in South Aw climate is found to the north and south of
America, western equatorial Africa and the the Amazon forest in Brazil and adjoining parts
WORLD CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE 105
of Bolivia and Paraguay in South America, often causing famine. Rain occurs in short
Sudan and south of Central Africa. The annual intense thundershowers in deserts and is
rainfall in this climate is considerably less than ineffective in building soil moisture. Fog is
that in Af and Am climate types and is variable common in coastal deserts bordering cold
also. The wet season is shorter and the dry currents. Maximum temperature in the summer
season is longer with the drought being more is very high. The highest shade temperature of
severe. Temperature is high throughout the 58° C was recorded at Al Aziziyah, Libya on
year and diurnal ranges of temperature are the 13 September 1922. The annual and diurnal
greatest in the dry season. Deciduous forest and ranges of temperature are also high.
d
tree-shredded grasslands occur in this climate.
Warm Temperate (Mid-Latitude) Climates-C
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Dry Climates : B
Warm temperate (mid-latitude) climates extend
Dry climates are characterised by very low from 30° - 50° of latitude mainly on the eastern
rainfall that is not adequate for the growth of and western margins of continents. These
plants. These climates cover a very large area climates generally have warm summers with
is
of the planet extending over large latitudes from mild winters. They are grouped into four types:
15° - 60° north and south of the equator. At (i) Humid subtropical, i.e. dry in winter and
low latitudes, from 15° - 30°, they occur in the hot in summer (Cwa); (ii) Mediterranean (Cs);
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area of subtropical high where subsidence and (iii) Humid subtropical, i.e. no dry season and
inversion of temperature do not produce mild winter (Cfa); (iv) Marine west coast climate
rainfall. On the western margin of the
pu (Cfb).
continents, adjoining the cold current,
particularly over the west coast of South Humid Subtropical Climate (Cwa)
America, they extend more equatorwards and
Humid subtropical climate occurs poleward of
be T
steppe (BSh) and subtropical desert (BWh) at occurs around Mediterranean sea, along the
latitudes from 15° - 35° and mid-latitude west coast of continents in subtropical latitudes
steppe (BSk) and mid-latitude desert (BWk) at between 30° - 40° latitudes e.g. — Central
no N
latitudes between 35° - 60°. California, Central Chile, along the coast in
south eastern and south western Australia.
Subtropical Steppe (BSh) and Subtropical These areas come under the influence of sub
Desert (BWh) Climates tropical high in summer and westerly wind in
©
unstable and cause rainfall throughout the Cold Climate with Dry Winters (Dw)
year. They occur in eastern United States of
Cold climate with dry winter occurs mainly
America, southern and eastern China,
over Northeastern Asia. The development of
southern Japan, northeastern Argentina,
pronounced winter anti cyclone and its
coastal south Africa and eastern coast of
weakening in summer sets in monsoon like
Australia. The annual averages of precipitation
reversal of wind in this region. Poleward
vary from 75-150 cm. Thunderstorms in
summer temperatures are lower and winter
summer and frontal precipitation in winter are
temperatures are extremely low with many
common. Mean monthly temperature in
d
locations experiencing below freezing point
summer is around 27°C, and in winter it varies
temperatures for up to seven months in a year.
from 5°-12° C. The daily range of temperature
Precipitation occurs in summer. The annual
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is small.
precipitation is low from 12-15 cm.
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from the Mediterranean climate on the west latitude. Polar climates consist of two types:
coast of the continents. The main areas are: (i) Tundra (ET); (ii) Ice Cap (EF).
Northwestern Europe, west coast of North
bl
America, north of California, southern Chile, Tundra Climate (ET)
southeastern Australia and New Zealand. Due The tundra climate (ET) is so called after the
to marine influence, the temperature is
pu types of vegetation, like low growing mosses,
moderate and in winter, it is warmer than for lichens and flowering plants. This is the region
its latitude. The mean temperature in summer of permafrost where the sub soil is permanently
months ranges from 15°-20°C and in winter
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continental area in the northern hemisphere temperature is below freezing point. This area
between 40°-70° north latitudes in Europe, receives very little precipitation. The snow and
Asia and North America. Cold snow forest ice get accumulated and the mounting pressure
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climates are divided into two types: (i) Df- cold causes the deformation of the ice sheets and
climate with humid winter; (ii) Dw- cold climate they break. They move as icebergs that float in
with dry winter. The severity of winter is more the Arctic and Antarctic waters. Plateau Station
pronounced in higher latitudes. , Antarctica ,79°S, portray this climate.
©
d
show alteration of glacial and inter-glacial
upward trend. After 1940, the rate of increase
periods. The geomorphological features,
in temperature slowed down.
he
especially in high altitudes and high latitudes,
exhibit traces of advances and retreats of
Causes of Climate Change
glaciers. The sediment deposits in glacial lakes
also reveal the occurrence of warm and cold The causes for climate change are many. They
periods. The rings in the trees provide clues can be grouped into astronomical and
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about wet and dry periods. Historical records terrestrial causes. The astronomical causes are
describe the vagaries in climate. All these the changes in solar output associated with
evidences indicate that change in climate is a sunspot activities. Sunspots are dark and
bl
natural and continuous process. cooler patches on the sun which increase and
India also witnessed alternate wet and dry decrease in a cyclical manner. According to
periods. Archaeological findings show that the
pu some meteorologists, when the number of
Rajasthan desert experienced wet and cool sunspots increase, cooler and wetter weather
climate around 8,000 B.C. The period 3,000- and greater storminess occur. A decrease in
1,700 B.C. had higher rainfall. From about sunspot numbers is associated with warm and
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2,000-1,700 B.C., this region was the centre drier conditions. Yet, these findings are not
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of the Harappan civilisation. Dry conditions statistically significant.
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Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian periods. characteristics around the sun, the wobbling
During the Pleistocene epoch, glacial and of the earth and the changes in the earth’s axial
tilt. All these alter the amount of insolation
C
nineties decade of the last century witnessed considerable period of time reducing the sun’s
extreme weather events. The 1990s recorded radiation reaching the Earth’s surface. After the
the warmest temperature of the century and recent Pinatoba and El Cion volcanic
some of the worst floods around the world. The eruptions, the average temperature of the earth
worst devastating drought in the Sahel region, fell to some extent for some years.
south of the Sahara desert, from 1967-1977 The most important anthropogenic effect
is one such variability. During the 1930s, on the climate is the increasing trend in the
severe drought occurred in southwestern Great concentration of greenhouse gases in the
Plains of the United States, described as the atmosphere which is likely to cause global
dust bowl. Historical records of crop yield or warming.
108 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
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deforestation due to changes in land use, also
collectively referred to as the greenhouse effect.
increases the concentration of Co2. The time
he
taken for atmospheric CO2 to adjust to changes
The term greenhouse is derived from the
analogy to a greenhouse used in cold in sources to sinks is 20-50 years. It is rising
areas for preserving heat. A greenhouse at about 0.5 per cent annually. Doubling of
is made up of glass. The glass which is concentration of CO2 over pre-industrial level
transparent to incoming short wave solar is used as an index for estimating the changes
is
radiation is opaque to outgoing long wave in climate in climatic models.
radiation. The glass, therefore, allows in Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are products
more radiation and prevents the long of human activity. Ozone occurs in the
bl
wave radiation going outside the glass stratosphere where ultra-violet rays convert
house, causing the temperature inside oxygen into ozone. Thus, ultra violet rays do
the glasshouse structure warmer than
pu not reach the earth’s surface. The CFCs which
outside. When you enter a car or a bus,
during summers, where windows are
drift into the stratosphere destroy the ozone.
closed, you feel more heat than outside. Large depletion of ozone occurs over Antarctica.
Likewise during winter the vehicles with The depletion of ozone concentration in the
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closed doors and windows remain warmer stratosphere is called the ozone hole. This
allows the ultra violet rays to pass through the
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than the temperature outside. This is
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methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and ozone 141 nations. Kyoto protocol bounds the 35
(O3). Some other gases such as nitric oxide (NO) industrialised countries to reduce their
and carbon monoxide (CO) easily react with emissions by the year 2012 to 5 per cent less
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GHGs and affect their concentration in the than the levels prevalent in the year 1990.
atmosphere. The increasing trend in the concentration
The effectiveness of any given GHG of GHGs in the atmosphere may, in the long
molecule will depend on the magnitude of the run, warm up the earth. Once the global
©
increase in its concentration, its life time in the warming sets in, it will be difficult to reverse it.
atmosphere and the wavelength of radiation The effect of global warming may not be
that it absorbs. The chlorofluorocarbons uniform everywhere. Nevertheless, the adverse
(CFCs) are highly effective. Ozone which effect due to global warming will adversely affect
absorbs ultra violet radiation in the the life supporting system. Rise in the sea level
stratosphere is very effective in absorbing due to melting of glaciers and ice-caps and
terrestrial radiation when it is present in the thermal expansion of the sea may inundate
lower troposphere. Another important point to large parts of the coastal area and islands,
be noted is that the more time the GHG leading to social problems. This is another
molecule remains in the atmosphere, the longer cause for serious concern for the world
WORLD CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE 109
community. Efforts have already been initiated annual near surface temperature over land
to control the emission of GHGs and to arrest from 1856-2000, relative to the period
the trend towards global warming. Let us hope 1961-90 as normal for the globe.
the world community responds to this challenge An increasing trend in temperature was
and adopts a lifestyle that leaves behind a discernible in the 20th century. The greatest
livable world for the generations to come. warming of the 20th century was during the
One of the major concerns of the world two periods, 1901-44 and 1977-99. Over each
today is global warming. Let us look at how of these two periods, global temperatures rose
much the planet has warmed up from the by about 0.4°C. In between, there was a slight
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temperature records. cooling, which was more marked in the
Temperature data are available from the Northern Hemisphere.
middle of the 19th century mostly for western The globally averaged annual mean
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Europe. The reference period for this study is temperature at the end of the 20th century was
1961-90. The temperature anomalies for the about 0.6°C above that recorded at the end of
earlier and later periods are estimated from the the 19th century. The seven warmest years
average temperature for the period 1961-90. during the 1856-2000 were recorded in the
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The annual average near-surface air last decade. The year 1998 was the warmest
temperature of the world is approximately year, probably not only for the 20th century
14°C. The time series show anomalies of but also for the whole millennium.
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EXERCISES
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(c) Mean monthly temperature of all the months more than 18o C
(d) Average temperature for all the months below 10° C
he
(ii) Koeppen’s system of classification of climates can be termed as :
(a) Applied (b) Systematic (c) Genetic (d) Empirical
(iii) Most of the Indian Peninsula will be grouped according to Koeppen’s system
under:
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(a) “Af” (b) “BSh” (c) “Cfb” (d) “Am”
(iv) Which one of the following years is supposed to have recorded the warmest
bl
temperature the world over?
(a) 1990 (b) 1998 (c) 1885 (d) 1950
pu (v) Which one of the following groups of four climates represents humid
conditions?
(a) A—B—C—E
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(b) A—C—D—E
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(c) B—C—D—E
(d) A—C—D—F
2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.
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(i) Which two climatic variables are used by Koeppen for classification of the
climate?
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(ii) How is the “genetic” system of classification different from the “empirical
one”?
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(i) Make a comparison of the climatic conditions between the “A” and “B”
types of climate.
(ii) What type of vegetation would you find in the “C” and “A” type(s) of climate?
(iii) What do you understand by the term “Greenhouse Gases”? Make a list of
greenhouse gases.
Project Work
Collect information about Kyoto declaration related to global climate changes.
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UNIT
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pu V
WATER (OCEANS)
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• Hydrological Cycle
• Oceans — submarine relief; distribution of temperature and
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WATER (OCEANS)
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he
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an we think of life without water? It is the ocean to land and land to ocean. The
said that the water is life. Water is an hydrological cycle describes the movement of
essential component of all life forms that water on, in, and above the earth. The water
is
exist over the surface of the earth. The creatures cycle has been working for billions of years
on the earth are lucky that it is a water planet, and all the life on earth depends on it. Next to
otherwise we all would have no existence. Water air, water is the most important element
bl
is a rare commodity in our solar system. There required for the existence of life on earth. The
is no water on the sun or anywhere else in the distribution of water on earth is quite uneven.
solar system. The earth, fortunately has an
pu Many locations have plenty of water while
abundant supply of water on its surface. Hence,
others have very limited quantity. The
our planet is called the ‘Blue Planet’.
hydrological cycle, is the circulation of water
within the earth’s hydrosphere in different
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HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
forms i.e. the liquid, solid and the gaseous
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Water is a cyclic resource. It can be used and phases. It also refers to the continuous
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re-used. Water also undergoes a cycle from exchange of water between the oceans,
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Table 13.1 : Water on the Earth’s surface crisis in different parts of the world — spatially
Reservoir Volume Percentage and temporally. The pollution of river waters
(Million of the Total has further aggravated the crisis. How can you
Cubic km ) intervene in improving the water quality and
augmenting the available quantity of water?
Oceans 1,370 97.25
Ice Caps 29 2.05
RELIEF OF THE OCEAN FLOOR
and Glaciers
Groundwater 9.5 0.68 The oceans are confined to the great
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Lakes 0.125 0.01 depressions of the earth’s outer layer. In this
Soil Moisture 0.065 0.005 section, we shall see the nature of the ocean
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Atmosphere 0.013 0.001 basins of the earth and their topography. The
Streams 0.0017 0.0001
oceans, unlike the continents, merge so
and Rivers naturally into one another that it is hard to
Biosphere 0.0006 0.00004 demarcate them. The geographers have divided
the oceanic part of the earth into four oceans,
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namely the Pacific, the Atlantic, the Indian and
Table 13.2 : Components and Processes
the Arctic. The various seas, bays, gulfs and
of the Water Cycle
other inlets are parts of these four large oceans.
bl
Components Processes A major portion of the ocean floor is found
between 3-6 km below the sea level. The ‘land’
Water storage Evaporation
in oceans
pu Evapotranspiration under the waters of the oceans, that is, the
Sublimation ocean floor exhibits complex and varied
Water in the Condensation
features as those observed over the land
atmosphere Precipitation (Figure 13.2). The floors of the oceans are
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atmosphere, landsurface and subsurface and The ocean floors can be divided into four major
the organisms. divisions: (i) the Continental Shelf; (ii) the
Table 13.1 shows distribution of water on Continental Slope; (iii) the Deep Sea Plain;
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the surface of the earth. About 71 per cent of (iv) the Oceanic Deeps. Besides, these divisions
the planetary water is found in the oceans. The there are also major and minor relief features
remaining is held as freshwater in glaciers and in the ocean floors like ridges, hills, sea
icecaps, groundwater sources, lakes, soil mounts, guyots, trenches, canyons, etc.
©
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The continental shelves are covered with
in this region.
variable thicknesses of sediments brought
he
down by rivers, glaciers, wind, from the land
and distributed by waves and currents. Massive Deep Sea Plain
sedimentary deposits received over a long time Deep sea plains are gently sloping areas of the
by the continental shelves, become the source ocean basins. These are the flattest and
of fossil fuels.
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smoothest regions of the world. The depths
vary between 3,000 and 6,000m. These plains
are covered with fine-grained sediments like
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clay and silt.
Indian Ocean.
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Mid-Oceanic Ridges
A mid-oceanic ridge is composed of two chains
of mountains separated by a large depression.
The mountain ranges can have peaks as high
as 2,500 m and some even reach above the
ocean’s surface. Iceland, a part of the mid-
Figure 13.2 : Relief features of ocean floors Atlantic Ridge, is an example.
WATER (OCEANS) 115
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this, the onshore winds pile up warm
These are deep valleys, some comparable to the water near the coast and this raises the
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Grand Canyon of the Colorado river. They are temperature.
sometimes found cutting across the continental (iv) Ocean currents : warm ocean currents
shelves and slopes, often extending from the raise the temperature in cold areas while
mouths of large rivers. The Hudson Canyon is the cold currents decrease the
the best known submarine canyon in the world. temperature in warm ocean areas. Gulf
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stream (warm current) raises the
Guyots temperature near the eastern coast of
North America and the West Coast of
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It is a flat topped seamount. They show
evidences of gradual subsidence through Europe while the Labrador current (cold
stages to become flat topped submerged current) lowers the temperature near the
pu
mountains. It is estimated that more than north-east coast of North America.
10,000 seamounts and guyots exist in the All these factors influence the temperature
Pacific Ocean alone. of the ocean currents locally. The enclosed seas
in the low latitudes record relatively higher
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These are low islands found in the tropical temperature than the open seas.
oceans consisting of coral reefs surrounding
a central depression. It may be a part of the Horizontal and Vertical Distribution
tt E
variations of temperature in various oceans. of the ocean and the deeper layers. The
Ocean waters get heated up by the solar energy boundary usually begins around 100 - 400 m
just as land. The process of heating and cooling below the sea surface and extends several
of the oceanic water is slower than land. hundred of metres downward (Figure 13.3).
©
warm oceanic water and it is about 500m thick hemisphere record relatively higher temperature
with temperatures ranging between 20° and than in the southern hemisphere. The highest
25° C. This layer, within the tropical region, is temperature is not recorded at the equator but
present throughout the year but in mid slightly towards north of it. The average annual
latitudes it develops only during summer. temperatures for the northern and southern
The second layer called the thermocline hemisphere are around 19° C and 16° C
layer lies below the first layer and is characterised respectively. This variation is due to the
by rapid decrease in temperature with increasing unequal distribution of land and water in the
depth. The thermocline is 500 -1,000 m thick. northern and southern hemispheres. Figure
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13.4 shows the spatial pattern of surface
temperature of the oceans.
It is a well known fact that the maximum
he
temperature of the oceans is always at their
surfaces because they directly receive the heat
from the sun and the heat is transmitted to
the lower sections of the oceans through the
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process of convection. It results into decrease
of temperature with the increasing depth, but
the rate of decrease is not uniform throughout.
bl
The temperature falls very rapidly up to the
depth of 200 m and thereafter, the rate of
pu decrease of temperature is slowed down.
SALINITY OF OCEAN WATERS
All waters in nature, whether rain water or
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upto the deep ocean floor. In the Arctic and (i) The salinity of water in the surface layer
Antartic circles, the surface water temperatures of oceans depend mainly on evaporation
are close to 0° C and so the temperature change and precipitation.
with the depth is very slight. Here, only one (ii) Surface salinity is greatly influenced in
©
layer of cold water exists, which extends from coastal regions by the fresh water flow
surface to deep ocean floor. from rivers, and in polar regions by the
The average temperature of surface water processes of freezing and thawing of ice.
of the oceans is about 27°C and it gradually (iii) Wind, also influences salinity of an area
decreases from the equator towards the poles. by transferring water to other areas.
The rate of decrease of temperature with (iv) The ocean currents contribute to the
increasing latitude is generally 0.5°C per salinity variations. Salinity, temperature
latitude. The average temperature is around and density of water are interrelated. Hence,
22°C at 20° latitudes, 14° C at 40° latitudes any change in the temperature or density
and 0° C near poles. The oceans in the northern influences the salinity of water in an area.
WATER (OCEANS) 117
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Great Salt Lake (220 o/oo) regions, where evaporation is high, the salinity
sometimes reaches to 70 o/oo.
The salinity variation in the Pacific Ocean
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Table 13.4 : Dissolved Salts in Sea Water is mainly due to its shape and larger areal
(gm of Salt per kg of Water) extent. Salinity decreases from 35 o/oo - 31 o/oo
on the western parts of the northern
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Chlorine 18.97
hemisphere because of the influx of melted
Sodium 10.47
water from the Arctic region. In the same way,
Sulphate 2.65
Magnesium 1.28
after 15° - 20° south, it decreases to 33 o/oo .
The average salinity of the Atlantic Ocean
©
Calcium 0.41
Potassium 0.38 is around 36 o/ oo. The highest salinity is
Bicarbonate 0.14 recorded between 15° and 20° latitudes.
Bromine 0.06 Maximum salinity (37 o/oo) is observed between
Borate 0.02 20° N and 30° N and 20° W - 60° W. It gradually
Strontium 0.01 decreases towards the north. The North Sea,
in spite of its location in higher latitudes,
records higher salinity due to more saline water
HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF SALINITY brought by the North Atlantic Drift. Baltic Sea
The salinity for normal open ocean ranges records low salinity due to influx of river waters
between 33o/oo and 37 o/oo. In the land locked in large quantity. The Mediterranean Sea
118 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
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pu 120º 60º 60º
records higher salinity due to high evaporation. water to ice or evaporation, or decreased by
Salinity is, however, very low in Black Sea due the input of fresh waters, such as from the
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to enormous fresh water influx by rivers. See rivers. Salinity at depth is very much fixed,
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the atlas to find out the rivers joining Black Sea. because there is no way that water is ‘lost’, or
The average salinity of the Indian Ocean is the salt is ‘added.’ There is a marked difference
in the salinity between the surface zones and
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salinity due to high evaporation and low influx water. Salinity, generally, increases with depth
of fresh water. Figure 13.5 shows the salinity of and there is a distinct zone called the halocline,
the World’s oceans. where salinity increases sharply. Other factors
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EXERCISES
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water per
(a) 10 gm (c) 100 gm
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(b) 1,000 gm (d) 10,000 gm
(v) Which one of the following is the smallest ocean:
(a) Indian Ocean (c) Atlantic Ocean
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(b) Arctic Ocean (d) Pacific Ocean
2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.
bl
(i) Why do we call the earth a Blue Planet?
(ii) What is a continental margin?
(iii) List out the deepest trenches of various oceans.
pu (iv) What is a thermocline?
(v) When you move into the ocean what thermal layers would you encounter?
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(ii) Examine the factors that influence the temperature distribution of the
oceans.
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Project Work
(i) Consult the atlas and show ocean floor relief on the outline of the world
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map.
(ii) Identify the areas of mid oceanic ridges from the Indian Ocean.
©
CHAPTER
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T
he ocean water is dynamic. Its physical wavelength of the wave, the wave breaks. The
characteristics like temperature, largest waves are found in the open oceans.
salinity, density and the external Waves continue to grow larger as they move
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forces like of the sun, moon and the winds and absorb energy from the wind.
influence the movement of ocean water. The Most of the waves are caused by the wind
horizontal and vertical motions are common driving against water. When a breeze of two
bl
in ocean water bodies. The horizontal motion knots or less blows over calm water, small
refers to the ocean currents and waves. The ripples form and grow as the wind speed
vertical motion refers to tides. Ocean currents increases until white caps appear in the
pu
are the continuous flow of huge amount of
water in a definite direction while the waves
breaking waves. Waves may travel thousands
of km before rolling ashore, breaking and
are the horizontal motion of water. Water moves dissolving as surf.
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ahead from one place to another through ocean A wave’s size and shape reveal its origin.
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currents while the water in the waves does not Steep waves are fairly young ones and are
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move, but the wave trains move ahead. The probably formed by local wind. Slow and
vertical motion refers to the rise and fall of water steady waves originate from far away places,
in the oceans and seas. Due to attraction of possibly from another hemisphere. The
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the sun and the moon, the ocean water is raised maximum wave height is determined by the
up and falls down twice a day. The upwelling strength of the wind, i.e. how long it blows and
of cold water from subsurface and the sinking the area over which it blows in a single direction.
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of surface water are also forms of vertical Waves travel because wind pushes the
motion of ocean water. water body in its course while gravity pulls the
crests of the waves downward. The falling water
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wave moves to a new position (Figure 14.1). is less as it is farther away, the centrifugal force
The actual motion of the water beneath the causes tidal bulge on the other side (Figure
waves is circular. It indicates that things are 14.2).
carried up and forward as the wave The ‘tide-generating’ force is the difference
approaches, and down and back as it passes. between these two forces; i.e. the gravitational
attraction of the moon and the centrifugal force.
Characteristics of Waves On the surface of the earth, nearest the moon,
Wave crest and trough : The highest and pull or the attractive force of the moon is greater
lowest points of a wave are called the crest than the centrifugal force, and so there is a net
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and trough respectively. force causing a bulge towards the moon. On
Wave height : It is the vertical distance the opposite side of the earth, the attractive
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from the bottom of a trough to the top of force is less, as it is farther away from the moon,
a crest of a wave. the centrifugal force is dominant. Hence, there
Wave amplitude : It is one-half of the wave is a net force away from the moon. It creates
height. the second bulge away from the moon. On the
surface of the earth, the horizontal tide
is
Wave period : It is merely the time interval
between two successive wave crests or generating forces are more important than the
troughs as they pass a fixed point. vertical forces in generating the tidal bulges.
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Wavelength : It is the horizontal distance
between two successive crests.
Wave speed : It is the rate at which the
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wave moves through the water, and is
measured in knots.
Wave frequency : It is the number of waves
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TIDES
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rises about 240 cm an hour (1,440 cm Neap tides : Normally, there is a seven day
divided by 6 hours). If you have walked interval between the spring tides and neap
down a beach with a steep cliff alongside
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tides. At this time the sun and moon are at
(which is common there), make sure you
right angles to each other and the forces of the
watch the tides. If you walk for about an
sun and moon tend to counteract one another.
hour and then notice that the tide is
The Moon’s attraction, though more than twice
coming in, the water will be over your
as strong as the sun’s, is diminished by the
is
head before you get back to where you
started!
counteracting force of the sun’s gravitational
pull.
Once in a month, when the moon’s orbit is
bl
Types of Tides closest to the earth (perigee), unusually high
Tides vary in their frequency, direction and and low tides occur. During this time the tidal
movement from place to place and also from
pu range is greater than normal. Two weeks later,
time to time. Tides may be grouped into various when the moon is farthest from earth (apogee),
types based on their frequency of occurrence the moon’s gravitational force is limited and
the tidal ranges are less than their average
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tides each day. The successive high or low tides the earth is farthest from the sun (aphelion),
are approximately of the same height. around 4th July each year, tidal ranges are
much less than average.
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Diurnal tide : There is only one high tide and The time between the high tide and low tide,
one low tide during each day. The successive when the water level is falling, is called the ebb.
high and low tides are approximately of the The time between the low tide and high tide,
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same height. when the tide is rising, is called the flow or flood.
Mixed tide : Tides having variations in height
are known as mixed tides. These tides generally Importance of Tides
©
occur along the west coast of North America Since tides are caused by the earth-moon-sun
and on many islands of the Pacific Ocean. positions which are known accurately, the
tides can be predicted well in advance. This
Tides based on the Sun, Moon and the Earth helps the navigators and fishermen plan their
Positions activities. Tidal flows are of great importance
The height of rising water (high tide) varies in navigation. Tidal heights are very important,
appreciably depending upon the position of especially harbours near rivers and within
sun and moon with respect to the earth. estuaries having shallow ‘bars’ at the entrance,
Spring tides and neap tides come under this which prevent ships and boats from entering
category. into the harbour. Tides are also helpful in
MOVEMENTS OF OCEAN WATER 123
desilting the sediments and in removing Differences in water density affect vertical
polluted water from river estuaries. Tides are mobility of ocean currents. Water with high
used to generate electrical power (in Canada, salinity is denser than water with low salinity
France, Russia, and China). A 3 MW tidal and in the same way cold water is denser than
power project at Durgaduani in Sunderbans warm water. Denser water tends to sink, while
of West Bengal is under way. relatively lighter water tends to rise. Cold-water
ocean currents occur when the cold water at
OCEAN CURRENTS the poles sinks and slowly moves towards the
equator. Warm-water currents travel out from
Ocean currents are like river flow in oceans. the equator along the surface, flowing towards
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They represent a regular volume of water in a the poles to replace the sinking cold water.
definite path and direction. Ocean currents are
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influenced by two types of forces namely :
(i) primary forces that initiate the movement of Types of Ocean Currents
water; (ii) secondary forces that influence the The ocean currents may be classified based on
currents to flow. their depth as surface currents and deep water
The primary forces that influence the currents : (i) surface currents constitute about
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currents are: (i) heating by solar energy; 10 per cent of all the water in the ocean, these
(ii) wind; (iii) gravity; (iv) coriolis force. Heating waters are the upper 400 m of the ocean;
by solar energy causes the water to expand. (ii) deep water currents make up the other 90
bl
That is why, near the equator the ocean water per cent of the ocean water. These waters move
is about 8 cm higher in level than in the middle around the ocean basins due to variations in
latitudes. This causes a very slight gradient the density and gravity. Deep waters sink into
and water tends to flow down the slope. Wind
pu the deep ocean basins at high latitudes, where
blowing on the surface of the ocean pushes the the temperatures are cold enough to cause the
water to move. Friction between the wind and density to increase.
the water surface affects the movement of the Ocean currents can also be classified
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water body in its course. Gravity tends to pull based on temperature : as cold currents and
the water down the pile and create gradient warm currents: (i) cold currents bring cold
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variation. The Coriolis force intervenes and
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of water and the flow around them are called coast in the higher latitudes in the Northern
Gyres. These produce large circular currents Hemisphere; (ii) warm currents bring warm
in all the ocean basins.
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Currents are referred to by their “drift”. they are found on the west coasts of continents
Usually, the currents are strongest near in high latitudes.
the surface and may attain speeds over
five knots. At depths, currents are Major Ocean Currents
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pu
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EXERCISES
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(a) As result of the moon and the sun pulling the earth gravitationally
in the same direction.
he
(b) As result of the moon and the sun pulling the earth gravitationally
in the opposite direction.
(c) Indention in the coast line.
(d) None of the above.
is
(iii) The distance between the earth and the moon is minimum when the moon
is in :
(a) Aphelion (c) Perihelion
bl
(b) Perigee (d) Apogee
(iv) The earth reaches its perihelion in:
pu (a) October
(b) September
(c) July
(d) January
2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.
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(i) How do currents affect the temperature? How does it affect the temperature
of coastal areas in the N. W. Europe?
(ii) What are the causes of currents?
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Project Work
(i) Visit a lake or a pond and observe the movement of waves. Throw a stone
and notice how waves are generated.
©
(ii) Take a globe and a map showing the currents of the oceans. Discuss why
certain currents are warm or cold and why they deflect in certain places
and examine the reasons.
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UNIT
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pu VI
LIFE EARTH
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ON THE
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d
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B
y now you might have realised that all ECOLOGY
units of this book have acquainted you
You have been reading about ecological and
with the three major realms of the
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environmental problems in newspapers and
environment, that is, the lithosphere, the
magazines. Have you ever thought what
atmosphere and the hydrosphere. You know
ecology is? The environment as you know, is
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that living organisms of the earth, constituting
made up of abiotic and biotic components. It
the biosphere, interact with other environmental
would be interesting to understand how the
realms. The biosphere includes all the living
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components of the earth. It consists of all plants
kind of balance. This balance is maintained in
and animals, including all the micro-
a particular proportion so that a healthy
interaction between the biotic and the abiotic
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from the poles to the equator, from the organisms with abiotic factors within a
bottom of the sea to several km in the particular habitat resulting in clearly defined
air, from freezing waters to dry valleys, energy flows and material cycles on land, water
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Most of the organisms exist on the lithosphere of’ or ‘the study of ’. Literally, ecology is
and/or the hydrosphere as well as in the the study of the earth as a ‘household’,
atmosphere. There are also many organisms of plants, human beings, animals and
micro-organisms. They all live together
that move freely from one realm to the other.
as interdependent components. A
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The biosphere and its components are very German zoologist Ernst Haeckel, who
significant elements of the environment. These used the term as ‘oekologie’ in 1869,
elements interact with other components of the became the first person to use the term
natural landscape such as land, water and ‘ecology’. The study of interactions
soil. They are also influenced by the between life forms (biotic) and the
atmospheric elements such as the temperature, physical environment (abiotic) is the
science of ecology. Hence, ecology can be
rainfall, moisture and sunlight. The
defined as a scientific study of the
interactions of biosphere with land, air and interactions of organisms with their
water are important to the growth, physical environment and with each other.
development and evolution of the organism.
128 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
A habitat in the ecological sense is the totality ecosystem includes lakes, ponds, streams,
of the physical and chemical factors that marshes and bogs.
constitute the general environment. A system
Structure and Functions of Ecosystems
consisting of biotic and abiotic components is
known as ecosystem. All these components in The structure of an ecosystem involves a
ecosystem are inter related and interact with description of the available plant and animal
each other. Different types of ecosystems exist species. From a structural point of view, all
with varying ranges of environmental ecosystems consist of abiotic and biotic factors.
conditions where various plants and animal Abiotic factors include rainfall, temperature,
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species have got adapted through evolution. sunlight, atmospheric humidity, soil
This phenomenon is known as ecological conditions, inorganic substances (carbon
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adaptation. dioxide, water, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus,
potassium, etc.). Biotic factors include the
Types of Ecosystems
producers, the consumers (primary,
Ecosystems are of two major types: terrestrial secondary, tertiary) and the decomposers. The
and aquatic. Terrestrial ecosystem can be producers include all the green plants, which
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further be classified into ‘biomes’. A biome is a manufacture their own food through
plant and animal community that covers a photosynthesis. The primary consumers
large geographical area. The boundaries of include herbivorous animals like deer, goats,
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different biomes on land are determined mainly mice and all plant-eating animals. The
by climate. Therefore, a biome can be defined carnivores include all the flesh-eating animals
as the total assemblage of plant and animal like snakes, tigers and lions. Certain carnivores
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species interacting within specific conditions.
These include rainfall, temperature, humidity
that feed also on carnivores are known as top
carnivores like hawks and mongooses.
Decomposers are those that feed on dead
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classed as marine and freshwater ecosystems. down of the dead matter by other decomposing
Marine ecosystem includes the oceans, agents like bacteria and various micro-
estuaries and coral reefs. Freshwater organisms.
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The producers are consumed by the aquatic and altitudinal biomes. Some features
primary consumers whereas the primary of these biomes are given in Table 15.1.
consumers are, in turn, being eaten by the
secondary consumers. Further, the secondary Biogeochemical Cycles
consumers are consumed by the tertiary The sun is the basic source of energy on which
consumers. The decomposers feed on the dead all life depends. This energy initiates life
at each and every level. They change them into processes in the biosphere through
various substances such as nutrients, organic photosynthesis, the main source of food and
and inorganic salts essential for soil fertility. energy for green plants. During photosynthesis,
Organisms of an ecosystem are linked together
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carbon dioxide is converted into organic
through a foodchain (Figure 15.1). For compounds and oxygen. Out of the total solar
example, a plant eating beetle feeding on a insolation that reaches the earth’s surface, only
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paddy stalk is eaten by a frog, which is, in turn, a very small fraction (0.1 per cent) is fixed in
eaten by a snake, which is then consumed by photosynthesis. More than half is used for plant
a hawk. This sequence of eating and being respiration and the remaining part is
eaten and the resultant transfer of energy from temporarily stored or is shifted to other
one level to another is known as the food-chain.
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portions of the plant.
Transfer of energy that occurs during the Life on earth consists of a great variety of
process of a foodchain from one level to living organisms. These living organisms exist
another is known as flow of energy. However, and survive in a diversity of associations. Such
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food-chains are not isolated from one another. survival involves the presence of systemic flows
For example, a mouse feeding on grain may such as flows of energy, water and nutrients.
be eaten by different secondary consumers
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(carnivores) and these carnivores may be eaten of the world, in different seasons of the year
by other different tertiary consumers (top and under varying local circumstances. Studies
carnivores). In such situations, each of the have shown that for the last one billion years,
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carnivores may consume more than one type the atmosphere and hydrosphere have been
of prey. As a result, the food- chains get composed of approximately the same balance
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interlocked with one another. This inter-
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food-chain. In a grazing food-chain, the first chemical elements by the organism and is
level starts with plants as producers and ends returned to the air, water and soil through
with carnivores as consumers at the last level,
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by grazing animals and involves the cycles : the gaseous and the sedimentary cycle.
decomposition or breaking down of organic In the gaseous cycle, the main reservoir of
wastes and dead matter derived from the nutrients is the atmosphere and the ocean. In
grazing food-chain. the sedimentary cycle, the main reservoir is the
soil and the sedimentary and other rocks of
Types of Biomes the earth’s crust.
In the earlier paragraphs, you have learnt the The Water Cycle
meaning of the term ‘biome’. Let us now try to
identify the major biomes of the world. There All living organisms, the atmosphere and the
are five major biomes — forest, desert, grassland, lithosphere maintain between them a
130 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
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C. Broad belt of distributed 750- with bats, birds and
Eurasia and 1,500mm, Well- decaying mammals are
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North America defined seasons litter common species
(parts of and distinct winter. C. Acidic and in both
Siberia, C. Short moist moder- poor in B. Moderately dense
Alaska, ately warm nutrients, broad leaved trees.
Canada and summers and long thin soil With less diversity
Scandinavia) cold dry winter; cover of plant species.
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very low Oak, Beach, Maple
temperatures. etc. are some
Precipitation mostly common species.
snowfall Squirrels, rabbits,
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400 -1,000mm skunks, birds,
black bears,
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C. Evergreen conifers
like pine, fur and
spruce etc. Wood
peckers, hawks,
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bears, wolves,
deer, hares and
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bats are common
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animals
Desert A. Hot and Dry A. S a h a r a , A. Temp. 20 - 45°C. Rich in A-C. Scanty vege-
desert Kalahari, B. 21 - 38°C. nutrients with tation; few large
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Grassland A. Tropical A. Large areas A. Warm hot A. Porous with A. Grasses; trees
Savannah of A f r i c a , climates, Rainfall thin layer of and large shrubs
B. Temperate Australia, 500-1,250 mm humus. absent; giraffes
Steppe South B. Hot summers and B. Thin floccu- zebras, buffalos,
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oceros, wild
horses, lions,
varieties of birds,
worms, snakes
etc., are common
animals
Aquatic A. Freshwater A. Lakes, streams, A-B Temperatures vary A. Water, swamps Algal and other aquatic
B. Marine rivers and widely with cooler air and marshes and marine plant
wetlands temperatures and communities with
B. Oceans, coral high humidity B.Water, tidal varieties of water
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reefs, lagoons swamps and dwelling animals
and estuaries marshes
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Altitudinal ——— Slopes of high Temperature and Regolith over Deciduous to tundra
mountain ranges precipitation vary slopes vegetation varying
like the Himalayas, depending upon according to altitude
the Andes and the latitudinal zone
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Rockies
circulation of water in solid, liquid or gaseous dioxide and are returned to the atmosphere
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form referred to as the water or hydrologic cycle (Figure 15.2).
(Chapter 13 of this book).
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The Carbon Cycle
Carbon is one of the basic elements of all living
organisms. It forms the basic constituent of
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become part of the plant tissue. Plant tissues of carbohydrates with the release of energy,
are either being eaten by the herbivorous carbon dioxide and water. The cycling of
animals or get decomposed by the micro- oxygen is a highly complex process. Oxygen
organisms. The herbivores convert some of the occurs in a number of chemical forms and
consumed carbohydrates into carbon dioxide combinations. It combines with nitrogen to
for release into the air through respiration. The form nitrates and with many other minerals
micro-organisms decompose the remaining and elements to form various oxides such as
carbohydrates after the animal dies. The the iron oxide, aluminium oxide and others.
carbohydrates that are decomposed by the Much of oxygen is produced from the
micro-organisms then get oxidised into carbon decomposition of water molecules by sunlight
132 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
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compounds such as the amino acids, nucleic They usually occur as salts dissolved in soil
acids, proteins, vitamins and pigments. Only water or lakes, streams and seas. Mineral salts
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a few types of organisms like certain species of come directly from the earth’s crust by
soil bacteria and blue green algae are capable weathering where the soluble salts enter the
of utilising it directly in its gaseous form. water cycle, eventually reaching the sea. Other
Generally, nitrogen is usable only after it is salts are returned to the earth’s surface through
fixed. Ninety per cent of fixed nitrogen is sedimentation, and after weathering, they again
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biological. The principal source of free nitrogen enter the cycle. All living organisms fulfill their
is the action of soil micro-organisms and mineral requirements from mineral solutions
associated plant roots on atmospheric nitrogen in their environments. Other animals receive
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found in pore spaces of the soil. Nitrogen can their mineral needs from the plants and animals
also be fixed in the atmosphere by lightning and they consume. After the death of living
cosmic radiation. In the oceans, some marine
pu organisms, the minerals are returned to the soil
animals can fix it. After atmospheric nitrogen and water through decomposition and flow.
has been fixed into an available form, green
plants can assimilate it. Herbivorous animals Ecological Balance
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change in the species distribution. This change the ecosystem. This has destroyed its originality
is due to competition where the secondary and has caused adverse effects to the general
forest species such as grasses, bamboos or environment. Ecological imbalances have
pines overtakes the native species changing brought many natural calamities like
the original forest structure. This is called floods, landslides, diseases, erratic climatic
succession. occurrences, etc.
Ecological balance may be disturbed due There is a very close relationship between
to the introduction of new species, natural the plant and animal communities within
hazards or human causes. Human interference particular habitats. Diversity of life in a
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has affected the balance of plant communities particular area can be employed as an
leading to disturbances in the ecosystems. indicator of the habitat factor. Proper
Such disturbances bring about numerous knowledge and understanding of such factors
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secondary successions. Human pressure on provide a strong base for protecting and
the earth’s resources has put a heavy toll on conserving the ecosystems.
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EXERCISES
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1. Multiple choice questions.
Project Work
(i) Show the distribution of the different biomes on the outline map of the
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world with a note highlighting the important characteristics of each biome.
(ii) Make a note of trees, shrubs and perennial plants in your school campus
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and devote half a day to observe the types of birds which come to the
garden. Can you describe the diversity of birds?
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CHAPTER
d
he
Y
ou have already learnt about the the earth are today extinct. Biodiversity is not
geomorphic processes particularly found evenly on the earth. It is consistently
weathering and depth of weathering richer in the tropics. As one approaches the
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mantle in different climatic zones. See the polar regions, one finds larger and larger
Figure 6.2 in Chapter 6 in order to recapitulate. populations of fewer and fewer species.
You should know that this weathering mantle Biodiversity itself is a combination of two
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is the basis for the diversity of vegetation and words, Bio (life) and diversity (variety). In
hence, the biodiversity. The basic cause for simple terms, biodiversity is the number and
such weathering variations and resultant variety of organisms found within a specified
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biodiversity is the input of solar energy and
water. No wonder that the areas that are rich
geographic region. It refers to the varieties of
plants, animals and micro-organisms, the
in these inputs are the areas of wide spectrum genes they contain and the ecosystems they
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Biodiversity as we have today is the result variability within and between the species and
of 2.5-3.5 billion years of evolution. Before that within and between the ecosystems.
the advent of humans, our earth Biodiversity is our living wealth. It is a result
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fresh water fishes from South America variation of genes within species. Groups of
are not classified yet). Tropical forests are individual organisms having certain
very rich in bio-diversity. similarities in their physical characteristics are
called species. Human beings genetically
Biodiversity is a system in constant belong to the homo sapiens group and also
evolution, from a view point of species, as well differ in their characteristics such as height,
as from view point of an individual organism. colour, physical appearance, etc., considerably.
The average half-life of a species is estimated This is due to genetic diversity. This genetic
at between one and four million years, and 99 diversity is essential for a healthy breeding of
per cent of the species that have ever lived on population of species.
136 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
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atmospheric gases and help regulate the
Ecosystem Diversity
climate. These functions are important for
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You have studied about the ecosystem in the ecosystem function and human survival. The
earlier chapter. The broad differences between more diverse an ecosystem, better are the
ecosystem types and the diversity of habitats chances for the species to survive through
and ecological processes occurring within each adversities and attacks, and consequently, is
ecosystem type constitute the ecosystem more productive. Hence, the loss of species
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diversity. The ‘boundaries’ of communities would decrease the ability of the system to
(associations of species) and ecosystems are not maintain itself. Just like a species with a high
very rigidly defined. Thus, the demarcation of genetic diversity, an ecosystem with high
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ecosystem boundaries is difficult and complex. biodiversity may have a greater chance of
adapting to environmental change. In other
pu words, the more the variety of species in an
ecosystem, the more stable the ecosystem is
likely to be.
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ecosystems of which we are also a species. This The International Union of Conservation of
fact must be drawn upon every one of us so Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) has
that we live and let other species also live their classified the threatened species of plants and
lives. animals into three categories for the purpose
It is our ethical responsibility to consider of their conservation.
that each and every species along with us have
an intrinsic right to exist. Hence, it is morally Endangered Species
wrong to voluntarily cause the extinction of any
It includes those species which are in danger
species. The level of biodiversity is a good
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of extinction. The IUCN publishes information
indicator of the state of our relationships with
about endangered species world-wide as the
other living species. In fact, the concept of
Red List of threatened species.
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biodiversity is an integral part of many human
cultures.
LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
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Since the last few decades, growth in human
population has increased the rate of
consumption of natural resources. It has
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accelerated the loss of species and habitation
in different parts of the world. Tropical regions
which occupy only about one-fourth of the
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total area of the world, contain about three-
fourth of the world human population. Over-
exploitation of resources and deforestation
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contain 50 per cent of the species on the earth, Figure 16.2 : Red Panda — an endangered species
destruction of natural habitats have proved
disastrous for the entire biosphere.
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(iv) Each country should identify habitats
of wild relatives and ensure their
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protection.
(v) Habitats where species feed, breed, rest
and nurse their young should be
safeguarded and protected.
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(vi) International trade in wild plants and
animals be regulated.
To protect, preserve and propagate the
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variety of species within natural boundaries,
Figure 16.4 : Humbodtia decurrens Bedd — highly rare the Government of India passed the Wild Life
endemic tree of Southern Western Ghats (India)
pu (Protection) Act, 1972, under which national
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY parks and sanctuaries were established and
biosphere reserves declared. Details of these
Biodiversity is important for human existence. biosphere reserves are given in the book India:
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All forms of life are so closely interlinked that Physical Environment (NCERT, 2006).
disturbance in one gives rise to imbalance in
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There are some countries which are situated
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the others. If species of plants and animals in the tropical region; they possess a large
become endangered, they cause degradation number of the world’s species diversity. They
in the environment, which may threaten are called mega diversity centres. There are
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reorient their activities in such a way that our Indonesia and Australia in which these centres
development is harmonious with other life forms are located. In order to concentrate resources
and is sustainable. There is an increasing on those areas that are most vulnerable, the
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consciousness of the fact that such conservation International Union for the Conservation of
with sustainable use is possible only with the Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) has
involvement and cooperation of local identified certain areas as biodiversity hotspots
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communities and individuals. For this, the (Figure 16.5). Hotspots are defined according
development of institutional structures at local to their vegetation. Plants are important
levels is necessary. The critical problem is not because these determine the primary
merely the conservation of species nor the productivity of an ecosystem. Most, but not all,
habitat but the continuation of process of of the hotspots rely on species-rich ecosystems
conservation. for food, firewood, cropland, and income from
The Government of India along with 155 timber. In Madagascar, for example, about 85
other nations have signed the Convention of per cent of the plants and animals are
Biodiversity at the Earth Summit held at found nowhere else in the world, Other
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June 1992. The world hotspots in wealthy countries are facing
BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION 139
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different types of pressures. The islands of that are threatened by introduced species and
Hawaii have many unique plants and animals land development.
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EXERCISES
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(i) What is biodiversity?
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(ii) What are the different levels of biodiversity?
(iii) What do you understand by ‘hotspots’?
(iv) Discuss briefly the importance of animals to human kind.
(v) What do you understand by ‘exotic species’?
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3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.
(i) What are the roles played by biodiversity in the shaping of nature?
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(ii) What are the major factors that are responsible for the loss of biodiversity?
What steps are needed to prevent them?
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Project Work
Collect the names of national parks, sanctuaries and biosphere reserves of the
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state where your school is located and show their location on the map of India.
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GLOSSARY
Abiotic : Non-living thing. Usually refers to the physical and chemical components
of an organism’s environment.
Adiabatic Lapse Rate : The rate of change of temperature by an ascending or
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descending airmass. If no other non-adiabatic processes (i.e. no heat enters or
leaves the system) occur (like condensation, evaporation and radiation), expansion
he
causes the parcel of air to cool at a set rate of 0.98° per 100 m. The opposite occurs
when a parcel of air descends in the atmosphere. The air in a descending parcel
becomes compressed. Compression causes the temperature within the parcel to
increase at a rate of 0.98° per 100 m.
Air Mass : A body of air whose temperature and humidity characteristics, acquired
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in source region, remain relatively constant over a horizontal distance of hundreds
to thousands of km. Air masses develop their climatic characteristics by remaining
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stationary over a source region for a number of days. Air masses are classified
according to their temperature and humidity characteristics.
Aphelion : It is the point in the Earth’s orbit when it is farthest from the sun (152.5
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million km). Aphelion occurs on the 3rd or 4th of July.
Asthenosphere : Zone in the Earth’s mantle that exhibits plastic properties. Located
below the lithosphere at between 100 and 200 km.
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called a barometer.
Aurora : Multicoloured lights that appear in the upper atmosphere (ionosphere)
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over the polar regions and visible from locations in the middle and high latitudes.
Caused by the interaction of solar wind with oxygen and nitrogen gas in the
atmosphere. Aurora in the Northern Hemisphere are called aurora borealis and
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not existant. Then suddenly with a bang, the Universe began to expand at an
incredible rate and matter, energy, space and time came into being. As the Universe
expanded, matter began to coalesce into gas clouds, and then stars and planets.
Some scientists believe that this expansion is finite and will one day cease. After
this point in time, the Universe will begin to collapse until a Big Crunch occurs.
Biodiversity : The diversity of different species (species diversity), genetic variability
among individuals within each species (genetic diversity), and variety of ecosystems
(ecosystem diversity).
Biomass : The weight of living tissues usually measured per unit area over a
142 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
particular time interval. Can include the dead parts of organisms like bark, hair,
and nails.
Biome : Largest recognisable assemblage of animals and plants on the Earth. The
distribution of the biomes is controlled mainly by climate.
Calcification : A dry environment soil-forming process that results in the
accumulation of calcium carbonate in surface soil layers.
Caldera Volcano : Explosive type of volcano that leaves a large circular depression.
Some of these depressions can be as large as 40 km in diameter. These volcanoes
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form when wet granitic magma quickly rises to the surface of the Earth.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) : Is an artificially created gas that has become
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concentrated in the Earth’s atmosphere. This very strong greenhouse gas is released
from aerosol sprays, refrigerants, and the production of fumes.
Cirrocumulus Clouds : Patchy white high altitude cloud composed of ice crystals.
Found in an altitude range from 5,000 - 18,000 m.
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Cirrostratus Clouds : High altitude sheet like clouds composed of ice crystals.
These thin clouds often cover the entire sky. Found in an altitude range from
5,000 - 18,000 m.
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Cold Front : A transition zone in the atmosphere where an advancing cold air mass
displaces a warm air mass.
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Continental Crust : Granitic portion of the Earth’s crust that makes up the
continents. Thickness of the continental crust varies between 20 - 75 km. See sial
layer.
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Coriolis Force : An apparent force due to the Earth’s rotation. Causes moving
objects to be deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in
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the Southern hemisphere. Coriolis force does not exist on the equator. This force is
responsible for the direction of flow in meteorological phenomena like mid-latitude
cyclones, hurricanes, and anticyclones.
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Cumulus Cloud : Large clouds with relatively flat bases. These are found in an
altitude range from 300 - 2,000 m.
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Cumulonimbus Cloud : A well developed vertical cloud that often has top shaped
like an anvil. These clouds can extend in altitude from a few hundred m above
the surface to more than 12,000 m.
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Desert Pavement : A veneer of coarse particles left on the ground after the erosion
of finer particles by wind.
Earthquake : A sudden motion or shaking in the Earth. The motion is caused by
the quick release of slowly accumulated energy in the form of seismic waves.
©
Epicentre : A place on the surface of the earth located at the shortest distance from
the focus of the earthquake, the point at which the seismic energy gets released.
Global Warming : Warming of the Earth’s average global temperature because of an
increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases.
Geomagnetism : A property of magnetically susceptible minerals to get aligned to
the earth’s magnetic field during the period of rock formation.
Geostrophic Wind : Horizontal wind in the upper atmosphere that moves parallel
to isobars. Results from a balance between pressure gradient force and Coriolis
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force.
Greenhouse Effect : The greenhouse effect causes the atmosphere to trap more
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heat energy at the Earth’s surface and within the atmosphere by absorbing and
re-emitting longwave energy.
Greenhouse Gases : Gases responsible for the greenhouse effect. These gases
include: carbon dioxide (CO2); methane (CH4); nitrous oxide (N2O); chlorofluorocarbons
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(CFC); and tropospheric ozone (O3).
Habitat : Location where a plant or animal lives.
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Hail : It is a type of precipitation received in the form of ice pellets or hail stones.
The size of hailstones can be between 5 and 190 mm in diameter.
Halocline : The dinstinct zone in the ocean below which the salinity increases
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sharply.
Hydration : A form of chemical weathering that involves the rigid attachment of H+
and OH- ions to the atoms and molecules of a mineral.
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Hydrolysis : Chemical weathering process that involves the reaction between mineral
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ions and the ions of water (OH- and H+), and results in the decomposition of the
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ascending air located at or near the equator. Rising air currents are due to global
wind convergence and convection from thermal heating.
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Nimbostratus Clouds : Dark, gray low altitude cloud that produces continuous
precipitation in the form of rain or snow. Found in an altitude range from the surface
to 3,000 m.
Occluded Front : A transition zone in the atmosphere where an advancing cold air
mass sandwiches a warm air mass between another cold air mass pushing the
warm air into the upper atmosphere.
Ozone : Tri-atomic oxygen that exists in the earth’s atmosphere as a gas. Ozone is
highest in concentration in the stratosphere (10-50 km above the earth’s surface)
where it absorbs the sun’s ultraviolet radiation. Stratospheric ozone is produced
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naturally and helps to protect life from the harmful effects of solar ultraviolet
radiation.
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Ozone Hole : It is a sharp seasonal decrease in stratospheric ozone concentration
that occurs over Antarctica in the spring. First detected in the late 1970s, the
ozone hole continues to appear as a result of complex chemical reaction in the
atmosphere that involves CFCs.
Palaeomagnetism : The alignment in terms of inclination from horizon acquired
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by magnetically susceptible minerals in the rock during the period of their formation.
Photosynthesis : It is the chemical process where plants and some bacteria can
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capture and organically fix the energy of the sun.
Plate Tectonics : Theory suggesting that the earth’s surface is composed of a
number of oceanic and continental plates. Driven by convection currents in the
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mantle, these plates have the ability to slowly move across the earth’s plastic
asthenosphere.
Precipitation : Showering of the raindrops, snow or hailstones from the clouds
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onto the surface of the earth. Rainfall, snowfall, cloud burst and hailstones are
forms of precipitation.
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Subsurface flow : It is the movement of water below the surface of the earth. After
infiltration, the subsurface water returns to the surface through seepage into the
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streams or eventually goes into the ocean. The subsurface water flow is influenced
by land slope, rainfall, intensity of groundwater extraction, etc.
Thermocline : Boundary in a body of water where the greatest vertical change in
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temperature occurs. This boundary is usually the transition zone between the layer
of warm water near the surface that is mixed and the cold deep water layer.
©