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International Journal of Computational Cognition (http://www.YangSky.com/yangijcc.htm)
Volume 2, Number 1, Pages 45–78, March 2004
Publisher Item Identifier S 1542-5908(03)20103-2/$20.00
Article electronically published on January 29, 2003 at http://www.YangSky.com/ijcc21.htm. Please
cite this paper as: hPatricia Melin and Oscar Castillo, “Soft Computing for Intelligent Control
of Nonlinear Dynamical Systems(Invited Paper)”, International Journal of Computational Cognition
(http://www.YangSky.com/yangijcc.htm), Volume 2, Number 1, Pages 45–78, March 2004i.

SOFT COMPUTING FOR INTELLIGENT CONTROL OF

NONLINEAR DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS(INVITED PAPER)

PATRICIA MELIN AND OSCAR CASTILLO

Abstract. We describe in this paper the application of soft comput-

ing techniques to controlling non-linear dynamical systems in real-
world problems. Soft computing consists of fuzzy logic, neural net-
works, evolutionary computation, and chaos theory. Controlling real-
world non-linear dynamical systems may require the use of several soft
computing techniques to achieve the desired performance in practice.
For this reason, several hybrid intelligent architectures have been de-
veloped. The basic idea of these hybrid architectures is to combine
the advantages of each of the techniques involved in the intelligent
system. Also, non-linear dynamical systems are difficult to control
due to the unstable and even chaotic behaviors that may occur in
these systems. The described applications include robotics, aircraft
systems, biochemical reactors, and manufacturing of batteries. Copy-
c
right °2003 Yang’s Scientific Research Institute, LLC. All rights re-
served.

1. Introduction
We describe in this paper the application of soft computing techniques
and fractal theory to the control of non-linear dynamical systems [8]. Soft
computing consists of fuzzy logic, neural networks, evolutionary computa-
tion, and chaos theory [23]. Each of these techniques has been applied suc-
cessfully to real world problems. However, there are applications in which
one of these techniques is not sufficient to achieve the level of accuracy and

Received by the editors January 15, 2003 / final version received January 27, 2003.
Key words and phrases. Soft computing, fuzzy logic, neural networks, genetic
algorithms.
We would like to thank the research grant committee of CONACYT-Mexico, for the
financial support given to this research project, under grant 33780-A, and also COSNET
for the research grants 743.99-P, 414.01-P and 487.02-P. We would also like to thank the
Department of Computer Science of Tijuana Institute of Technology for the time and
resources given to this project.

c
°2003 Yang’s Scientific Research Institute, LLC. All rights reserved.

45
46 MELIN AND CASTILLO

efficiency needed in practice. For this reason, is necessary to combine sev-

eral of these techniques to take advantage of the power that each technique
offers. We describe several hybrid architectures that combine different soft
computing techniques. We also describe the development of hybrid intelli-
gent systems combining several of these techniques to achieve better perfor-
mance in controlling real dynamical systems. We illustrate these ideas with
applications to robotic systems, aircraft systems, biochemical reactors, and
manufacturing systems. Each of these problems has its own characteristics,
but all of them share in common their non-linear dynamic behavior. For
this reason, the use of soft computing techniques is completely justified. In
all of these applications, the results of using soft computing techniques have
been better than with traditional techniques.

2. Neural Network Models

A neural network model takes an input vector X and produces and output
vector Y . The relationship between X and Y is determined by the network
architecture [23]. There are many forms of network architecture (inspired by
the neural architecture of the brain). The neural network generally consists
of at least three layers: one input layer, one output layer, and one or more
hidden layers. Figure 1 illustrates a neural network with p neurons in the
input layer, one hidden layer with q neurons, and one output layer with one
neuron.
Output

Hidden 1 j q q+1

Input 1 2 i p+1

Figure 1. Single hidden layer feedforward neural network..

In the neural network we will be using, the input layer with p+1 process-
ing elements, i.e., one for each predictor variable plus a processing element
for the bias. The bias element always has an input of one, Xp+1 = 1. Each
processing element in the input layer sends signals Xi (i = 1,. . . , p + 1) to
 SOFT COMPUTING FOR INTELLIGENT CONTROL 47

each of the q processing elements in the hidden layer. The q processing ele-
ments in the hidden layer (indexed by j = 1,. . . , q) produce an “activation”
aj = F (Σwij Xi ) where wij are the weights associated with the connections
between the p + 1 processing elements of the input layer and the jth pro-
cessing element of the hidden layer. Once again, processing element q + 1
of the hidden layer is a bias element and always has an activation of one,
i.e. aq+1 = 1. Assuming that the processing element in the output layer is
linear, the network model will be
p+1 p+1
Ãp+1 !
X X X
(1) Yt = πj xjt + θj F wij xit .
j=1 j=1 i=1

Here πj are the weights for the connections between the input layer and the
output layer, and θj are the weights for the connections between the hidden
layer and the output layer. The main requirement to be satisfied by the
activation function F (·) is that it be nonlinear and differentiable. Typical
functions used are the sigmoid, hyperbolic tangent, and the sine functions,
i.e.
1 ex − e−x
(2) F (x) = , or F (x) = or F (x) = sine(x).
1 − e−x ex + e−x
The weights in the neural network can be adjusted to minimize some
criterion such as the sum of squared error (SSE) function:
n
1X
(3) E1 = (dl − yl )2 .
2
l=1

Thus, the weights in the neural network are similar to the regression coeffi-
cients in a linear regression model. In fact, if the hidden layer is eliminated,
(1) reduces to the well-known linear regression function. It has been shown
[13, 24] that, given sufficiently many hidden units, (1) is capable of approx-
imating any measurable function to any accuracy. In fact F (·) can be an
arbitrary sigmoid function without any loss of flexibility.
The most popular algorithm for training feedforward neural networks
is the backpropagation algorithm. As the name suggests, the error com-
puted from the output layer is backpropagated through the network, and
the weights are modified according to their contribution to the error func-
tion. Essentially, backpropagation performs a local gradient search, and
hence its implementation does not guarantee reaching a global minimum.
A number of heuristics are available to partly address this problem, some of
which are presented below. Instead of distinguishing between the weights
of the different layers as in Eq. (1), we refer to them generically as wij in
the following.
48 MELIN AND CASTILLO

After some mathematical simplification the weight change equation sug-

gested by back-propagation can be expressed as follows:
∂E1
(4) ∆wij = −η + θ∆wij .
∂wij

Here, η is the learning coefficient and θ is the momentum term. One heuris-
tic that is used to prevent the neural network from getting stuck at a local
minimum is the random presentation of the training data. Another heuris-
tic that can speed up convergence is the cumulative update of weights, i.e.,
weights are not updated after the presentation of each input-output pair,
but are accumulated until a certain number of presentations are made, this
number referred to as an “epoch”. In the absence of the second term in (4),
setting a low learning coefficient results in slow learning, whereas a high
learning coefficient can produce divergent behavior. The second term in (4)
reinforces general trends, whereas oscillatory behavior is cancelled out, thus
allowing a low learning coefficient but faster learning. Last, it is suggested
that starting the training with a large learning coefficient and letting its
value decay as training progresses speeds up convergence.

2.1. Levenberg-Marquardt Modifications for Neural Networks. The

method of steepest descent, also known as gradient method, is one of the
oldest techniques for minimizing a given function defined on a multidimen-
sional space. This method forms the basis for many optimization techniques.
In general, the descent direction is given by the second derivatives of the
objective function E. The matrix of second derivatives gives us what is
known as the Hessian matrix H. In classical Newton’s method this matrix
is used to define an adaptation rule for a parameter vector θ as follows:

(5) θnext = θnow − H −l g,

where g is the gradient vector consisting of all the first order derivatives of
function E. In Newton’s method H needs to be positive definite to have
convergence.
Furthermore, if the Hessian matrix is not positive definite, the Newton
direction may point toward a local maximum, or a saddle point. The Hessian
can be altered by adding a positive definite matrix P to H to make H
positive definite. Levenberg and Marquardt [15] introduced this notion in
least-squares problems. Later, Goldfeld et al. [11] first applied this concept
to the Newton’s method. When P = λI, Equation (5) will be

(6) θnext = θnow − (H + λI)−l g,

 SOFT COMPUTING FOR INTELLIGENT CONTROL 49

where I is the identity matrix and λ is some nonnegative value. Depending

on the magnitude of A, the method transits smoothly between the two ex-
tremes: Newton’s method (λ → 0) and well-known steepest descent method
(λ → ∞). A variety of Levenberg- Marquardt algorithms differ in the selec-
tion of λ. Goldfeld et al. computed eigenvalues of H and set A to a little
larger than the magnitude of the most negative eigenvalue.
Moreover, when λ increases, kθnext − θnow k decreases. In other words,
λ plays the same role as an adjustable step length. That is, with some
appropriately large λ, the step length will the right one. Of course, the step
size η can be further introduced and can be determined in conjunction with
line search methods:
(7) θnext = θnow − η(H + λI)−l g.
For the case of neural networks these ideas are used to update (or learn)
the weights of the network [8].

3. Fractal Dimension of a Geometrical Object

Recently, considerable progress has been made in understanding the com-
plexity of an object through the application of fractal concepts [14] and
dynamic scaling theory [3]. For example, financial time series show scaled
properties suggesting a fractal structure [8]. The fractal dimension of a
geometrical object can be defined as follows:
ln N (r)
(8) d = lim
r→0 ln(1/r)

where N (r) is the number of boxes covering the object and r is the size of the
box. An approximation to the fractal dimension can be obtained by counting
the number of boxes covering the boundary of the object for different r sizes
and then performing a logarithmic regression to obtain d (box counting
algorithm). In Figure 2, we illustrate the box counting algorithm for a
hypothetical curve C. Counting the number of boxes for different sizes of
r and performing a logarithmic linear regression, we can estimate the box
dimension of a geometrical object with the following equation:
(9) ln N (r) = ln β − d ln r,
this algorithm is illustrated in Figure 3.
The fractal dimension can be used to characterize an arbitrary object.
The reason for this is that the fractal dimension measures the geometrical
complexity of objects. In this case, a time series can be classified by using
the numeric value of the fractal dimension (d is between 1 and 2 because
we are on the plane x-y). The reasoning behind this classification scheme
is that when the boundary is smooth the fractal dimension of the object
50 MELIN AND CASTILLO

will be close to one. On the other hand, when the boundary is rougher the
fractal dimension will be close to a value of two.

Figure 2. Box counting algorithm for a curve C.

Figure 3. Logarithmic regression to find dimension.

We developed a computer program in MATLAB for calculating the fractal

dimension of a sound signal. The computer program uses as input the figure
of the signal and counts the number of boxes covering the object for different
grid sizes.

4. Intelligent Control Using Soft Computing

First, we describe a new method for adaptive model-based control of
robotic dynamic systems using a neuro-fuzzy-fractal approach. Intelligent
control of robotic dynamic systems is a difficult problem because the dynam-
ics of these systems is highly non-linear [5]. We describe an intelligent sys-
tem for controlling robot manipulators to illustrate our neuro-fuzzy-fractal
approach for adaptive control. We use a new fuzzy inference system for
reasoning with multiple differential equations for modelling based on the
relevant parameters for the problem [6]. In this case, the fractal dimen-
sion [14] of a time series of measured values of the variables is used as a
parameter for the fuzzy system. We use neural networks for identification
 SOFT COMPUTING FOR INTELLIGENT CONTROL 51

and control of robotic dynamic systems [4, 21]. The neural networks are
trained with the Levenberg-Marquardt learning algorithm with real data
to achieve the desired level of performance. Combining a fuzzy rule base
[32] for modelling with the neural networks for identification and control,
an intelligent system for adaptive model-based control of robotic dynamic
systems was developed. We have very good simulation results for several
types of robotic systems for different conditions. The new method for con-
trol combines the advantages of fuzzy logic (use of expert knowledge) with
the advantages of neural networks (learning and adaptability), and the ad-
vantages of the fractal dimension (pattern classification) to achieve the goal
of robust adaptive control of robotic dynamic systems.
The neuro-fuzzy-fractal approach described above can also be applied to
the case of controlling biochemical reactors [21]. In this case, we use mathe-
matical models of the reactors to achieve adaptive model-based control. We
also use a fuzzy inference system for differential equations to take into con-
sideration several models of the biochemical reactor. The neural networks
are used for identification and control. The fractal dimension of the bac-
teria used in the reactor is also an important parameter in the fuzzy rules
to take into account the complexity of biochemical process. We have very
good results for several food production processes in which the biochemical
reactor is controlled to optimize the production.
We have also used our hybrid approach for the case of controlling chaotic
and unstable behavior in aircraft dynamic systems [22]. For this case, we use
mathematical models for the simulation of aircraft dynamics during flight.
The goal of constructing these models is to capture the dynamics of the
aircraft, so as to have a way of controlling this dynamics to avoid dangerous
behavior of the system. Chaotic behavior has been related to the flutter
effect that occurs in real airplanes, and for this reason has to be avoided
during flight. The prediction of chaotic behavior can be done using the
mathematical models of the dynamical system. We use a fuzzy inference
system combining multiple differential equations for modelling complex air-
craft dynamic systems. On the other hand, we use neural networks trained
with the Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm for control and identification of
the dynamic systems. The proposed adaptive controller performs rather
well considering the complexity of the domain.
We also describe in this paper, several hybrid approaches for controlling
electrochemical processes in manufacturing applications. The hybrid ap-
proaches combine soft computing techniques to achieve the goal of control-
ling the manufacturing process to follow a desired production plan. Electro-
chemical processes, like the ones used in battery formation, are very complex
and for this reason very difficult to control. Also, mathematical models of
52 MELIN AND CASTILLO

electrochemical processes are difficult to derive and they are not very ac-
curate. We need adaptive control of the electrochemical process to achieve
on-line control of the production line. Of course, adaptive control is easier
to achieve if one uses a reference model of the process [21, 22]. In this case,
we use a neural network to model the electrochemical process due to the dif-
ficulty in obtaining a good mathematical model for the problem. The other
part of the problem is how to control the non-linear electrochemical process
in the desired way to achieve the production with the required quality. We
developed a set of fuzzy rules using expert knowledge for controlling the
manufacturing process. The membership functions for the linguistic vari-
ables in the rules were tuned using a specific genetic algorithm. The genetic
algorithm was used for searching the parameter space of the membership
functions using real data from production lines. Our particular neuro-fuzzy-
genetic approach has been implemented as an intelligent system to control
the formation of batteries in a real plant with very good results.

5. Intelligent Control of Robotic Systems

Given the dynamic equations of motion of a robot manipulator, the pur-
pose of robot arm control is to maintain the dynamic response of the ma-
nipulator in accordance with some pre-specified performance criterion [7].
Although the control problem can be stated in such a simple manner, its so-
lution is complicated by inertial forces, coupling reaction forces, and gravity
loading on the links. In general, the control problem consists of (1) obtain-
ing dynamic models of the robotic system, and (2) using these models to
determine control laws or strategies to achieve the desired system response
and performance [10].
Among various adaptive control methods, the model-based adaptive con-
trol is the most widely used and it is also relatively easy to implement. The
concept of model-based adaptive control is based on selecting an appropri-
ate reference model and adaptation algorithm, which modifies the feedback
gains to the actuators of the actual system.
Many authors have proposed linear mathematical models to be used as
reference models in the general scheme described before. For example a
linear second-order time invariant, differential equation can be used as the
reference model for each degree of freedom of the robot arm. Defining the
vector y(t) to represent the reference model response and the vector x(t) to
represent the manipulator response, the joint i of the reference model can
be described by

(10) ai ÿi (t) + bi ẏi (t) + yi (t) = ri (t).

 SOFT COMPUTING FOR INTELLIGENT CONTROL 53

If we assume that the manipulator is controlled by position and velocity

feedback gains and the coupling terms are negligible, then the manipulator
equation for joint i can be

(11) αi (t)ẍi (t) + βi (t)ẋi (t) + xi (t) = ri (t),

where the system parameters αi (t) and βi (t) are assumed to vary slowly
with time.
The fact that this control approach is not dependent on a complex math-
ematical model is one of its major advantages, but stability considerations of
the closed-loop adaptive system are critical. A stability analysis is difficult
and has only been carried out using linearized models. However, the adapt-
ability of the controller can become questionable if the interaction forces
among the various joints are severe (non-linear). This is the main reason
why soft computing techniques [7] have been proposed to control this type
of dynamic systems.
Adaptive fuzzy control is an extension of fuzzy control theory to allow
the fuzzy controller, extending its applicability, either to a wider class of
uncertain systems or to fine-tune the parameters of a system to accuracy
[9]. In this scheme, a fuzzy controller is designed based on knowledge of a
dynamic system. This fuzzy controller is characterized by a set of parame-
ters. These parameters are either the controller constants or functions of a
model’s constants.
A controller is designed based on an assumed mathematical model repre-
senting a real system. It must be understood that the mathematical model
does not completely match the real system to be controlled. Rather, the
mathematical model is seen as an approximation of the real system. A con-
troller designed based on this model is assumed to work effectively with the
real system if the error between the actual system and its mathematical
representation is relatively insignificant. However, there exists a threshold
constant that sets a boundary for the effectiveness of a controller. An error
above this threshold will render the controller ineffective toward the real
system.
An adaptive controller is set up to take advantage of additional data col-
lected at run time for better effectiveness. At run time, data are collected
periodically at the beginning of each constant time interval, tn = tn−1 + ∆t,
where ∆t is a constant measurement of time, and [tn , tn−1 ) is a dura-
tion between data collection. Let Dn be a set of data collected at time
t = tn . It is assumed that at any particular time, t = tn , a history of
data {D0 , D1 , . . . , Dn } is always available. The more data available, more
accurate the approximation of the system will become.
54 MELIN AND CASTILLO

At run time, the control input is fed into both the real system and the
mathematical model representing the system. The output of the real system
and the output of that mathematical model are collected and an error rep-
resenting the difference between these two outputs are calculated. Let x(t)
be the output of the real system, and y(t) the output of the mathematical
model. The error ε(t) is defined as:

(12) ε(t) = x(t) − y(t).

Figure 4 depicts this tracking of the difference between the mathematical

model and the real dynamic system it represents.

+
Real Dynamic
Controller System
+ u(t) x(t) ε(t)
xdesired

Mathematical
Model
y(t)

Figure 4. Tracking the error function between outputs of

a real system and mathematical model.

An adaptive controller will be adjusted based on the error function ε(t).

This calculated data will be fed into either the mathematical model or the
controller for adjustment. Since the error function ε(t) is available only at
run time, an adjusting mechanism must be designed to accept this error as
it becomes available, i.e., it must evolve with the accumulation of data in
time. At any time, t = tn , the set of calculated data in the form of a time
series {ε(t0 ), ε(t1 ), ..., ε(tn )} is available and must be used by the adjusting
mechanism to update appropriate parameters.
In normal practice,instead of doing re-calculation based on a lengthy set
of data, the adjusting algorithm is reformulated to be based on two entities:
(i) sufficient information, and (ii) newly collected data. The sufficient infor-
mation is a numerical variable representing the set of data {ε(t0 ), ε(t1 ), ..., ε(tn−1 )}
collected from the initial time t0 to the previous collecting cycle starting at
time t = tn−1 . The new datum ε(tn ) is collected in the current cycle starting
at time t = tn .
 SOFT COMPUTING FOR INTELLIGENT CONTROL 55

An adaptive controller will operate as follows. The controller is initially

designed as a function of a parameter set and state variables of a math-
ematical model. The parameters can be updated any time during opera-
tion and the controller will adjust itself to the newly updated parameters.
The time frame is usually divided into a series of equally spaced intervals
{[tn , tn+1 )|n = 0, 1, 2, ...; tn+1 = tn + ∆t}. At the beginning of each time in-
terval [tn , tn+1 ) observable data are collected and the error function ε(tn ) is
calculated. This error is used to calculate the adjustment in the parameters
of the controller. New control input u(tn ) for the time interval [tn , tn+1 )
is then calculated based on the newly calculated parameters and fed into
both the real dynamic system under control and the mathematical model
upon which the controller is designed. This completes one control cycle.
The next control cycle will consist of the same steps repeated for the next
time interval [tn+1 , tn+2 ), and so on.
5.1. Mathematical Modelling of Robotic Dynamic Systems. We will
consider, in this section, the case of modelling robotic manipulators [5]. The
general model for this kind of robotic system is the following:
(13) M (q)q̈ + V (q, q̇))q̇ + G(q) + Fd q̇ = τ,
where q ∈ R denotes the link position, M (q) ∈ Rn×n is the inertia matrix,
n

V (q, q̇) ∈ Rn×n is the centripetal-Coriolis matrix, G(q) ∈ Rn represents the

gravity vector, Fd ∈ Rn×n is a diagonal matrix representing the friction
term, and τ is the input torque applied to the links. We show in Figure
5 the case of the two-link robot arm. In this figure, we show the variables
involved.
For the simplest case of a one-link robot arm, we have the scalar equation:
(14) Mq q̈ + Fd q̇ + G(q) = τ.
If G(q) is a linear function (G = N q), then we have the “linear oscillator”
model:
q̈ + aq̇ + bq = c
Fd N
where a = M q
, b = Mq and c = Mτ q . This is the simplest mathematical
model for a one-link robot arm. More realistic models can be obtained for
more complicated functions G(q). For example, if G(q) = N q 2 , then we
obtain the “quadratic oscillator” model:
(15) q̈ + aq̇ + bq 2 = c,
where a, b and c are defined as above.
A more interesting model is obtained if we define G(q) = N sin(q). In
this case, the mathematical model is
(16) q̈ + aq̇ + b sin(q) = c
56 MELIN AND CASTILLO

Figure 5. Two-link robot arm indicating the variables involved.

where a, b and c are the same as above. This is the so-called “sinusoidally
forced oscillator”. More complicated models for a one-link robot arm can
be defined similarly.
For the case of a two-link robot arm, we can have two simultaneous
differential equations as follows:
q̈1 + a1 q̇1 + b1 q22 = c1
(17) q̈2 + a2 q̇2 + b2 q12 = c2 .
which is called the “coupled quadratic oscillators” model. In Equation (17)
a1 , b1 , a2 , b2 , c1 and c2 are defined similarly as in the previous models. We
can also have the “coupled cubic oscillators” model:
q̈1 + a1 q̇1 + b1 q23 = c1 ,
(18) q̈2 + a2 q̇2 + b2 q13 = c2 .
5.2. Simulation Results. To give an idea of the performance of our neuro-
fuzzy approach for adaptive model-based control of robotic systems, we show
below simulation results obtained for a single-link robot arm. The desired
trajectory for the link was selected to be
(19) qd = t sin(2.0t),
and the simulation was carried out with the initial values: q(0) = 0.1q̇1 (0) =
0. We used three-layer neural networks (with 15 hidden neurons) with the
Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm and hyperbolic tangent sigmoidal functions
as the activation functions for the neurons. We show in Figure 6(a) the
function approximation achieved with the neural network for control after 9
 SOFT COMPUTING FOR INTELLIGENT CONTROL 57

epochs of training with a variable learning rate. The identification achieved

by the neural network can be considered very good because the error has
been decreased to the order of 10−4 . We show in Figure 6(b) the curve
relating the sum of squared errors SSE against the number of epochs of
neural network training. We can see in this figure how the SSE diminishes
rapidly from being of the order of 102 to smaller value of the order of 10−4 .
Still, we can obtain a better approximation by using more hidden neurons or
more layers. In any case, we can see clearly how the neural networks learns
to control the robotic system, because it is able to follow the arbitrary
desired trajectory.
We show in Figure 7(a) the non-linear surface for the fuzzy rule base for
modelling. The fuzzy system was implemented in the fuzzy logic toolbox of
MATLAB [25]. We show in Figure 7(b) the reasoning procedure for specific
values of the fractal dimension and number of links of the robotic system.
In Figure 8 we show simulation results for a two-link robot arm with a
model given by two coupled second order differential equations. Figure 8(a)
shows the behavior of position q1 and Figure 8(b) shows it for position q2
of the robot arm.
We can see from these figures the complex dynamic behavior of this
robotic system [7]. Of course, the complexity is even greater for higher
dimensional robotic systems.
We have very good simulation results for several types of robotic manip-
ulators for different conditions. The new method for control combines the
advantages of neural networks (learning and adaptability) with the advan-
tages of fuzzy logic (use of expert knowledge) to achieve the goal of robust
adaptive control of robotic dynamic systems. We consider that our method
for adaptive control can be applied to general non-linear dynamical sys-
tems [8, 27] because the hybrid approach, combining neural networks and
fuzzy logic, does not depend on the particular characteristics of the robotic
dynamic systems.
The new method for adaptive control can also be applied for autonomous
robots [8], but in this case it may be necessary to include genetic algorithms
for trajectory planning.

6. Control of Biochemical Reactors

Process control of biochemical plants is also an attractive application
because of the potential benefits to both adaptive network research and to
actual biochemical process control. In spite of the extensive work on self-
tuning controllers and model-reference control, there are many problems in
chemical processing industries for which current techniques are inadequate.
Many of the limitations of current adaptive controllers arise in trying to
58 MELIN AND CASTILLO

(a)

(b)

Figure 6. (a) Function approximation after 9 epochs, (b)

SSE of the neural network.
 SOFT COMPUTING FOR INTELLIGENT CONTROL 59

(a)

(b)

Figure 7. (a) Non-linear surface for modelling, (b) fuzzy

reasoning procedure.
60 MELIN AND CASTILLO

(a)

(b)

Figure 8. (a) Simulation of position q1 , (b) Simulation of

position q2 .
 SOFT COMPUTING FOR INTELLIGENT CONTROL 61

control poorly modeled non-linear systems [1]. For most of these processes
extensive data are available from past runs, but it is difficult to formulate
precise models. This is precisely where adaptive networks are expected to
be useful [31].
Bioreactors are difficult to model because of the complexity of the liv-
ing organisms in them and also they are difficult to control because one
often can’t measure on-line the concentration of the chemicals being metab-
olized or produced. Bioreactors can also have markedly different operating
regimes, depending on whether the bacteria is rapidly growing or produc-
ing product. Model-based control of these reactors offers a dual problem:
determining a realistic process model and determining effective control laws
in the face of inaccurate process models and highly nonlinear processes [19,
20, 26].
Biochemical systems can be relatively simple in that they have few vari-
ables, but still very difficult to control due to strong nonlinearities which
are difficult to model accurately. A prime example is the bioreactor. In
its simplest form, a bioreactor is simply a tank containing water and cells
(e.g.. bacteria) which consume nutrients (”substrate”) and produce prod-
ucts (both desired and undesired) and more cells. Bioreactors can be quite
complex: cells are self-regulatory mechanisms, and can adjust their growth
rates and production of different products radically depending on temper-
ature and concentrations of waste products [16]. Systems with heating or
cooling, multiple reactors or unsteady operation greatly complicate the anal-
ysis. Mathematical models for these systems can be expressed as differential
(or difference) equations [3, 17, 18].
Now we propose mathematical models that integrate our method for ge-
ometrical modelling of bacteria growth using the fractal dimension [14] with
the method for modelling the dynamics of bacteria population using differ-
ential equations [27]. The resulting mathematical models describe bacteria
growth in space and in time, because the use of the fractal dimension enables
us to classify bacteria by the geometry of the colonies and the differential
equations help us to understand the evolution in time of bacteria population.
We will consider first the case of using one bacteria for food production.
The mathematical model in this case can be of the following form:

µ ¶
dN N −D
=r 1− N −D − βN −D ,
dt K
dP
(20) = βN −D ,
dt
62 MELIN AND CASTILLO

where D is the fractal dimension, N is the bacteria population, P is quantity

of chemical product, r is the rate of bacteria growth, K is the environment
capacity, and β is a biochemical conversion factor.
We will consider now the case of two bacteria used for food production:
· µ ¶ µ ¶ ¸
dN1 r1 −D1 r1 −D2
= r1 − N1 − δ12 N2 N1−D1 − βN1−D1 ,
dt K1 K1
· µ ¶ µ ¶ ¸
dN2 r2 −D2 r2
= r2 − N2 − −D1
δ21 N1 N2−D2 − γN2−D2 ,
dt K2 K2
dP
(21) = βN1−D1 + γN2−D2 ,
dt

where D1 is the fractal dimension of bacteria 1, D2 is the fractal dimension

of bacteria 2 and the rest of variables are as described in the last equation.
As we can see from equations (20) and (21) the idea of our method of
modelling is to use the fractal dimension D as a parameter in the differential
equations, so as to have a way of classifying for which type of bacteria the
equation corresponds. In this way, equation (20), for example, can represent
the model for food production using one bacteria (the one defined by the
fractal dimension D).
We have implemented a model-based neural controller using the archi-
tecture of Figure 9. Two multilayer networks are used, one for the model
of the plant and the second for the controller. The Neural Networks were
implemented in the MATLAB programming language to achieve a high level
of efficiency on the numerical calculations needed for these modules. The
Fractal module was also implemented in the MATLAB programming lan-
guage for the same reason. In this way we combine the three methodologies
to obtain the best of the three worlds (Neural Networks, Fuzzy Logic and
Fractal Theory) using for each the appropriate implementation language.
We show in Figure 10 simulation results of bacteria population used for
food production. We can see from this figure the complicated dynamics for
the case of two bacteria competing in the same environment, and at the
same time producing the chemical product necessary for food production.
We also show in Figure 11 simulation results for the case of two good
bacteria used for food production and one bad bacteria that is attacking
the other ones. We can see from this figure how one of the good bacteria
is eliminated (the population goes down to zero), which of course results
in a decrease of the resulting quantity of the food product. This is a case,
which has to be avoided because of the bad resulting effect of the bad
bacteria. Intelligent control helps in avoiding these types of scenarios for
food production.
 SOFT COMPUTING FOR INTELLIGENT CONTROL 63

Figure 9. Indirect Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy-Fractal Control.

Figure 10. Simulation of the model for two bacteria used

in food production.
64 MELIN AND CASTILLO

Figure 11. Simulation of the model for two good bacteria

and one bad one.

We have use a general method for adaptive model based control of non-
linear dynamic plants using Neural Networks, Fuzzy Logic and Fractal The-
ory. We illustrated our method for control with the case of biochemical
reactors. In this case, the models represent the process of biochemical trans-
formation between the microbial life and their generation of the chemical
product. We also describe in this paper an adaptive controller based on
the use of neural networks and mathematical models for the plant. The
proposed adaptive controller performs rather well considering the complex-
ity of the domain being considered in this research work. We can say that
combining Neural Networks, Fuzzy Logic and Fractal Theory, using the ad-
vantages that each of these methodologies has, can give good results for this
kind of application. Also, we believe that our neuro-fuzzy-fractal approach
is a good alternative for solving similar problems.
 SOFT COMPUTING FOR INTELLIGENT CONTROL 65

7. Intelligent Control of Aircraft Systems

The mathematical models of aircraft systems can be represented as cou-
pled non-linear differential equations [22]. In this case, we can develop a
fuzzy rule base for modelling that enables the use of the appropriate math-
ematical model according to the changing conditions of the aircraft and its
environment. For example, we can use the following model of an airplane
when wind velocity is relatively small:
(22) ṗ = I1 (−q + l), q̇ = I2 (p + m),
where I1 and I2 are the inertia moments of the airplane with respect to
axis x and y, respectively, l and m are physical constants specific to the
airplane, and p, q are the positions with respect to axis x and y, respectively.
However, a more realistic model of an airplane in three dimensional space,
is as follows:
(23) ṗ = I1 (−qr + l), q̇ = I2 (pr + m), ṙ = I3 (−pq + n),
where now I3 is the inertia moment of the airplane with respect to the z
axis, n is a physical constant specific to the airplane, and r is the position
along the z axis. Considering now wind disturbances in the model, we have
the following equation:
(24) ṗ = I1 (−qr + l) − ug , q̇ = I2 (pr + m), ṙ = I3 (−pq + n),
where ug is the wind velocity. The magnitude of wind velocity is dependent
on the altitude of the airplane in the following form:
µ ¶
ln(r/510)
ug = uwind510 1 +
ln 51
where uwind510 is the wind speed at 510 ft altitude (typical value = 20
ft/sec).
If we use the models of Eqs. (22)-(24) for describing aircraft dynamics,
we can formulate a set of rules that relate the models to the conditions of
the aircraft and its environment. Lets assume that M1 is given by Eq. (22),
M2 is given by Eq. (24), and M3 is given by Eq. (24). Now using the wind
velocity ug and inertia moment I1 as parameters, we can establish the fuzzy
rule base for modelling [29, 30] as in Table 1.
In Table 1, we are assuming that the wind velocity ug can have only two
possible fuzzy values (small and large). This is sufficient to know if we have
to use the mathematical model that takes into account the effect of wind
(M3 ) for ug large or if we don’t need to use it and simply the model M2
is sufficient (for ug small). Also, the inertia moment (I1 ) helps in deciding
between models M1 and M2 (or M3 ).
66 MELIN AND CASTILLO

Table 1. Fuzzy rule base for modelling aircraft systems.

IF THEN
Wind Inertia Fractal Dim Model
Small Small Low M1
Small Small Medium M2
Small Large Low M2
Small Large Medium M2
Large Small Medium M3
Large Large Medium M3
Large Large High M3

To give an idea of the performance of our neuro-fuzzy-fractal approach

for adaptive control, we show below simulation results for aircraft dynamic
systems. First, we show in Figure 12(a) the fuzzy rule base for a prototype
intelligent system developed in the fuzzy logic toolbox of the MATLAB
programming language. We show in Figure 12(b) the non-linear surface for
the problem of aircraft dynamics using as input variables: fractal dimension
and wind velocity.
We show simulation results for an aircraft system obtained using our new
method for modelling dynamical systems. In Figure 13(a) and Figure 13(b)
we show results for an airplane with inertia moments: I1 = 1, I2 = 0.4,
I3 = 0.05 and the constants are: l = m = n = 1. The initial conditions are:
p(0) = 0, q(0) = 0, r(0) = 0.
To give an idea of the performance of our neuro-fuzzy approach for adap-
tive model-based control of aircraft dynamics, we show below (Figure 14)
simulation results obtained for the case of controlling the altitude of an air-
plane for a flight of 6 hours. We assume that the airplane takes about one
hour to achieve the cruising altitude 30,000 ft, then cruises along for about
three hours at this altitude (with minor fluctuations), and finally descends
for about two hours to its final landing point. We will consider the desired
trajectory as follows:

 30t + sin 2t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1,
rd = 30 + 2 sin 10t, 1 < t ≤ 4,

90 − 15t, 4 < t ≤ 6.

Of course, a complete desired trajectory for the airplane would have to

include the positions for the airplane in the x and y directions (variables p,
q in the models). However, we think that here for illustration purposes is
sufficient to show the control of the altitude r for the airplane.
 SOFT COMPUTING FOR INTELLIGENT CONTROL 67

(a)

(b)

Figure 12. (a) Fuzzy rule base. (b) Non-linear surface for
aircraft dynamics.
68 MELIN AND CASTILLO

(a)

(b)

Figure 13. (a) Simulation of position q. (b) Simulation

of position p.
 SOFT COMPUTING FOR INTELLIGENT CONTROL 69

We used three-layer neural networks (with 10 hidden neurons) with the

Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm and hyperbolic tangent sigmoidal functions
as the activation functions for the neurons. We show in Figure 14 the
function approximation achieved by the neural network for control after
800 epochs of training with a variable learning rate. The identification
achieved by the neural network (after 800 epochs) can be considered very
good because the error has been decreased to the order of 10−1 . Still,
we can obtain a better approximation by using more hidden neurons or
more layers. In any case, we can see clearly (from Figure 14) how the
neural network learns to control the aircraft, because it is able to follow the
arbitrary desired trajectory.
We have to mention here that these simulation experiments for the case
of a specific flight for a given airplane show very good results. We have also
tried our approach for control with other types of flights and airplanes with
good simulation results. Still, there is a lot of research to be done in this
area because of the complex dynamics of aircraft systems.

Figure 14. Function approximation of the neural network

for control of an airplane.
70 MELIN AND CASTILLO

We have developed a general method for adaptive model based control of

non-linear dynamic systems using Neural Networks, Fuzzy Logic and Fractal
Theory. We illustrated our method for control with the case of controlling
aircraft dynamics. In this case, the models represent the aircraft dynamics
during flight. We also described in this paper an adaptive controller based
on the use of neural networks and mathematical models for the system. The
proposed adaptive controller performs rather well considering the complex-
ity of the domain being considered in this research work. We have shown
that our method can be used to control chaotic and unstable behavior in
aircraft systems. Chaotic behavior has been associated with the “flutter”
effect in real airplanes, and for this reason is very important to avoid this
kind of behavior. We can say that combining Neural Networks, Fuzzy Logic
and Fractal Theory, using the advantages that each of these methodologies
has, can give good results for this kind of application. Also, we believe that
our neuro-fuzzy-fractal approach is a good alternative for solving similar
problems.

8. Intelligent Control of the Battery Charging Process

In a battery a process of conversion of chemical energy into electrical
energy is carried out. The chemical energy contained in the electrode and
electrolyte is converted into electrical power by means of electrochemical
reactions. When connecting the battery to a source of direct current a
flow of electrons takes place for the external circuit, and of ions inside the
battery, giving an accumulation of load in the battery. The quantity of
electric current that is required to load the battery is determined by an
unalterable law of nature, that was postulated by Michael Faraday, which
is known as the Law of Faraday [2]. Faraday found that the quantity of
electric power required to perform an electrochemical change in a metal is
related to the relative weight of the metal. In the specific case of lead this
is considered to be 118 amperes hour for pound of positive active material
for cell. In practice, more energy is required to counteract the losses due to
the heat and to the generation of gas.
We show in Table 2 experimental data for a specific type of battery with
different sizes of the plates, and different number of plates for each cell. In
this table, we show the load time and the average current needed for the
respective load. In Table 2 we can observe that to form a battery we need
to apply a particular current intensity during a certain amount of time to
achieve the required loading for the battery
The goal of the manufacturers of batteries is to reduce the time required
to load the battery. However, current intensity can’t be increased arbitrarily
because of the physical characteristics of the specific battery [12]. If the
 SOFT COMPUTING FOR INTELLIGENT CONTROL 71

current is increased too much, the temperature in the battery will go over
a safe temperature value eventually causing the destruction of the battery.
8.1. Fuzzy Method for Control. In this approach we use a statistical
model to represent the electrochemical process and a fuzzy rule base for
process control. The temperature in the battery depends on the electrical
current that circulates in it during its formation, this means that to maintain
the temperature below a specific threshold it is important to control the
intensity of the current. Therefore for this case the independent variable is
the average current I, and the dependent variable is the average temperature
T . A simple statistical linear model can stated as follows:
(25) T = βo + β1 I,
where βo and β1 are parameters to be estimated (by least squares) using
real data for this problem. In Table 3, we show experimental values for a
battery of 6 Volts, which according to manufacturer’s specifications should
be loaded by using 200 amperes hour. Using the data from Table 3 we can
obtain (by least squares method) the values of βo and β1 [28]. The equations
is as follows:
(26) T = 88.03 + 2.5304I,
with correlation value of only 0.57 which is because of the complexity of the
data.
For the fuzzy controller we used as input variables, the temperature T
and the change of temperature dT/dt, and as output variable the current
intensity that should be applied to the battery. In Figure 15 we show the
architecture of our control system.

T I T
dT/dt Fuzzy Electro-chemical
controller process

Figure 15. Fuzzy control of the process.

The control method was implemented in the MATLAB language. For

each of the linguistic variables it was considered convenient to use five terms.
In Figure 16 we show the fuzzy rule base implemented in the Fuzzy Logic
Toolbox of MATLAB. We have 25 rules because we are using 5 linguistic
 Table 2. Experimental data for different types of batteries.
Type of Plate
MELIN AND CASTILLO

Positive 0.060” Negative 0.050” Positive 0.070” Negative 0.060”

Plate cell Total A. H. 72 hr Amp. 96 hr Amp. Total A.H. 72 hr Amp 96 hr Amp
7 155 2.2 1.6 165 2.4 1.8
9 180 2.8 2.0 200 2.8 2.2
11 230 3.2 2.4 245 3.4 2.4
13 260 3.6 2.6 295 4.0 3.0
15 300 4.2 3.0 345 4.8 3.6
17 400 5.6 4.2 415 5.8 4.4
72
 SOFT COMPUTING FOR INTELLIGENT CONTROL 73

Table 3. Values of temperature and current for a battery

of 200 amperes hour.

Hrs T I Hrs T I
21:00 111 5.22 23:00 93 3.53
23:00 100 5.21 1:00 91 3.40
1:00 105 5.52 3:00 92 3.32
3:00 100 5.66 5:00 96 3.16
5:00 100 5.60 7:00 98 3.10
7:00 97 5.72 9:00 98 3.14
9:00 92 4.82 11:00 102 3.12
11:00 95 4.32 13:00 99 3.03
13:00 102 4.10 15:00 98 3.05
15:00 103 4.05 17:00 97 3.06
17:00 100 3.40 19:00 95 2.96
19:00 97 3.77 21:00 94 2.60
21:00 94 3.62 23:00 96 2.76

terms for each variable. The membership functions were tuned manually
until they give the best values for the problem.

Figure 16. Fuzzy rule base for controlling the Process.

74 MELIN AND CASTILLO

8.2. Neuro-Fuzzy Method for Control. Since it is difficult to tune a

particular inference system to model a complex dynamical system [1] it is
convenient to use adaptive fuzzy inference systems. Adaptive neuro-fuzzy
inference systems (ANFIS) can be used to adapt the membership functions
and consequents of the rule base according to historical data of the problem
[13]. In this case, we can use the data from Table 2 and apply the ANFIS
methodology to find the best fuzzy system for our problem. We used the
fuzzy logic toolbox of MATLAB to apply the ANFIS methodology to our
problem with 5 membership functions and first order Sugeno functions in
the consequents. We show in Figure 17 the non-linear surface for control.

Figure 17. ANFIS surface for the process.

8.3. Neuro-Fuzzy-Genetic Control. In this case, neural networks are

used for modelling the electrochemical process, fuzzy logic for controlling
the electrical current and genetic algorithms for adapting the membership
functions of the fuzzy system [8]. A multilayer feedforward neural network
was used for modelling the electrochemical process. We used the data form
Table 3 and the Levenberg-Marquardt learning algorithm to train the neural
network. We used a three layer neural network with 15 nodes in the hidden
 SOFT COMPUTING FOR INTELLIGENT CONTROL 75

layer. The results of training for 2000 epochs are as follows. The sum of
squared errors was reduced from about 200 initially to 11.25 at the end,
which is a very good approximation in this case. The fuzzy rule base was
implemented in the Fuzzy Logic Toolbox of MATLAB. In this case, 25 fuzzy
rules were used because there were 5 linguistic terms for each input variable.

8.4. Experimental Results. The three hybrid control systems were com-
pared by simulating the formation (loading) of a 6 Volts battery. This
particular battery is manually loaded (in the plant) by applying 2 amperes
for 50 hours under manufacturer’s specifications. We show in Table 4 the
experimental results.

Table 4. Comparison of the methods for control.

Control Method Time Loading

Manual Control 50 hours
Conventional Control 36 hours
Fuzzy Control 32 hours
Neuro-Fuzzy Control 30 hours
Neuro-Fuzzy-Genetic 25 hours

We can see from Table 4 that the fuzzy control method reduces 36%
the time required to charge the battery compared with manual control,
and 11.11% compared with conventional PID control [27]. We can also see
how ANFIS helps in reducing even more this time because we are using
neural networks for adapting the intelligent system. Now the reduction is
of 40% with respect to manual control. Finally, we can notice that using
a neuro-fuzzy-genetic approach reduces even more the time because the
genetic algorithm optimizes the fuzzy system. In this case, reduction is of
50% with respect to manual control.
We have described in this section, three different approaches for con-
trolling an electrochemical process. We have shown that for this type of
application the use of several soft computing techniques can help in reduc-
ing the time required to produce a battery. Even fuzzy control alone can
reduce the formation time of a battery, but using neural networks and ge-
netic algorithms reduces even more the time for production. Of course, this
means that manufacturers can produce the batteries in half the time needed
before.
76 MELIN AND CASTILLO

9. Conclusions
We can say that hybrid intelligent systems can be used to solve difficult
real-world problems. Of course, the right hybrid architecture (and combi-
nation) has to be selected. At the moment, there are no general rules to
decide on the right architecture for specific classes of problems. However, we
can use the experience that other researchers have gained on these problems
and use it to our advantage. Also, we always have to turn to experimental
work to test different combinations of soft computing techniques and decide
on the best one for ourselves. Finally, we can conclude that the use of soft
computing for controlling dynamical systems is a very fruitful area of re-
search, because of the excellent results that can be achieved without using
complex mathematical models [8, 23].

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Department of Computer Science, Tijuana Institute of Technology P.O. Box

4207, Chula Vista CA, 91909, U.S.A.
E-mail address: pmelin@tectijuana.mx (P. Melin)