Cognitive-Based Methodology of English Phrasal Verbs

US-China
Foreign Language
Volume 10, Number 7, July 2012 (Serial Number 106)
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US-China
Foreign Language
Volume 10, Number 7, July 2012 (Serial Number 106)
Contents
Linguistic Research
Cognitive-Based Methodology of English Phrasal Verbs 1297
Chikako Takahashi, Akemi Matsuya
On the Relationship Between Multiple Intelligences and Grammatical and Writing
Accuracy of Iranian Learners of English 1306
Abbas Ali Zarei, Fatemeh Mohseni
A Context-Structure Analysis of Yorùbá Proverbs in Discourse 1318
Rahim Kajogbola Ọmọlọ̀ṣọ́
Idiom Identification in L2 Reading by Greek Learners of English 1330
Eirene C. Katsarou
Unifying Role of Malay Language in a Multilingual Nation: A Case of Malaysia 1349
Emeka Cyprian Onwubiko
Teaching Theory & Practice
Teaching Adult Learners English Through a Variety of Activities: Perception on
Games and Rewards 1355
Supamit Chanseawrassamee
Translation Research
Thinking on Dialect Translation in LU Xun’s Novels From the Perspective of Poetics
of Chinese Modernity 1375
CONG Zi-hang
US-China Foreign Language, ISSN 1539-8080
July 2012, Vol. 10, No. 7, 1297-1305
D DAVID PUBLISHING
Cognitive-Based Methodology of English Phrasal Verbs
Chikako Takahashi Akemi Matsuya

Tokyo Junshin Women’s College, Tokyo, Japan Takachiho University, Tokyo, Japan
The purpose of this paper is to suggest the effective and systematic learning system concerning English phrasal
verbs under the framework of the Cognitive Grammar advocated by Ronald W. Langacker (1987). Namely, in
order to link the L2 (second language) learners’ cognitive abilities to their language faculty, we have developed
sense-stimulating lessons with several visual images and self-learning materials preserved by Javascript. In our
experimental lessons, we employed moving pictures of spatial particles in combination with frequently used verbs
such as “call”, “come”, “take”, “get”, “give”, “go”, and “look”. We required our subjects to review the lessons
through the Javascript self-learning materials. Furthermore, we measured the effectiveness of our cognitive-based
lessons and self-learning system statistically: We have proven that the exposure to visual images of phrasal verbs
and self-learning via Javascript motivates L2 learners to acquire these lexical items which are very important in
English pedagogy but at the same time difficult to learn.
Keywords: cognitive linguistics, English phrasal verbs, second language acquisition
Introduction
Necessity for the Study
The purpose of our paper is to prove the effectiveness of systematic teaching of phrasal verbs with the help
of visual images: We will apply the Cognitive Grammar point of view advocated by Langacker (1987) to English
pedagogy and will show the results of our experimental lessons of English phrasal verbs to Japanese college
students by means of computer-assisted lessons using several visual images. For many years, English phrasal
verbs have been considered idiomatic and arbitrary; therefore, learners of English have had to memorize them
mechanically. In line with studies of English prepositions, however, several researchers have analyzed English
phrasal verbs systematically from the perspective of Cognitive Grammar (Dirven, 2001; Kurtyka, 2001; Lindner,
1983; Rudzka-Ostyn, 2003); Lindner (1983) made a systematical analysis of phrasal verbs with only two
particles such as “out” and “up”. Rudzka-Ostyn (2003) did not refer to any statistical data. We conducted
experimental lessons dealing with more particles of spatial positions in combination with frequently used verbs
such as “call”, “come”, “take”, “get”, “give”, “go”, and “look”. In addition, we measured the effectiveness of our
cognitive-based lessons statistically.
Moreover, we believe that visual aids can effectively facilitate learners’ retention. As for memory research,
Stevick and Paivio propose the “dual-code theory”. Namely, upon listening to a word, the two-memory system,
Chikako Takahashi, associate professor at Department of International Culture, Tokyo Junshin Women’s College.
Akemi Matsuya, professor at Department of Human Sciences, Takachiho University.
1298 COGNITIVE-BASED METHODOLOGY OF ENGLISH PHRASAL VERBS
verbal and visual, emerges automatically. Therefore, visualization accelerates the retention of the word. In order
to enhance the understanding and the retention of learners, phrasal verbs need to be presented both verbally and
visually. From the perspective of human perception and behavior, Kordys proposes presenting English particles
as sets of “dichotomy” with opposite spatial orientations, such as “up-down”, “front-back”, and “left-right”.
With our method, we prove that the exposure to visual images of phrasal verbs motivates L2 (second
language) learners to acquire these lexical items which are important in English pedagogy and difficult to learn
(Kurtyka, 2001).
Research Questions
We have set up the following two research questions: (1) Do computer-assisted lessons with visual images
help learners’ retention? and (2) Do learners’ English levels influence the rate of improvement? Since our main
focus was the retention, we did not measure the production effect of our experiment (the research question (1)).
At the same time, we are interested in how the students’ proficiency levels influence the effect (the research
question (2)).
Method
Fifty-two Japanese college students participated in this study. We divided them into two groups: a control
group and an experimental group. A conventional teaching style was applied to the students of the control group;
these students were given printed materials of phrasal verbs and oral explanations by their teachers, while the
students of the experimental group were taught the same phrasal verbs with computer-assisted visual images and
self e-learning tools. First, we focused on the basic meaning of each particle by presenting them as sets of
“dichotomy” with opposite spatial orientations, such as “up-down”, “in-out”, and “on-off” with visual images.
Then, we introduced some phrasal verbs with example sentences (see Appendix 1). We distributed self
e-learning files preserved by Javascript and required the subjects to review each lesson at home, using the files.
The students’ English levels were measured with the TOEIC (Test of English for International Communication)
Reading Section Test Part 5, a standardized test commonly used to assess their English proficiency. The
“Part 5” section tests grammar and vocabulary knowledge. Before and after the experiment, we conducted both
a pretest and a posttest to prove the effects statistically.
Results
First, we attempted to prove that our pretest and posttest, both of which require the subjects to fill in 20
blanks with appropriate phrasal verbs, have the same difficulties via a t-test (see Appendix 2). Specifically, this
t-test sets the null hypothesis (H0) and the alternative hypothesis (H1) as follows: The former assumes that the
sample mean of the pretest (μ1) is equal to that of the protest (μ2), that is, μ1 = μ2. The latter hypothesizes that the
sample mean of the pretest (μ1) differs from that of the protest (μ2), that is, μ1 ≠ μ2. According to the result of the
t-test, the probability value (p) is 0.771331, which is over the level of significance (α) (α = 0.005). Thus, H0
cannot be rejected, which means that both of them have the same difficulties and are reliable. Second, we
compared the results of the TOEIC Test Part 5 of the control group and the experimental group. The average
test score of the control group was 24.31818, while that of the experimental group was 25.26667 out of 40
points. With the difference of 0.84449, the grammatical and vocabulary competences were proved to be
COGNITIVE-BASED METHODOLOGY OF ENGLISH PHRASAL VERBS 1299
consistent from the control group to the experimental group.

Then, under the control group design, we conducted the pretest and posttest on our experimental and control
groups: The former and the latter consist of 30 students and 22 students, who are learning English as an L2 at the
university, respectively. Then we conducted a t-test concerning the difference of the mean of the two dependent
samples, the experimental group and the control group. On the one hand, this t-test sets H0, where the sample
mean of the experimental group (μ1) is the same as that of the control group (μ2): μ1 = μ2. On the other hand, it
places H1 that μ1 differs from μ2: μ1 ≠ μ2. As a result of this t-test, we obtained 0.002461658 as the probability
value, which is below the level of significance (α = 0.005). Consequently, H0 is rejected and H1 is accepted. In
short, our teaching method and self e-learning tool help when adult L2 learners acquire English phrasal verbs.
Finally, we examined the correlation between the subjects’ proficiency and the effectiveness of our model
lesson and self-learning materials. As shown in Example 1 below, our analysis by the Pearson correlation
coefficient reveals a certain correlation between them regardless of their proficiency. Specifically, we may say
that the less proficient the students are, the more successfully our learning system with images work in the
acquisition of English phrasal verbs (see Examples 2-3).
Example (1) Pearson correlation coefficient (r) I (overall): 0.411655047
Example (2) Pearson correlation coefficient II (0-25): 0.43378847
Example (3) Pearson correlation coefficient III (26-40): 0.15182577
The first figure shows the correlation of the TOEIC test results of the whole experimental group students and
their improvement. The figures in each parenthesis show the range of the TOEIC test scores the students obtained.
Conclusions and Limitation

To recapitulate, we clarified that the cognitive-oriented learning device accelerates the acquisition of
English phrasal verbs to some extent. Specifically, we may infer that less proficient students understand the
core meaning of English phrasal verbs by way of images of prepositions. As noted in the results of our
assessment test, the experimental group students belong to the intermediate level. This is why we could not
investigate the correlation between our methodology and the lower/higher level subjects.
References
Bolinger, D. (1971). The phrasal verb in English. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
Dirven, R. (2001). English phrasal verbs: Theory and didactic application. In M. Putz, S. Niemeier, & R. Dirven (Eds.), Applied
cognitive linguistics II: Language pedagogy (pp. 5-27). Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Kurtyka, A. (2001). Teaching English phrasal verbs: A cognitive approach. In M. Putz, S. Niemeier, & R. Dirven (Eds.), Applied
Cognitive linguistics II: Languag pedagogy (pp. 29-54). Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Lakoff, G. (1987). Women, fire, and dangerous things. Chicago & London: The Unversity of Chicago Press.
Langacker, R. (1987). Foundation of cognitive grammar (Vol. I): Theoretical prerequisites. California: Stanford University Press.
Lindner, J. S. (1983). A lexico-semantic analysis of English verb particle constructions with OUT and UP (Ph.D. dissertation,
University of California at San Diego).
Rudzka-Ostyn, B. (2003). Word power: Phrasal verbs and compounds a cognitive approach. Berlin & New York: Mouton de
Gruyter.
White, L. (2000). Second language acquisition: From initial state to final state. In J. Archibald (Ed.), Second language acquistion
and linguistic theory (pp. 130-155). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell.
White, L. (2003). Second language acquisition and universal grammar. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Appendix 1: Moving Pictures of Particles
“Up”

You should at least look up when your name is called. What time do you usually get up every morning?

You should fill up with gas before you start your trip. A little boy came up to me and asked my name.
North
South

Let’s leave Tokyo and go up to Hokkaido for the vacation. None of my friends showed up at the party yesterday.
“Down”

The airplane touched down just now. Some of the trees in my garden came down because of the
typhoon last night.
North
South
You must write down your name and your address on Mary is going down from New York to Florida.
this document.
“In”

It’s raining heavily. Let’s eat in rather than go to the restaurant. You need to lower your head to get in this small car.
He majored in litertue at Harvard and studied Shakespeare. My mother always cuts in when we are talking.

“Out”
I am supposed to go out with my mother this afternoon. I found out some defects- of this new-brand car.
The sun came out.

.
The fire went out. Cherry blossoms are coming out now.
The search light gave out a clear and sharp beam. Her beauty stands out in her class.

“On”
In a rainy day, you can always count on me for help. You should get on the bus for Shibuya.
The party went on all night so that many people enjoyed it.
“Off”

John got off the train at Shinjuku station. Turn off Inokashira street at the next corner and go straight.

Would you please put off the light?

Appendix 2: Pretest and Posttest
<Pretest Questions>
Name:
No.: /20
選択肢から動詞と前置詞を一つづつ選び、組み合わせたものを、適切な形にして、それぞれの空白を埋めなさい。ヒ
ントとして動詞の初めの文字が空白のところに記してあります。
1. Let’s start today’s meeting. Has everyone s yet?

2. What time does the plane for New York t ?
3. You should f this application form and send it with two recommendation letters to our admission office.
4. Why does this photocopy machine keep b ? I can’t make any copies for the conference.
5. I would like to f when my car will be repaired. I need to use my car for work.
6. You should p a sweater because it is very cold today.
7. It’s really hot in here. Why don’t you t the air-conditioning?
8. You should show the tickets at the airport when you c .
9. When you have finished, t your test and then you may go home.
10. C after the news is our weekend weather report.
11. Remember, all the books you c today are due back on April 15th.
12. The alarm will g several times in the course of the morning.
13. Welcome you to our department store. The sale g through the 16th.
14. I have been looking for my English textbook for a few hours now, I g !
15. When you get to Hong Kong, are you going to c Mr. Wang?
16. The sale ends tomorrow, so you’d better g there as soon as possible.
17. It’s hard to t a job like this. It is really difficult.
18. Whatever you say, I’ll never g to your idea. I’ve already made up my mind.
19. The university c scholarship by 25% to save money.
20. It three days and went to Korea.
<Verb>
break, call, check, check, come, cut, fill, find, get, give,
give, go, go, put, show, take, take, take, turn, turn
<Preposition>
down, down, down, in, in, in, off, off, off, on, on, on, on, on,
out, out, out, up, up, up
<Posttest Questions>
Name:
No.: /20
選択肢から動詞と前置詞を一つずつ選び、組み合わせたものを、適切な形にして、それぞれの空白を埋めなさい。ヒ
ントとして動詞の初めの文字が空白のところに記してあります。
1. Are you looking for a blouse? They c various sizes and colors right now.
2. She b her four children by herself after the divorce.
3. The company president c his secretary during the meeting.
4. He’s p five kilograms since he got married.
5. My earring c my left ear while I was dancing in the hall.
6. “ Hi, Yukio. You look sleepy. What’s up?”
“Is till 3:00 this morning writing two papers due today.”
7. I’ll make tea. Could you f the kettle with water?

8. Brian told his wife to l for his favorite sweets in the bakery.
9. All the students listened to the professor’s lecture and w the important points.
10. “ May I t the TV, Mom? There is an interesting comedy show starting today.”
11. Please c us whenever you visit Tokyo.
12. Because of her flu, Mary’s birthday party was c .
13. F the blanks with the words below. This test takes only 10 minutes.
14. The bank robbers immediately p their guns when the police officers arrived.
15. Prof. Brown told us to h the assignment by Friday.
16. After work he g a taxi and went to Ginza.
17. According to the news, a private jet w in the residential area a few minutes ago.
18. The ship g radio signals for help.
19. The air plane has just t for New York.
20. The government p the latest information on the tsunami as soon as the earthquake occurred.
<Verb>
bring, call, call, call, come, come, fill, fill, get, give, go,
hand, look, put, put, put, sit, take, turn, write,
<Preposition>
down, down, down, in, in, in, in, off, off, off, on, on, on,
out, out, out, up, up, up, up,
July 2012, Vol. 10, No. 7, 1306-1317
D DAVID PUBLISHING
On the Relationship Between Multiple Intelligences and

Grammatical and Writing Accuracy of
Iranian Learners of English
Abbas Ali Zarei Fatemeh Mohseni

Imam Khomeini International University, Qazvin, Iran Islamic Azad University, Takestan, Iran
The present study was conducted to investigate the relationship between four types of intelligence (logical,
interpersonal, verbal, and intrapersonal) and grammatical and writing accuracy of foreign language learners. The
participants were 190 male and female Iranian students at Takestan Azad University, Karaj Azad University, and
Imam Khomeini International University in Qazvin. To accomplish the aim of the study, a 40-item MIs (multiple
intelligences) questionnaire, a 35-item Michigan grammar test, and a writing test were administered to the
participants. Data were analyzed through multiple regression analyses. Results indicated that both intrapersonal
and interpersonal intelligences were predictors of grammar accuracy and intrapersonal intelligence made a
statistically significant contribution to predicting learners’ writing accuracy.
Keywords: MIs (multiple intelligences), grammatical accuracy, writing accuracy
Introduction
The theory of MIs (multiple intelligences) has always been a controversial issue in language learning, and
there have been many different views about the relationship between MIs and language learning. Gardner (1983),
the father of MIs theory, defined intelligence as “the ability to solve problems or create products that are valued
within one or more cultural setting” (p. 81). In another book, Intelligence Reframed (1999), Gardner refined his
original definition of intelligence as a biopsychological potential that provides a learner with an opportunity to
process information which can be activated in a cultural setting and helps the learner to solve problems and create
products that are culturally valuable.
Gardner (1983) stated that each person possesses at least seven basic intelligences including linguistic,
logical/mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinaesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal intelligences.
Armstrong (2009, p. 6) described these intelligences as follows:
Linguistic/verbal intelligence: The ability to use language and communicate with words.
Logical/mathematical intelligence: The ability to think and use numbers effectively.
Spatial/visual intelligence: The ability to think and be sensitive to colour, line, shape, space, and the world around us.
Bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence: The ability to use body to solve problems and make ideas and emotions.
Abbas Ali Zarei, assistant professor at Faculty of Humanities, Imam Khomeini International University.
Fatemeh Mohseni, M.A. graduate, Islamic Azad University.
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES AND GRAMMATICAL AND WRITING ACCURACY 1307
Musical intelligence: The ability to compose or perceive music well.

Interpersonal intelligence: The ability to communicate and work with others.
Intrapersonal intelligence: The ability to self-assess and self-analyze one’s behaviour.
Gardner believes that intelligence is more than a single property of human mind and someone who is not
strong in mathematical ability should not be considered as “not intelligent”, because that same person may be
intelligent in another area. In other words, while all students are not verbally or mathematically gifted, they may
have an expertise in other areas, such as music, spatial relations, or interpersonal knowledge. This implies that
different types of intelligence have differential relationships with the learning of various areas of knowledge. In
an attempt to verify the above statement, the present study focuses on the relationship between four types of
intelligence (logical, interpersonal, verbal, and intrapersonal) and grammatical and writing accuracy of foreign
language learners. It attempts to answer the following questions: (1) Which of the MIs is a better predictor of the
grammatical accuracy of Iranian learners of English?; and (2) Which of the MIs is a better predictor of the writing
accuracy of Iranian learners of English?
Review of Literature
During the past couple of decades, the relevant literature in language teaching has witnessed heated debates
as to the role of MIs in language learning. Gardner changed the general view of intelligence and proposed the
idea of MIs in 1983. He believed that all people possess many different types of intelligence rather than a single
innate intelligence. In 1999, Gardner suggested a practical guidance on the educational uses of the theory and
introduced three new intelligences as existential, naturalist, and spiritual intelligences, thus expanding the
concept of intelligence.
Borek (2003) suggested that having a MI-based classroom can be an appropriate way for students to do their
best and develop their own ways of learning. To find empirical evidence for this claim, a number of studies were
carried out. Kelly (2005) worked on the development of an original framework for using MIs to model learning
characteristics. He tried to find a relationship between MIs and learning styles and strategies. He found that the
concept of intelligences and styles as predictive of language performance was supported by evidence. Indeed,
results showed the positive effectiveness of different MI-based styles in students’ learning process. In another
study conducted by Frost and Hoffman (2006), a significant relationship was found between social, emotional,
and cognitive intelligences and learners’ learning process. In addition, Temiz and Kiraz (2007) found a positive
relationship between MI theory and Literacy Education. Beceren (2010) even found a relationship between
children’ intelligence types and their parents’ educational level and socioeconomic status. He showed that
parents’ educational level and their socioeconomic status directly affected children’s intelligences.
Another study conducted by Yi-an (2010) examined the role of MIs theory in foreign language behaviour
and performance. Participants of the study were 2,545 Taiwanese college students who were given an English
Proficiency Test of Listening and Reading, and filled out a questionnaire related to MIs. Results of analyses
showed that MIs play a significant role in foreign language learning including students’ learning behaviour and
English performance. Yi-an also concluded that musical, interpersonal, and intrapersonal intelligences make
significant contribution to predicting students’ learning behaviour and musical, verbal, and visual intelligences
are predictors of English performance.
1308 MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES AND GRAMMATICAL AND WRITING ACCURACY
Naoe (2010) investigated MIs of a group of 5th grade students as a basis for the design and development of
curriculum and instructional activities. Participants were 15 5th grade students, their parents (15), and four
teachers who taught the class. A MIs questionnaire, a pretest, and a posttest were administered to determine the
MI level of the participants. Findings indicated the existence of the eight MIs in the learners in varying degrees.
In addition, results revealed that implementing creative strategies, appropriate instructional materials, and a
stimulating environment improved participants’ intelligences.
Denig (2004), comparing MIs theory and learning styles, suggested ways of providing students with
conditions to improve their learning over the range of intelligences. The researcher investigated the extent to
which these two theories worked together to contribute to learning. Findings suggested a positive relationship
between the two theories and showed that they both contributed to better learning. To further clarify the issues of
MIs and various learning styles in language teaching, Torresan (2007) suggested that intelligences can be
activated by various stimuli; so many different learning styles may be used as beneficial stimuli to nurture the
different intelligences.
Another aspect of MI theory is the relationship between MIs and language learning strategies. In this regard,
Akbari and Hosseini (2008) investigated the relationship between foreign language learners’ MIs scores and their
use of different language learning strategies. Findings indicated positive relationships between the use of
language learning strategies and Intelligence Quotient scores of the learners, but no relationship was found
between strategy use and musical intelligence.
Previous research has also focused on the relationship between MI-based instructional methods. In one such
study, the effect of MI-based methods was investigated on young children with disabilities. It was revealed that
by organizing toys and lesson plans around MIs, we may help children to learn new skills much better and more
effectively. In another study, Kayiran and Iflazoglu (2007) focused on the effects of a cooperative learning
method supported by MIs theory on attitudes toward a Turkish language course. Results indicated a significant
difference in favour of the experimental group in terms of achievements, but there was no difference between the
control groups. Regarding the results obtained from Turkish Language Course Attitude, no significant difference
was found among the groups.
Another study in the area of MIs and cooperative learning was conducted by Isik and Tarim (2009), who
studied the impact of a traditional method on cooperative learning supported by MI theory. One hundred and fifty
fourth grade students in mathematics participated in the study; they were divided into two groups: an
experimental group (using MI-based method) and a control group (using traditional method). Findings showed
that students in the experimental group got better scores than the students in the control group.
Gender has always been controversial in studies pertaining to MIs.
Buchanan and Furnham (2005) conducted a study to examine this role and concluded that women tend to
provide lower estimates of general, mathematical, and spatial ability, but higher estimates of interpersonal and
intrapersonal intelligence than men. Another study by Nasser, Singhal, and Abouchedid (2008) compared the
effect of gender on Indian and Lebanese learners. Students estimated their MIs based on Gardner’s theory.
Male’s scores in bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence were higher than females; instead, females got better scores in
verbal-linguistic and intrapersonal intelligences.
Nokelainen and Tirri (2008) examined the latest version of MIPQ (Multiple Intelligences Profiling
Questionnaire), considering different ages and genders. The results of correlational analysis showed that males
rated their logical intelligence higher than females. A statistically significant difference was also found in the
spiritual sensitivity of the males and females. Surprisingly enough, males turned out to be more spiritual and
religious. Kaur and Chhikara (2008) conducted another study with the aim of identifying the relationship between
MI types and sex differences. They found that intelligences like linguistic, logical, musical, and
bodily-kinaesthetic intelligences are influenced by sex differences, but the others are not. However, Saricaoglu
and Arikan (2009) found no relationship between students’ gender and their intelligence types, except for the
relationship between gender and linguistic intelligence that was positive.
Applications of MI Theory
MI theory seems to have different applications. Osciak and Milheim (2001) focused on MIs strategies
implemented within the field of web-based instruction. They introduced different tools of web-based instruction
including e-mail as the most common communication tool of the Internet, Listserv, which functions as an
electronic mailing list, chat room as real-time and text-based communication between individuals and groups,
and class websites which can be utilized to simulate the activities of a traditional classroom. Evaluating these
tools indicated that MIs can be applied as a useful instrument to assist educators to make better decisions in
planning different instructions.
Kezar (2001) investigated MI theory’s application in higher education and concluded that using MIs in
higher education is crucial and plays a significant role in our understanding of teaching and learning. In much the
same way, Botelho (2003) investigated the application of MI theory in English language teaching and suggested
that most teachers know MI theory and apply it in educational contexts, and many of them show their interest in
knowing more about the theory to improve their teaching.
Fonseca and Arnold’s (2004) research is a study in favour of the application of MI theory in foreign
language classrooms. Based on this study, MI-based activities may be considered as significant stimulus. Indeed,
it is suggested that through implementing the tasks associated with MIs, motivating learners in second language
classrooms may be more feasible. Furthermore, attention should be paid to applying a combination of MIs in
educational contexts to meet all learners’ needs.
Eisner (2004) compared the application of MI-based instructions with traditional ones. He suggested that
MI-based instructions provide us with a significant view of what we try to do. Indeed, despite the findings
obtained from traditional instructions which are predictable, MI-based instructions can provide new findings and
encourage us to be more creative in designing instructions regarding individuals’ needs.
Smith (2006) investigated the usability of Gardner’s cognitive theory for understanding cross-cultural
variation and its impact on digital library. Findings showed that MIs might be a descriptive model for interpreting
the underlying cultural factors, but not an appropriate solution to the issues related to digital libraries.
In another study, Alghazo, Obeidat, Al-trawneh, and Alshraideh (2009) discovered the most common types
of intelligence considering social studies, and Arabic and English language books for the first three grades in
elementary stage. The sample consisted of social studies, Arabic and English language books, and the instrument
included 30 questions each representing different types of intelligence. It turned out that the most common type
of intelligence was visual intelligence and the least common one was physical intelligence in all grades.
Okebukola and Owolabi (2009) explored the effects of MIs on students’ reading ability and concluded that
MIs methods improve students’ reading skill. In another study, Eng and Mustapha (2010) investigated the extent
to which MI-based strategies and instructions improve students’ writing ability. Findings revealed a significant
improvement in students’ overall writing ability in experimental group after two months of training.
Bas and Bayhan (2010) tried to discover whether there is a relationship between MIs and students’
achievement level and attitude toward English learning. Fifty students in two different classes in the 5th grade of
an elementary school participated in the study. Students were categorized into experimental and control groups.
Findings revealed that students educated through MI theory were not only more successful but also much more
motivated than the students educated through traditional instructional methods.
Despite what was said above, MI theory has not been without criticism. Smith (2001) claimed that MI
theory does not prescribe a particular educational methodology. Similarly, Waterhouse (2006) criticized MI
theory and maintained that despite its inadequate empirical bases, this theory continues to be applied in
education, because it tells “goodness” stories. He also believed that due to the absence of adequate validating
empirical support and neuroscience findings, MI theory is not validated. In another study conducted by
Nikolova and Shopova (2007), the researchers held that there was no difference between ability and intelligence
in reality and only the name was changed.
To resolve part of the existing controversy, present study aims to investigate the relationship between MIs
and grammatical and writing accuracy of Iranian learners of English.
Method
Participants
This study was conducted with 190 male and female Iranian B.A. students majoring in English translation at
Islamic Azad University of Takestan, Islamic Azad University of Karaj, and Imam Khomeini International
University in Qazvin.
Instruments
In the present study, the following instruments were utilized to collect data: A MTELP (Michigan Test of
English Language Proficiency) was administered to the participants to specify their level of proficiency and to
homogenize them. The MTELP used in the present study is a 100-item multiple choice test consisting of three
parts. It includes 40 grammar items, 40 vocabulary items requiring the completion of a sentence or the selection
of synonyms or antonyms, and four reading passages each followed by five reading comprehension questions. In
order to determine the participants’ level of grammar knowledge, a Michigan grammar subtest including 35
multiple choice items was used. To determine the participants’ level of accuracy in writing, a writing test was
utilized. It consisted of two different topics and participants were supposed to select one of them and wrote an
essay approximately 200 words long.
A multiple intelligence questionnaire was administered to the participants to specify their intelligence
profile. Although the original questionnaire consists of 90 statements related to each of the nine intelligences, due
to the research questions of the present study, the participants responded to just four parts relating to logical,
interpersonal, verbal, and intrapersonal intelligences. This questionnaire is available online at
http://Surfaquarium.com/MIInvent.htm.
Procedures
Initially, to homogenize the participants, a multiple choice of MTELP was administered. The initial number
of participants was 247. Having scored the papers and computed the mean and standard deviation, in order to
select a homogeneous group of participants, those whose score was less than one standard deviation away (above
or below), the mean was selected as the sample of the present study. Fifty-seven of the participants were excluded
due to either a high or a low proficiency level; therefore, 190 of the participants remained as the final sample of
the study.
An MI McKenzie’s questionnaire was also administered in the first session to specify the participants’
profiles. The participants were required to place 1 next to each statement corresponding to them and place 0 for
the statements which did not. The time allocated for the first session was 60 minutes.
During the following session, the participants were provided with two topics and were asked to write an
essay approximately 200 words long; they were also asked to answer a 35-item multiple choice Michigan
grammar subtest. The purpose of these tests was to measure their grammar knowledge and writing accuracy.
Having collected the data, two separate multiple regression analyses were run to investigate the relationships
between four types of intelligence (logical, interpersonal, verbal, and intrapersonal) as independent variables and
grammatical and writing accuracy of foreign language learners as dependent variables.
Results and Discussion

Results
Investigation of the first research question. The first research question sought to investigate which of the
MIs was a better predictor of the grammatical accuracy of Iranian learners of English. To answer this question, a
multiple regression analysis was run. Table 1 contains the summary of descriptive statistics for the participants’
grammar scores and their intelligence types.
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics for Grammar Scores and Four Types of Intelligence
Mean Std. Deviation N
Grammar 17.4158 4.72982 190
Logical 4.8684 1.86830 190
Interpersonal 4.2579 2.46495 190
Verbal 5.2789 2.12844 190
Intrapersonal 6.2316 2.51326 190
As it can be seen in Table 1, the intrapersonal intelligence group has the highest mean (mean = 6.23) and the
interpersonal intelligence group has the lowest mean (mean = 4.25). To investigate the degree of relationship
between grammar and the four types of intelligence, a correlation coefficient was run. Table 2 presents the results.
Based on Table 2, it can be argued that the highest correlation is between grammar and intrapersonal
intelligence, while interpersonal intelligence has the lowest correlation with grammar. In order to see the extent to
which the four types of intelligence collectively account for the variance in grammar, the multiple regression
analysis is used. Results of the model summary are shown in Table 3.
Table 2
Correlations Among Grammar Scores and Four Types of Intelligence
Grammar Logical Interpersonal Verbal Intrapersonal
Grammar 1.000 0.184 -0.042 0.120 0.347
Logical 1.000 0.362 0.528 0.542
Interpersonal 1.000 0.401 0.360
Verbal 1.000 0.550
Intrapersonal 1.000
Table 3
Model Summary
Model R R-square Adjusted R-square Std. error of the estimate
a
1 0.395 0.156 0.138 4.39118
a
Note. Predictors: (Constant), intrapersonal, interpersonal, logical, and verbal.
Based on the results in Table 3, the four types of intelligence collectively account for 13.8% of the variance
in the grammar test. To test the first null hypothesis of the present study that there are no differences among MIs
as predictors of the grammatical accuracy, and to see whether the model is significant or not, the ANOVA
(Analysis of Variance) procedure is run. Table 4 indicates a significant result.
Table 4
ANOVAb on Grammar Test
Model Sum of squares df Mean square F Sig.
1 Regression 660.904 4 165.226 8.569 0.001a
Residual 3,567.249 185 19.282
Total 4,228.153 189
Notes. Predictors: (Constant), intrapersonal, interpersonal, logical, and verbal. b Dependent variable: grammar.
a
Table 5 indicates the extent to which each type of intelligence accounts for the variance in grammar; it shows
the standardized coefficients and the significance of the observed t-value for each type of intelligence separately.
Table 5
Coefficientsa of Four Types of Intelligence
Unstandardized coefficients Standardized coefficients
Model t Sig.
B Std. error Beta
1 (Constant) 14.079 1.028 13.689 0.000
Logical 0.154 0.217 0.061 0.707 0.480
Interpersonal -0.360 0.145 -0.188 -2.480 0.014
Verbal -0.149 0.194 -0.067 -0.768 0.443
Intrapersonal 0.788 0.164 0.419 4.805 0.001
a
Note. Dependent variable: grammar.
Based on Table 5, of the four types of intelligence (logical, interpersonal, verbal, and intrapersonal),
intrapersonal intelligence is the best predictor of grammar accuracy. It shows that for every one standard
deviation change in one’s intrapersonal intelligence, there will be about 0.41 of a standard deviation change in
one’s grammar accuracy. In addition to intrapersonal intelligence, interpersonal intelligence is the second best
predictor of the variance in the dependent variable (grammar). For every one standard deviation change in one’s
interpersonal intelligence, there will be -0.18 of a standard deviation change in one’s grammar knowledge. In
other words, for every one standard deviation increase in one’s interpersonal intelligence, there will be 0.18 of
standard deviation decrease in one’s grammar knowledge.
Investigation of the second research question. The second research question attempted to see which of the
MIs was a better predictor of the writing accuracy of Iranian learners of English. To this end, another multiple
regression analysis was run. Table 6 contains the descriptive statistics for the participants’ writing scores and
their four types of intelligence.
Table 6
Descriptive Statistics for Writing Scores and Four Types of Intelligence
Mean Std. Deviation N
Writing 17.1711 2.03451 190
Logical 4.8684 1.86830 190
Interpersonal 4.2579 2.46495 190
Verbal 5.2789 2.12844 190
Intrapersonal 6.2316 2.51326 190
Based on Table 6, the intrapersonal intelligence group has the highest mean (mean = 6.23) and the
interpersonal intelligence group has the lowest mean (mean = 4.25). To see the extent to which the four types of
intelligence have relation to writing knowledge of foreign language learners, a correlation analysis is run. Results
are given in Table 7.
Table 7
Correlations Among Writing Scores and Four Types of Intelligence
Writing Logical Interpersonal Verbal Intrapersonal
Writing 1.000 0.191 0.044 0.107 0.314
Logical 1.000 0.362 0.528 0.542
Interpersonal 1.000 0.401 0.360
Verbal 1.000 0.550
Intrapersonal 1.000
Based on Table 7, writing knowledge has the highest correlation with intrapersonal intelligence and the
lowest correlation is between writing knowledge and interpersonal intelligence. To see how much the
combination of the four types of intelligence account for the variance in writing knowledge, the multiple
regression analysis is used. Results of the model summary are shown in Table 8.
In order to test the second null hypothesis that there are no differences among MIs as predictors of the
writing accuracy, and to see whether the model is significant or not, the ANOVA procedure is run. Table 9
indicates that the model is significant.
Table 8
Model Summary
Model R R-square Adjusted R-square Std. error of the estimate
a
1 0.334 0.112 0.092 1.938
Note. a Predictors: (Constant), intrapersonal, interpersonal, logical, and verbal.
Table 9
ANOVAb on Writing Test
Model Sum of squares df Mean square F Sig.
1 Regression 87.385 4 21.846 5.816 0.001a
Residual 694.932 185 3.756
Total 782.317 189
Notes. Predictors: (Constant), intrapersonal, interpersonal, logical, and verbal. b Dependent Variable: writing.
a
Table 10 shows the extent to which each type of intelligence accounts for the variance in writing; it shows
the standardized coefficients and the significance of the observed t-value for each type of intelligence separately.
Table 10
Coefficientsa of Four Types of Intelligence
Unstandardized coefficients Standardized coefficients
Model t Sig.
B Std. error Beta
1 (Constant) 15.730 0.454 34.653 0.000
Logical 0.085 0.096 0.078 0.885 0.377
Interpersonal -0.059 0.064 -0.071 -0.914 0.362
Verbal -0.094 0.086 -0.099 -1.100 0.273
Intrapersonal 0.285 0.072 0.352 3.936 0.001
a
Note. Dependent variable: writing.
A look at Table 10 makes it clear that of all four types of intelligence, intrapersonal intelligence makes a
statistically significant contribution to predicting learners’ writing accuracy. It means for every one standard
deviation change in one’s intrapersonal intelligence, there will be 0.35 of a standard deviation change in one’s
writing accuracy.
In short, of the four types of intelligence (logical, interpersonal, verbal, and intrapersonal), only
intrapersonal intelligence made a statistically significant contribution to predicting learners’ writing accuracy.
Discussion
Some of the findings of the present study are in partial accordance with a number of previous studies (Naoe,
2010; Nolen, 2003; Eng & Mustapha, 2010; Saricaoglu & Arikan, 2009), which support the present findings
holding that different types of intelligence are predictors of grammatical and writing knowledge. At the same
time, the results of the present study are different from some other studies (Smith, 2001; Waterhouse, 2006;
Nikolova & Shopova, 2007; Razmjoo, 2008), which find no relationship between MI types and grammatical and
writing knowledge.
Naoe (2010) investigated the effect of MIs and found that using MI-based activities remarkably improve
students’ performance in grammar and writing. This is supported by the findings of the present study, as MI types
are predictors of grammar and writing knowledge. Naoe puts an emphasis on verbal intelligence and asserts that
there is a significant relationship between verbal intelligence and writing ability. Although a relationship was
found between MIs and writing ability, the present study does not lend support to this finding exactly. The findings
of the present study do not show verbal intelligence as a predictor of writing accuracy, but show instead that
intrapersonal intelligence makes a significant contribution to predicting learners’ writing accuracy. In addition,
Nolen (2003) found a significant relationship between learners’ verbal intelligence and their grammatical
knowledge. The present study does not show verbal intelligence as the predictor of grammatical knowledge.
Furthermore, the findings of a study conducted by Tanner and Green (2005) can be regarded as a support for
the present study. They concluded that MI theory assists learners to improve their writing ability. In keeping with
the findings of the present study, the findings of Eng and Mustapha’s (2010) study indicated a significant
improvement of students’ overall writing ability in MI-based instruction. The present study is also compatible
with the study of Saricaoglu and Arikan (2009), which reached the conclusion that intrapersonal intelligence was
a significant predictor of grammatical and writing knowledge. Moreover, the findings of the present study
partially corroborate those of Moenikia and Zahed-Babelan (2010). They reported MIs as predictors of language
learning. In the same vein, the results of this study also lend support to those of Yi-an (2010) with Taiwanese
college students. He observed that MIs made a significant contribution to predicting language learning.
On the other hand, the findings of the present study are different from a number of studies that were
reviewed in earlier. The present study reveals that grammatical and writing accuracy are influenced by MIs
(interpersonal and intrapersonal), but Smith (2001) claimed that language learning success both in children and in
adults is little influenced by all kinds of intelligence. Similarly, in a study conducted by Nikolova and Shopova
(2007), the researchers concluded that MIs theory does not play a significant role in improving the learners’
language skills. Furthermore, Razmjoo (2008) investigated the effect of MI on language proficiency and found
no significant relationship between MIs and English language proficiency.
The differences between the findings of this study and those of other studies may be due to learners’ gender
and their proficiency level. In the present study, the participants were B.A. students majoring in English
translation and gender was not taken into consideration. A number of other factors, which were not controlled in
the present study, including the social context of learning, learners’ motivation and interest, etc., may have
influenced these findings. These areas of conflict are probably indicative of the need for further research.
Conclusions
Based on the results of the present study, it can be concluded that no single method of teaching writing can
suit all types of learners. Since writing is shown to be differentially related to different types of intelligence,
and since human beings enjoy different levels of the various types of intelligence, the logical conclusion to be
drawn is that learners will experience differential success no matter how they are taught writing. This may be
construed as a call for some sort of eclecticism in our instructional method. However, even eclecticism has to
be far from haphazard. The findings of the present study seem to imply that teachers need to take into account
the type of intelligence characterizing individual learners in grouping them and in assigning each group of
learners to a different type of treatment. The findings can also have implications for materials developers and
guide them to make more informed decisions in designing writing courses for people with particular types of
intelligence.
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July 2012, Vol. 10, No. 7, 1318-1329
D DAVID PUBLISHING
A Context-Structure Analysis of Yorùbá Proverbs in Discourse
Rahim Kajogbola Ọmọlọ̀ṣọ́

Al-Hikmah University, Ilorin, Nigeria
The study of meaning is a challenging aspect of linguistic analysis. Since understanding is the basis of linguistic
communication, studying utterance meaning is very important in language study. Unfortunately, not all utterances
can be successfully decoded through structural semantics alone, particularly proverbs, because of their peculiar
nature, especially that of coding virtually all aspects of language users’ world view. Contextual variables must be
deployed with linguistic resources to use and decode proverbs. This fact informs the context-structure analysis
adopted for the pragmatic study of Yorùbá proverbs in this work. The model posited that deploying and decoding
proverbs called for their analysis in real discourse situations and required an understanding of their structure and
their immediate and wider contexts, because they come from different sentences and are context-driven. Both the
proverb and its context blend together in an interlocking manner, like the cob-web, such that we cannot isolate one
from the other and still succeed in decoding the proverb. Also, proverbs are sub-sumed in the cultural and
traditional beliefs of language users, which must be understood in order to understand the proverbs, as the beliefs
form the background knowledge that language users draw upon to deploy and decipher them. We thus concluded
that understanding the proverbs of a people can be a step towards understanding their culture and promoting
inter-ethnic relationship and peace.
Keywords: context-structure, Yorùbá, analysis, proverbs, discourse
Introduction
The study of meaning is a challenging aspect of linguistics. As pointed out by Ọmọlọ̀ṣọ́ (2006, p. 10), in
spite of advances in structural semantics, linguists, like the philosophers before them, still continue to search for
appropriate ways of accounting for the meanings of utterances. If understanding is the basis of communication
through language, the study of what utterances mean is very crucial to language study. However, understanding
the meanings of (Yorùbá) proverbs is beyond what structural semantics alone can adequately cope with, since
proverbs constitute a special class of utterances whose meanings cannot be arrived at by a sole recourse to the
meanings of the words of which they are composed. The knowledge required transcends, but incorporates,
linguistic knowledge. The knowledge required, in addition to linguistic knowledge, to properly contextualize and
decode the meaning of (Yorùbá) proverbs, includes that of the sociological, social, psychological, cosmological,
etc., backgrounds of the users of the particular language. Understanding the meaning of a proverb in discourse
requires us to understand both the direct and indirect illocutionary acts of the proverb as spelt out by the structure
of the proverb-bearing sentence and the contexts in which the proverb is used, respectively. A study that will do
Rahim Kajogbola Ọmọlọ̀ṣọ́, Ph.D. at Department of Languages, Al-Hikmah University.

A CONTEXT-STRUCTURE ANALYSIS OF YORÙBÁ PROVERBS IN DISCOURSE 1319
this successfully must harness these proverb structures with contextual resources.
This paper is, therefore, a pragmatic analysis of Yorùbá proverbs in discourse, using the context-structure
approach. Our goal is to explain the illocutionary forces of Yorùbá proverbs in discourse, hence, we shall discuss
their pragmatic acts (Mey, 2001) and explain how they are deployed and interpreted in the discourse. We believe
that there is a correlation between the structures of Yorùbá proverbs, the contexts where they are deployed, and
the pragmatic acts they perform in the discourse.
Yorùbá Proverbs
According to Ọmọlọ̀ṣọ́ (2007, pp. 1-2), in different languages and cultures, proverbs are very important
aspects of language use. They have, therefore, been studied by various people, particularly linguists and
anthropologists. Proverbs have also been described in various ways. The Yorùbá, for example, liken a proverb to
a horse that can be used to recover a discourse that has derailed. Lawal, Àjàyí, and Rájí (1997) referred to
proverbs “as the quintessence of a people’s collective responsibilities”, which Nwoga (1975) called “the
experience and wisdom of several ages summed up in one expression” (p. 186). According to Bhuvaneswar
(2003, p. 3), proverbs are formed from the day-to-day experience of life in the physical, social, and cultural
environments of language users. Proverbs are like the kola nut that tastes well only in the mouth of elders. As
pointed out by Ọmọlọ̀ṣọ́ (2007, pp. 2-3), in the Yorùbá language, appropriate use of proverbs is part of the
competence that a speaker is expected to exhibit, as the language is full of proverbs which cut across all facets of
Yorùbá people’s cosmology, such that when proverbs are used in a Yorùbá discourse, they implicate several
aspects of the sociolinguistic variables of language use like the age, sex, social class, psychological states of
interlocutors, as well as other situational contexts of discourse. Proverbs are culture-specific, hence,
understanding a people’s culture can aid the understanding of such people’s proverbs and vice versa. In Yorùbá,
like in any other natural language, proverbs are couched in sentences of varying lengths and complexity and these
sentences can vary in meaning based on contextual demands.
Sources of Data
Since our position is that (Yorùbá) proverbs are context-sensitive, our data will be cited in contexts. Hence,
we would sample proverbs used in natural and simulated discourses. Natural data are performance-data which
mirror natural speech as captured in the process of a live discourse (Brown & Yule, 1983, p. 20). Proverbs used in
natural discourses which would form part of our data in this study are sourced from: (1) live discourses in Yorùbá;
(2) Yorùbá literary works that cut across prose, poetry, and drama; and (3) Yorùbá proverbs used in Yorùbá
home videos.
The Yorùbá literary works that will serve as our sources of data for this work are Fágúnwà (1949, 1954),
Òkédìjí (1973, 1981), Ọbasá (1971), Akínjọ́gbìn (1979), and Ìṣọ̀lá (1983). For proverbs used in home videos, we
rely on the film titled: Ẹja Tútù (2003) written by Mọ̀ǹsúrù Ọbádínà and produced by Zenith Pictures.
Review of Some Related Works

According to Austin (1962) cited in Jaworski and Coupland (1999, pp. 63-75), when a speaker says
something, he/she is performing an act. The act of saying something he/she calls the performance of a locutionary
1320 A CONTEXT-STRUCTURE ANALYSIS OF YORÙBÁ PROVERBS IN DISCOURSE
act, while the study of utterances is “the study of locutions, or of the full units of speech” (Jaworski & Coupland,
1999, p. 69). So, in performing a locutionary act, we use speech to perform rather limitless functions, using
performative verbs like promise, warn, declare, threaten, etc.. Therefore, a locution may have the force of a
question, a promise, a warning, a threat, an admonition, etc.. Applied to Yorùbá proverbs, we deploy proverbs in
Yorùbá discourse to perform various illocutionary or pragmatic acts. The question, however, is how do we arrive
at the pragmatic acts from the surface structures of proverbs. At the surface level, proverbs may assert, declare, or
ask questions, as Examples 1-3 show:
Example (1) Ọ̀wọnnìyàn níí mú arọ gun ilé (assertive; declarative)
It is lack of capable hands that passes the responsibility of climbing a house to a cripple.
Example (2) Adìẹ dà mí ní oògùn nù, mo fọ́ ọ ní ẹyin (assertive; declarative)
A fowl threw off my medicine and I broke its eggs.
Example (3) Èèló ni ìyá ológbò tí a ní kí Ọlọ́run dá ọmọ rẹ̀ sí? (interrogative).
What is so much in the value of a mother cat that we pray that God should protect its kittens?
Yorùbá native speakers know that beyond the surface-level meanings that these proverbs have, they have
underlying or deep meanings, that is, pragmatic underpinnings.
In attempting to arrive from the surface meaning to the pragmatic acts of utterances, Allan (1986) undertook
a classification of utterances into the different speech acts that they perform. His classification, which could be
regarded as a modification of Austin’s (1962), Searle’s (1969), and Bach and Harnish’s (1979), is done based “on
the kinds of values found to obtain for different classes of speech acts” (Allan, 1986, p. 192). On the basis of these
values, Allan (1986, p. 192) classified speech acts broadly into two: interpersonal and declaratory. Interpersonal
acts are sub-divided into constatives, predictives, commissives, acknowledgements, directives, and authoritatives,
while declaratory acts are sub-divided into effectives and verdictives, bringing to eight Allan’s major speech acts.
In spite of Allan’s efforts, the problem of how we move from the speech act (surface) level to the pragmatic
act level still remains unresolved. Adégbìjà (1988) recognized the fact that utterances possess varying depths of
meanings, some of which may be arrived at the surface level (speech act) layer, while some require a penetration
into the secondary or even tertiary speech act (pragmatic act) layer. He, therefore, proposed a
pragma-sociolinguistic approach for the decoding of meaning beyond the primary layer (Adégbìjà, 1988, p. 153;
Ọmọlọ̀ṣọ́, 2006, pp. 124-125), using as his sample data, the utterance, “My friend, where is Anini?”, uttered by a
former Nigerian military leader to the then Inspector-General of Police. He observed rightly that the utterance,
which is interrogative at the surface layer, is capable of several interpretations, depending on the amount of
background information available to the decoder and “the contribution that intonation… is capable of making” to
the utterance. The reason the utterance is capable of several interpretations, explained by Adégbìjà (1988), is that
the utterance, rather than being a question requesting for an answer, is an indirect speech act, whose proper
decoding depends on the decoder having access to “accurate information about its total world and environment”
(p. 154). Adégbìjà’s (1988) pragma-sociolinguistic theory, according to him, referred to “the entire pragmatic,
social and linguistic contexts of an utterance” and “must come to bear in the explanation of how utterances are
decoded” (p. 156).
Though Adégbìjà recognizes the relevance of both linguistic and social contexts to the decoding of an
utterance, his work, being a speech act analysis, does not elaborate on how linguistic and social contexts can be
harnessed to arrive at a pragmatic function of an utterance. In their own comment on Adégbìjà’s work, Lawal et
al. (1997, p. 640), observed that pragma-sociolinguistic competence is superfluous, as under pragmatics is
sub-sumed all that is listed by Adégbìjà as being for decoding indirect speech acts. They, therefore, adopt an
eclectic approach to the pragmatic analysis of 12 pairs of selected Yorùbá proverbs. According to them, apart
from explaining speech acts along with presuppositions and implicatures, a pragmatic theory must also describe
the background competences which language users make use of to interpret speech acts, along with
presuppositions and implicatures (Lawal et al., 1997, p. 641; Lawal, 1997, p. 155). They propose that an
utterance consists of five hierarchical contexts, the first of which is the linguistic context. The linguistic context
refers to the phonological, lexical, and syntactic components and the structure of the sentence. The other contexts
are psychological, social, sociological, and cosmological, arranged in a one-after-the-other (hierarchical) manner.
These hierarchical levels of contexts are symmetrically related to equally hierarchical levels of background
knowledge or competence which language users rely on for the production and interpretation of speech acts. The
competences are linguistic, situational, social, sociological, and cosmological. This model is used by them to
undertake a pragmatic analysis of 12 selected pairs of Yorùbá proverbs which are considered to be overtly
contradictory (Lawal et al., 1997, pp. 635-652).
CSA (Context-Structure Analysis)

Our CSA will use as a springboard, a modification of Lawal, Àjàyí, and Rájí’s model, blended with
Lambretcht’s (1998) information structure or discourse pragmatics. Information structure recognizes that apart
from its context, the structure of a sentence can influence the type of pragmatic reading it receives (Lambretcht,
1998, pp. 106-107). Apart from this, we also need to relate the utterance to its text-internal and text-external
worlds (Bach & Harnish, 1979), that is, the shared background knowledge between interlocutors. The CSA
therefore considers a discourse as layered, like an onion (Barthes, 1971, as cited in Lawal, 1997, p. 35). The
layers represent different discourse components which relate to one another in an interlocking manner, more like
the cob-web. The layered discourse components are interwoven and intrinsically connected and functionally and
mutually constrain one another in line with the linguistic and socio-cultural norms of the particular speech
community. The discourse components are therefore not in a super-ordinate relationship with one another, but
fuse together in such a manner that we cannot say where one component begins and where it ends. For example,
each of the words in a proverb implicates all discourse components, such that the totality of the words in a
proverb forms a complex mass of an utterance that can only be adequately deciphered by a recourse to the entire
linguistic and extra-linguistic norms of the speech community. So, what we have is a concentric arrangement of
discourse components. This position marks a significant departure from Lawal, Àjàyí, and Rájí’s approach that
considers discourse components to be hierarchically arranged. Another area of difference between the CSA and
Lawal’s pragmatic theory is the nature of the data we are analyzing: while Lawal et al.’s (1997) data are a pair of
12 Yorùbá proverbs analyzed within simulated contexts, the CSA analyzes Yorùbá proverbs used in literary texts
and home videos. The proverbs are thus studied in functional speech situations, making the pragmatic study of
proverbs come out with less tedium. The CSA also differs from Lawal’s (1997) model in seeing the situational
context as embracing the psychological, social, sociological, and cosmological discourse components, rather than
as a distinct layer from them, as Lawal’s (1997) model proposes. Our situational context will then be classified
into macro- and micro-situational contexts. Macro-situational context refers to the wider environment of
discourse, while micro-situational context refers to the immediate environment where discourse is taking place.
The micro-situational context is subsumed under the macro-situational context and codes all issues and situations
directly and immediately relevant to the discourse, viz, the discourse participants, the topic of discourse, and
other micro-sociolinguistic features. In the CSA, the primary layer is the wider situational context, because it
captures the norms and socio-cultural beliefs of the entire speech community and shapes how discourse is
conducted. The linguistic context refers to the adjoining linguistic environment where the proverb is used. It is
made up of the PSH (proverb-signaling hedge) and PTH (proverb-trailing hedge), both of which are optional. The
core is the proverb itself (see Figure 1).
Figure 1. The concentric structure of Yorùbá proverbs in discourse.
The CSA thus captures the fact that proverbs in discourse function within a web of contexts—linguistic and
situational, which are crucial in deploying and interpreting them. The linguistic context subdivides into two:
pre-proverb and post-proverb contexts, both of which we shall henceforth refer to as pre-proverb and
post-proverb texts, respectively. The pre-proverb text is the text before the proverb is deployed in a discourse. It
sometimes incorporates a PSH, which is a device that pre-conditions the listener to expect what is to follow in the
discourse as distinct and that could not be interpreted as we interpret ordinary sentences (Ọmọlọ̀ṣọ́, 2006, 2007).
The PSH includes proverb launching tags like the ones in Examples 4-6:
Example (4) àwọn àgbà/Yorùbá a máa pa òwe pé…
the elders/Yorùbá normally use proverbs like…
Example (5) àwọn àgbà/Yorùbá bọ̀ wọ́n ní…
the elders/Yorùbá reflect and say that…
Example (6) gẹ́gẹ́ bí òwe àwọn/ẹ̀yin àgbà tó sọ wí pé…
like the proverb of the/you elders that says…
The post-proverb text is the text that follows the proverb in the same discourse. It either summarizes or
explains what the proverb has expressed by way of elaboration. This sometimes includes the PTH, which are
such expressions like Examples 7-8:
Example (7) Tótó ó śe bí òwe o.

Pardon me, it goes the way of a proverb.
Example (8) Kí ìyẹn máa jẹ́ ti ẹ̀yin àgbà.
Let that be a reverence to you the elders.
The PTH is employed by the speaker to bring the listener back to the normal stream of discourse. It shows
that the proverb aspect of the discourse is over. However, it also acknowledges the fact that proverbs are the
preserve of elders, so the youth that use a proverb in their discourse must acknowledge this through the PTH. The
PSH and the PTH are optional—they need not be used.
We share Edwards’ (1994, p. x) view that context can influence linguistic choice and linguistic choice can
be an index to the perception of context. It is also similar to Lawal’s (1997) view which states that: “Language
and context are so interwoven that a piece of language can create its own context(s) and, conversely, certain
contexts of social interaction tend to pre-determine their own language form” (p. 16).
The CSA recognizes, as does Barthes (1971; as cited in Lawal, 1997), that a text is better seen “as an onion,
a construction of layers whose body contains… the infinity of its own envelopes—which envelopes nothing other
than the unity of its own surfaces” (p. 35).
Yorùbá Proverbs and Their Pragmatic Acts

Our main focus in this section is to classify Yorùbá proverbs into their pragmatic act types. We should note
that the functional property of a proverb (that is, whether it is declarative or interrogative) determines its direct
illocutionary act, while the context where the proverb is used and the structure of the proverb-bearing sentence
determine their indirect illocutionary (pragmatic) act.
Ọmọlọ̀ṣọ́ (2007, p. 14) categorized Yorùbá proverbs into the followings: (1) those that are declaratives; (2)
those that are interrogatives; and (3) serial proverbs which can be a combination of two or more of (1) and (2) above.
We shall adopt this classification and give examples of some of them as used in the selected texts and home
video and their indirect illocutionary forces. Our analyses will show which parts of the discourse are the linguistic
contexts of the proverb, while the proverb will be underlined in the sample texts. Then we would mention aspects
of the situational contexts that interlocutors rely on in encoding and decoding the proverb.
Declarative Proverbs
These can be positive or negative.
Positive Declarative Proverbs
Example (9) Agódóńgbó inú ẹtu ń bá ẹtu lọ. (Fágúnwà, 1954, p. vii)
The embryo in the antelope’s womb accompanies the antelope wherever it goes.
The relevant part of the discourse in which Example 9 is used is reproduced below:
L. Murby jẹ́ ọ̀rẹ́ ọ̀pọ̀lọpọ̀ àwọn ọmọ Yorùbá, tí ó fi ìwà rẹ̀ fà wọ́n mọ́ra, ó jẹ́ àpẹrẹ (sic) pé ènìyàn dúdú àti ènìyàn
funfun lè jẹ́ ọ̀rẹ́ ara wọn. Ọ̀gá ilé Ẹ̀kọ́ Gíga ní Gbóbì ni ọkùnrin náà jẹ́ rí, ṣùgbọ́n ìwà kì í fi oníwà sílẹ̀. Agódóńgbó inú ẹtu
ń bá ẹtu lọ. Mr. Murby ń ti ìgbéga dé ìgbéga ní ibi iṣẹ́ rẹ̀…
L. Murby was a friend to many Yorùbá people, he drew them to himself through his behaviour; he showed by his
behaviour that both blacks and whites could be friends. He was once the principal of Gbobi College, but a person’s
character never deserts him. The embryo in an antelope’s womb accompanies the antelope wherever it goes. Mr. Murby
continued to make progress at his work…
In the above discourse, the pre-proverb text gives an insight into the type of person that Mr. Murby is, while
the post-proverb text summarizes the discourse. These two together with the situational contexts, are crucial to
the interpretation of the proverb. The situational context of the proverb shows Fágúnwà acknowledging the good
deed of Mr. Murby to him. Mr. Murby and Fágúnwà were both educationists, but they belonged to different social
classes. While Mr. Murby was white, Fágúnwà was black. By inference, Mr. Murby’s interaction with Fágúnwà
was socially speaking, condescending at that time when Nigeria was under British colonial rule. We can also
infer that sociologically, human interaction should transcend colour barriers. The implicature here is that
psychologically, the writer is emotionally satisfied with Murby’s behaviour to him. To understand the
cosmological context of the proverb, we need to know that the antelope is a particularly adventurous animal that
moves about a lot, and this makes it very appropriate as the cosmology of the proverb. Like the antelope, human
beings are also very adventurous. Wherever the adventurous antelope moves to, its embryo goes with it. By
reference, therefore, wherever a human being goes, his/her behaviour will go with him/her. From the linguistic
and situational contexts of the proverb, we can infer that its indirect illocutionary force is “eulogical” to Mr.
Murby as an encouragement to him, but “advisory” to the reader to emulate the good deeds of Mr. Murby.
Declarative Proverb That Begins With or Incorporates Conditional Clauses
In this class it is the proverb that begins with bí (“if”) clauses (Bámgbóṣé, 1968, pp. 15-16):
Example (10) Bí a bá fojú kékeré wo ẹri, ẹrí a máa gbéni lọ. (Ògúnníran, as cited in Akínjọ́gbìn, 1979, pp.
15-16).
If we under-estimate the depth of a brook, it may end up drowning us.
Ẹ̀dá kò láròpin.
Bí a bá fojú kékeré wo ẹrí
Ẹrí a máa gbé ni lọ...
There is no limit to a person’s accomplishments.
If we under-estimate the depth of a brook, it may end
up drowning us.
The sentence preceding the proverb is both its pre-proverb text and linguistic context. Sociologically, we
can infer from the proverb that the Yorùbá speech community does not encourage arrogance in whatever form, as
it believes that every member of a community has his/her worth in that community. We can also infer from the
proverb and its adjoining text that the community disapproves of looking down on anybody on account of his/her
present poor social status, which it believes can improve anytime, thus the choice of a brook as the cosmology of
the proverb, which indicates that just as a brook, no matter the volume of water in it at a particular time, can dry
up, so also can a person’s condition change. We also can infer that psychologically, the writer not only approves
of the social canon discussed above, but also demonstrates his approval through the poem’s title and the proverb
just cited. Hence, inferentially, the proverb is both “advisory” and “admonishing”, pragmatically speaking.
Positive Declarative Proverb That Begins With or Incorporates Relative Clauses
Example (11) Eku tí ó bá ní òpó nílẹ̀ kìí ti aré sá. (Òkédìjí, 1981, p. 24).
A rodent that has an existing tract does not shy away from running.
Eku tí ó bá ní òpó nílẹ̀ kì í ti aré sá. Ká sá kúrò nílé kò tún lè jọ Àlàbá lójú mọ́.
A rodent that has an existing track does not shy away from running. Running away from home is no longer an issue
to Àlàbá.
In the sampled discourse, the proverb is the opening sentence in the chapter. This shows that a proverb can
be used to introduce a discourse topic or theme, as it usually happens in real life discourses. The post-proverb text
comments further on what the proverb is saying. We are introduced to a kind of social misfit that the Yorùbá
speech community abhors. The community operates within certain tacit codes of conduct that form part of the
sociological context of this proverb. We can infer that psychologically, the writer does not approve of Àlàbá’s
habit of running away from home, and this disapproval is stated in the post-proverb text. In the bush, rodents
move about with ease on their tracks. They are so used to the tracts that they do not miss their way in the bush. We
can infer from this cosmology that absconding from home has become habitual to Àlàbá. We can also infer from
the cosmology that the social background of the proverb is agrarian. By inference also, the indirect illocutionary
force of the proverb is that of disapproval of Àlàbá’s behaviour.
The Kàkà kí (“Instead of”) Type of Positive Declarative Proverb
Example (12) Kàkà kí ewé àgbọn dẹ̀, kokoko ni ó ń le lára. (Ôbádínà, 2003).
Rather than for the leaf of the coco-nut palm to become tender, it continues to be tough.
Mama T. is one of the characters in the film. She is ill and is in the hospital where Bímbölá, her younger sister, visits her:
Bímbölá: Ìgbà tí mo dé sọ́ọ̀bù yín ni àwọn ọmọ iṣẹ́ yín ṣọ everything fún mi. Báwo wá ni?
I was told everything by your maids when I called at your shop. How is it?
Mama T: Hùn! Kàkà kí ewé àgbọn dẹ̀, kokoko ni ó ń le sí i. Ìmọ́lẹ̀ díẹ̀díẹ̀ tilẹ̀ wà tẹ́lẹ̀, ṣùgbọ́n nísinsìnín, ń kò ti ẹ̀ wá
rí nǹkan kan mọ́…
Mama T: Hmm! Rather than for the leaf of the coco-nut palm to be tender, it continues to be tough. I was seeing
faintly before, but now I cannot see anything anymore…
The social background of the proverb emphasizes the obligations that relations have towards one another,
especially when their health is involved. These social obligations are sub-sumed under the Yorùbá community’s
belief that a sick person needs the support of his/her relations, which explains why Bímbölá visits her elder sister
in the hospital. We can infer from the cosmology of the proverb that the psychological context of the proverb
depicts hopelessness and utter depression on the part of Mama T. The cosmology used here calls for an
understanding of the nature of the coconut palm leaf that gets tougher as it grows, which is the shared background
knowledge required to understand the proverb. The inference from the overall contexts of the proverb is that the
pragmatic act of the proverb is that of lamentation.
Declarative Proverbs With Noun/Noun Phrase Followed by Kìí (“Does not”) or That Begins With Àì (“Not
Being”) Attached to a Verb Phrase
Example (13) Ebi kìí wọnú kí ọ̀rọ̀ mìíràn wọ̀ ọ́. (Fágúnwà, 1949, p. 90).
A hungry person has no ears for discourse.
Kí ẹ́ tó kúrò lọ́dọ̀ yín ni mo sì ti mọ̀ pé ẹ̀ ń bọ̀. Ohun tí ẹ̀ ń bá bọ̀ kò sì śe ìpamọ́ fún mi. Mo fëẹ́kí ẹ́ lọ jẹun nísìnsìnyí,
nítorí ebi kì í wọ inú kí ọ̀rọ̀ mìíràn wọ ibẹ̀.
I had seen you before you left home. I knew you were coming as you set out from your home. What you were
coming for is not hidden from me. I want you to go and eat now, because a hungry person has no ears for discourse.
The pre-proverb text is an expression of welcome from a host to his guests, while the proverb text
underscores the host’s determination to make his guests comfortable so that they could enjoy their mission to him.
The inference from these is that the host shows his social obligation to his guests. They must have been hungry and
tired from a long journey, and he therefore, decides to provide them with food before attending to their other
problems. The Yorùbá community is noted for hospitality and in this sociological milieu, a host is obliged to attend
to his guest’s welfare. From this also, we can infer that psychologically, the host is warm-hearted to his guests. The
inference from the cosmology of the proverb is that the host understands the human psycho-biological nature that
recognizes a link between feeding and comprehension. We are also able to infer that the pragmatic force of the
proverb is “advisory”. The host advises his guests to eat first before doing anything else.
Interrogative Proverbs
Yorùbá interrogative proverbs are rhetorical in nature and they are of three major types. These are: (1) direct
interrogative proverbs or those that start with question tags like kí ni (“what is”), báwo (“how”), taa ni (“who is”),
śe/ṅ̀jẹ́ (“does”), etc.; (2) declarative proverbs produced on a high pitch to indicate that they are questions; and (3)
those that begin with bí (“if”) and end with ńkọ́ (“what about”), or bí (“also”). We shall now give an example of
each type and explain its indirect illocutionary force in Yorùbá discourse.
Direct Interrogative Proverbs
Example (14) Kí ni eégún ń śe tí ò lè fàárọ jó? (Òkédìjí, 1973, p. 27).
What other commitments does the masquerade have such that it cannot dance in the morning?
Àwọn Òśìṣiẹ́: B’ó bá ti yá, ó yá náà nùnun. Kí ni eégún ń śe tí ò lè fàárọ̀ jó?

The Workers: If it comes, we are ready. What other commitments does a masquerade have such that it cannot dance
in the morning?
The utterance by the workers is the pre-proverb text, while the proverb sums up the workers’ position. It is
used more or less as a clincher. In the social context, we have a discussion between a labour leader and his
workers. The leader doubts the sincerity of the workers, but the workers assure him of their commitment to the
cause for which they are fighting. The labour leader’s doubt is based on the Yorùbá people’s sociological setting
that people may renege if faced by stressful conditions. This sociological position also recognizes that people
may be punished for making legitimate demands. By inference, the proverb shows two psychological
possibilities: confirming the leader’s fears or allaying them. In this context, the workers choose to allay their
leader’s fears by expressing support for him. In the Yorùbá community, the principal duty of masquerades is to
entertain people by dancing or through magical displays. Masquerades usually come out in the early hours of the
day, or generally in the daytime, for their displays. It would sound strange if a masquerade complains that it
cannot dance in the early hours of the day. By inference therefore, it would be strange if the workers cannot stand
by somebody who is championing their cause. We can infer from the contexts of the proverb that its pragmatic
force is that of “assuring”. Through the proverb the workers assure that they are solidly behind their leader.
Declarative Proverbs Used as Interrogatives

These proverbs are limitless in Yorùbá language, as any declarative proverb in the language can be turned
into an interrogative or rhetorical proverb, as Example 15 shows.
Example (15) A lè sọ pé ebi ń pani, ká sì fi ọ̀pá àjà ilé ẹni dáná? (Ìṣọ̀lá, 1983, p. 80).
Can a person say that she/he is hungry and hence, make fire with the rafters of her/his house?
Adébógun: Kí ẹ́ tó fi mi śe ohunkóhun, Baśọ̀run, ẹ rántí o. Ó ní ohun tí ó lé mi dé bẹ̀ o...
Ṣómóyè: Adébógun, ojú ti séjú o. Ohùn sì ti yẹhùn. A lè śọ pé ebi ń pani, ká sì fi ọ̀pá àjà ilé ẹni dáná? Ọ̀rọ̀ kò dùn
lẹ́nu ìyá olè.
Adébógun: Before you do anything to me, Baśõrun, you should remember that I had a reason for doing it…
Ṣómóyè: Adébógun, it has been out of sight, out of mind. Can a person say that she/he is hungry and hence, make
fire with the rafters of her/his house? A thief’s mother cannot have anything tangible to say.
In the pre-proverb text, Adébógun, presented as a traitor in captivity, is pleading for leniency from his
captors. Part of his plea is that he had a reason for doing what he did, to which the Baśõrun responds with the
proverb. In the post-proverb text, Adébógun’s plea is compared to that of a thief’s mother who has no tangible
words to justify his child’s actions. Socially, Adébógun is presented as an underdog pleading for his freedom,
while Ṣómóyè, the captor, is the master who wields the power to take his life. Sociologically, we have a
community that frowns at traitorous activities and is ready to discipline whoever indulges in them, while
psychologically we have a picture of vengeful anger. A rafter used as the cosmology of the proverb is to relate
material need to moral discipline and obligations, which Adébógun could not balance with each other, and for
which he is indicted (thus the pragmatic function of the proverb).
Interrogative Proverbs That Begin With Bí (“If”) and End With Ńkọ́ (“Also”) or Bí (Question Tag)
Example (16) Bí ọmọdé láṣọ bí àgbà, ó lè lákìísà bí àgbà bí? (Òkèdìjí, 1981, p. 177).
If a youth has as many clothes as an elder has, can he have as many rags as an elder has?
Bí ẹ ti wí dára, ó sì yé mi yékéyéké, bẹ́ẹ̀ náà sì ni n ó śe. … ṣùgbọ́n, nígbà tí owó bá kún mi, ń kò ní í sàì kàn yín lára.
Bí ọmọdé láṣọ bí àgbà, ó lè lákìísà bí àgbà bí?
… What you have said is good and I understand it very well and I will do exactly as you have advised. When I have
money, I would not fail to get in touch with you. If a youth has as many clothes as an elder has, can he have as many
rags as an elder has?
The pre-proverb text reacts to the advice from an elder to a youth, while the proverb text is an
acknowledgement of the value of the advice by the advisee. The social context depicts somebody showing gratitude
for a good turn. Sociologically, the Yorùbá people are known for self-efforts and this recognition forms the basis of
the listener’s response. We can infer that psychologically, the person being advised is pleased with the advice he/she
has been given, considering it as words of wisdom from which he/she has learnt a lot. The rag used as the
cosmology of the proverb symbolizes wisdom, which, in the Yorùbá community’s world view, is the preserve of the
elders, as in his/her journey through life, an elder must have been exposed to a lot of experience (just as he/she must
also have used a lot of dresses) which constitutes the source of his/her wisdom. By inference from these contexts,
the pragmatic force of the proverb is that of showing gratitude. The advisee shows gratitude to his/her adviser.
Serial Proverbs Expressed by a Sequence of Sentences

Serial proverbs are those that Bámgbóṣé (1968, pp. 75-79) called sequential and parallel proverbs. These
proverbs are made up of different types of sentences. For example, a proverb’s idea can be expressed by a
combination of interrogative and declarative sentences, or by a sequence of declarative sentences, as Example
17 shows.
Example (17) Kín tilẹ̀ wáá ni àǹfààní orógbó, o jàre? A bó o kò léèpo, a pá a, kò láwẹ́, a gé e jẹ, ó korò. Èyí
igi rẹ̀ tún rèé, kò śeé dáná, ewé rẹ̀ ò séé pọ́nkọ. (Òkédìjí, 1973, p. 12).
What is the usefulness of the bitter-kola? We peel it, it has no skin, we break it, it has no lobes,
we take a bite from it, and it tastes bitter. Even its wood cannot be used to make fire; neither
can its leaves be used to wrap (cold) palp.
Onímògún: Ìwọ Balógun, o gbàgbé pé àgbàlagbà tó bá so àgbàdo mọ́ ìdí ti sọ ara rẹ̀ di aláwàdà adìyẹ (sic). Wọ́n wá
ba owó ribiribi jẹ́, wí pé kín lẹ lè śe!
Arẹ̀sà: Kábíyèsí. Àwọn ènìyàn ìlú ni kò jẹ́ kí á lè…
Onímògún: Kí ẹ́ lè śe kín ni, Arẹ̀sà? Kí ẹ́ lè śe kín ni? … Kí tilẹ̀ wáá ni àṅ̀fààní orógbó o jàre? A bó o kò léèpo; a
paá kò láwẹ́; a gé e jçẹ ó korò. Èyí igi rẹ̀ tún rèé kò śe é dáná yá; ewé rẹ̀ ò śe é pọ́nkọ.
Onímògún: You Balógun, you forget that an old man that ties corn round his waist has made himself a laughing
stock for fowls. They damaged valuable things and dared you to do what you could…
Arẹsà: Kábíyèsí, it is the townspeople that prevented us from…
Onímògún: From doing what, Arẹsà? What indeed is the usefulness of the bitter-kola? We peel it, it has no skin, we
break it, it has no lobes, we take a bite from it, it is bitter. Even its wood cannot be used to make fire nor can its leaves be
used to wrap (cold) palp.
The serial proverb has a pre-proverb text in which Onímògún is indicting his chiefs for being ineffective. In
Yorùbá culture, a king is regarded as socially superior to his subjects, including his chiefs, and his authority
cannot be questioned, hence, the social context of the serial proverb. Sociologically, the Yorùbá culture
recognizes the supreme authority of the king. He is unquestionable over whatever he does, as he is second only to
God. The cosmology of this proverb centers around bitter-kola, which, true to its name, is very bitter. Its skin is
very thin, its leaves too small to be useful in wrapping things and because of the traditional myths surrounding the
bitter-kola (as the kola-nut for spirits); its wood is not used for making fire. The bitter-kola occupies such a prime
position in the Yorùbá traditional myth that one would expect that there would be many positive things in its
favour. That this is not so is the relevant symbolism between it and Onímògún’s chiefs, who appear to be
incapable of asserting their authority among their people. Pragmatically, the indictment property of the proverb is
not mistakable and this is gradually heightened by its multiple structure.
Summary, Findings and Conclusions

In this work, we explained the illocutionary force of Yorùbá proverbs in discourse. We classified Yorùbá
proverbs into their indirect illocutions and analyzed the illocutionary functions of selected proverbs. Part of the
submissions in the work is that there is a correlation between the structure of a proverb, the context where it is
used, and the direct and indirect illocutionary forces that the proverb can generate, and that a proverb operates
within a web of contexts provided by linguistic and situational features. These contexts, together with the
structure of the proverb, influence the deployment and interpretation of the proverb. The CSA model captures this
contextual dependence very aptly, as it shows the bi-directionality of the mutual dependence of the contexts in
relation to the proverb and in relation to one another. Thus, in spite of the fact that the words of proverb-sentences
are linearly arranged, one after another, their interpretation is facilitated by an interlocking set of discourse
features, viz, linguistic and situational contexts.
In conclusion, proverbs, like words, are very dynamic since they reflect the dynamism in the socio-cultural
lives of language users. Also, understanding a people’s cultural practices and belief systems plays a major role in
understanding their proverbs and helps in promoting inter-ethnic understanding and peace.
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in theory and practice (pp. 160-171). Ìlôrin: Paragon Books.
Lawal, A., Àjàyí, B., & Rájí, W. (1997). Pragmatic study of selected pairs of Yorùbá proverbs. Journal of Pragmatics, 27, 635-652.
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(pp. 187-204). Ìbàdàn: Oxford University Press.
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Ọbasá, D. A. (1971). The poets: Part one (Àwọn Akéwì Apá Kìníní). Ìbàdàn: Oxford University Press.
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July 2012, Vol. 10, No. 7, 1330-1348
D DAVID PUBLISHING
Idiom Identification in L2 Reading by Greek Learners of English
Eirene C. Katsarou
Rizia Junior High School, Orestiada, Greece
This paper investigates the extent of idiom identification success achieved by Greek EFL (English as a foreign
language) high school students while reading a text in EFL. L2 (second language) idiom identification is also
examined with five idiom type features: (1) contextual guess ability; (2) frequency of words in the idiom; (3)
interlingual similarity; (4) transparency; and (5) existence of an idiom in Greek, and four learner factors: (1) L2
language proficiency; (2) gender; (3) motivation; and (4) field-independence/-dependence. Data were collected
from 60 Greek EFL senior high school students in first and second grades using five instruments: an Idiom
Identification and Comprehension Elicitation Instrument, Nation’s (2001) Vocabulary Levels Test, the Greek
Version of the Groups Embedded Figures Test, the Oxford Placement Test, and an Individual Background Survey.
Qualitative semi-structured oral interviews of 10 subjects chosen randomly were also conducted to supplement and
verify the quantitative data. The results indicate that overall scores for L2 idiom identification were remarkably low.
Successful L2 idiom identification was found to correlate strongly but negatively both with frequency of occurrence
of the component words of the idioms and with interlingual similarity, while no significant correlations were
obtained between any of the four learner-related variables and L2 idiom identification.
Keywords: L2 (second language) idiom identification, noticing, L2 vocabulary acquisition
Introduction
Naturally, when talking about lexical problems in the course of L2 (second language) reading
comprehension caused by limited vocabulary knowledge, it is normal to focus predominantly on the word as
the primary unit. However, text and corpus studies (Schmitt, 2000; Moon, 1998a; Nattinger, 1988) have also
revealed the significance and the intricacy of the lexical connections between words in English in collocationist
terms by investigating a variety of different forms of multiword items from a syntactic, semantic, as well as
functional point of view. Research in the fields of lexicology and idiomatology has generated an unruly
collection of names for fixed expressions with often conflicting results. Nevertheless, the class of idioms has
consistently been distinguished and studied as an exceptional category of fixed phrases as a result of: (1) its
controversial terminological status in the theory of language; and (2) its pedagogically relevant salience in the
process of L2 vocabulary acquisition and its subsequent contribution in productive (speaking/writing) as well as
receptive (reading/listening) language use in EFL (English as a foreign language) contexts.
In contrast with the proliferation of theoretical accounts that aim to dispel terminological vagueness and
clarify the linguistic status of idioms, a number of L2 idiomaticity studies undertaken in applied linguistics
reveal a noticeable research gap. To date, hardly any studies have focused on the way L2 learners identify and
codebreak idioms in their daily encounters with the target language, which can importantly lead on to acquiring
Eirene C. Katsarou, Ph.D., EFL (English as a foreign language) state school teacher of English, Rizia Junior High School.

IDIOM IDENTIFICATION IN L2 READING BY GREEK LEARNERS OF ENGLISH 1331
and using them, nor indeed on the potential factors affecting these processes. Such factors can be related both to
the linguistic aspects of idioms themselves like the amount of semantic transparency, familiarity of component
words, context guess ability, or L1 (first language) idiom equivalence as well as to learner-related variables
such as L2 proficiency, gender, motivation, learning style, and use of lexical inferencing strategies. Knowledge
about the role of each of the factors participating in the process of L2 idiom identification and comprehension
also serves to clarify our understanding of reading in general as it moves us closer to the goal of creating a
more complete model of the processes and skills required. Continued research into the role of these factors
generates evidence to aid researchers in assessing idiom salience in the process of L2 reading as well as making
unique contributions to idiom acquisition research in general. Furthermore, the greater our understanding of the
lexical idiom inferencing strategies at work during L2 reading, the more effectively EFL instructors can use this
information to assist learners in gaining greater competence in idiomatic language. Such an outcome could lead
investigators to eventually develop a classroom methodology that builds upon such an understanding, which at
present we sorely lack.
Misidentification as a Problem for L2 Idiom Research

The issue of misidentification has been researched to some extent, but hardly any of it was done on idioms.
In an attempt to determine the extent to which quality of reading comprehension is affected by vocabulary
knowledge in an L2, Laufer (1997a) divided words in a written text with respect to L2 readers into three types:
(1) words readers know; (2) words readers think they know but in fact they do not; and (3) words readers know
they do not know. While nonfamiliarity with words in the text is most often associated with lexical problems in
reading comprehension, the researcher claims that part of the lexical plight in L2 reading is attributed to the
category of what she calls DT (deceptively transparent) words, i.e., words that they look as if they are familiar
but are easily misidentified on the part of the learner and thus can lead to the miscomprehension of the text. To
Laufer (1997a), categories of DT words include polysemes, false friends (i.e., false cognates), words with a
deceptive morphological structure (e.g., infallible), similar lexical forms (“synforms”), as well as idioms.
Laufer’s Research on Synforms and Deceptive Transparency
Laufer (1988, 1991) produced empirical evidence in support of the notion of misidentification of DT words
focusing largely on synformic errors made by EFL students of L1 Hebrew and Arabic by substituting, omitting,
or adding one or more of the confusing units between two words that could be either a vowel (e.g., affect/effect;
base/bias), a consonant (e.g., price/prize; extend/extent), a suffix (e.g., historic/historical), or a prefix (e.g.,
passion/compassion). Results indicated that misidentifications of synforms were made by students of different
proficiency levels, but more frequently by those with lower proficiency in contrast to findings by Haynes (1993)
and Huckin and Bloch (1993) who found that only low proficiency level students were more susceptible to
misidentification errors. In this framework, readers might misinterpret one or more DT word types mentioned
earlier, bringing in this way to the text a new idea from their background knowledge which is activated by wrong
identification of these words. Falling in the misidentification trap does not only affect learners’ understanding of
the word but it may also activate the wrong content schema about the subject of the text.
In a related study, Laufer (1989) investigated deceptive transparency as a factor of difficulty in vocabulary
learning and reading comprehension in an L2 based on student’s interpretations of various DT words in a text
context. Since idioms are also classified as deceptively transparent words by Laufer (1997a), it is suggested that
they may also constitute sources of lexical problems in the process of L2 reading comprehension due to their

1332 IDIOM IDENTIFICATION IN L2 READING BY GREEK LEARNERS OF ENGLISH
potential misidentification in a text context on the part of EFL learners during reading. Results revealed that
learners more frequently made errors with DT rather than with non-DT words (t = 1.67, p < 0.05) showing little
awareness of their ignorance of DT words, a fact which subsequently and significantly affected reading
comprehension at the level of p = 0.0001. In fact, this awareness on the part of the learner that he/she is facing
an unknown word is what accounts for his/her inability to overcome the lexical problem he/she is encountering
and so avoid miscomprehension. When a foreign learner knows that a given word is unknown to him/her,
he/she has the following options: ignoring it (if he considers it unimportant), looking it up in a dictionary,
asking someone who knows its meaning, or trying to guess it from context or other cues (e.g., within the word).
But if such awareness or “noticing” is not there, then no attempt is made by the learner to infer the missing
meaning. Looking at the accuracy with which learners self-assess their understanding of unfamiliar words in a
text context across culture, gender, and lexical knowledge, Laufer and Yano (2001) also reported that all
learners tended to over-estimate their self-assessments assuming that they understood more than they actually
did. In the case of DT words, the learner thinks he/she knows them and assigns the wrong meaning to them,
distorting the immediate context on the way. But this may not be the end of the distortion process as the
misinterpreted words will sometimes serve as cues for guessing other words which the learner recognizes as
unknown, a fact which may consequently lead to larger distortions. Therefore, we assume that this situation
might apply even more to the case of idioms than to single words, as they often are made up entirely of words
that are separately known to the learner (e.g., pull my leg) who, in his/her effort to make sense of the text he/she
is reading, may resort to one-for-one translation of the words of an idiomatic expression due to his/her failure to
recognize that he/she is dealing with an unknown idiom that has to be interpreted as a multiword lexical
expression with a unitary meaning. Schematically, the process can be represented in the following manner
(Laufer, 1989): “lack of awareness of ignorance of DT words → misinterpretation of DT words → distortion of
immediate context → using distorted context for further interpretation → distortion of larger context” (p. 16).
Laufer and Sim (1985) described the process of misinterpretation in L2 reading comprehension as a
three-step process involving the following stages:
(1) The student anchors himself to lexical items rather than to sentence structure or larger discourse items. This may
be done in three different ways: (a) He clings to known lexical items, or those he thinks he knows but which he actually
confuses with other words; (b) If some of his lexical landmarks are unknown, he might try to guess their meaning, but he is
fully prepared to disregard them and make sense of what is left; (c) When he does try to guess an unknown word, he tends
to look for clues in the word itself, its morphology, and its resemblance to words in other languages, rather than using
other contextual clues.
(2) The student adds whatever relevant knowledge he had, whether textual or extratextual to the meaning that has
already created out of the lexis. Misinterpretation arises when the textual knowledge is itself a misinterpretation that can
lead to even further misinterpretation or when the reader’s second type of knowledge, i.e., extratextual “knowledge of the
world” consists of attitudes different from those of the author of the text, the information in the text may be distorted into a
false construct to suit the reader’s conviction.
(3) … having anchored firmly in his own lexical and ideational interpretation, imposed a sentence structure on the
idea he [the learner] had already arrived at via his lexicon and his previous knowledge. (Laufer & Sim, 1985, p. 9)
In discussing the process of misinterpretation of unknown single DT words above, researchers point out
that one of its causes may be attributed to the fact that L2 learners often tend to rely more on the internal clues
provided by the morphology of the word itself in their effort to reach a meaningful interpretation of the word
rather than on clues from the surrounding text resulting, however, in most of the cases in incorrect guesses.

This implies that internal clues within a word are not helpful and may possibly increase the possibilities of
miscomprehension by EFL learners than is the case with idioms where we assume that idiom internal clues may
be used effectively by learners in their guessing attempts as most idiomatic phrases are often partially
transparent in that the meaning of their constituent words can contribute to some extent to the meaning of the
idiom as a unit. To this end, we feel it is worth exploring in our study whether internal clues available in the
idioms themselves, i.e., semantic transparency as well as L1 similarity, are differentially more important in the
process of L2 idiom comprehension than are in the case of single words which have been far more researched
in the past.
Misidentifications of other DT categories have also been investigated in a study of lexical guessing
conducted by Laufer and Bensoussan (1984), where, in order of decreasing frequency of errors, five wrong
word-guess patterns were identified including: (1) wrong choice of a meaning of a polyseme (e.g., the word
sense, which in context means “meaning” was often translated into “feeling” or “logic”). The mistranslation
here was a result of the student’s knowledge of a correct meaning of the whole item, but the inability to discard
the inappropriate meaning where it did not make sense; (2) mistranslation of a morphological troublemaker
(e.g., outline translated as out of line); (3) mistranslation of an idiom (e.g., in effect translated as in the effect).
Here the student’s guess was based on correct knowledge of the meaning of morphemes or isolated words, i.e.,
of each separate part of the item, but not of the item as whole; (4) confusion of synophone where the student
confuses a word with another similar word in the TL (target language) (e.g., implication/application); and
finally, and (5) confusion of a false cognate. The finding of idiom mistranslation clearly suggests that learners’
failure to accurately codebreak the meaning of an unknown target idiom can predominantly be attributed to
their inability to identify an idiom as a unit with a single meaning which is not a function of the meanings of its
constituent words. It is for this reason that identification of L2 idioms is largely investigated in this study as a
necessary prerequisite of L2 idiom comprehension during reading, since it seems that inability to identify the
linguistic nature of the unknown lexical item, in our case of L2 English idioms, on the part of EFL readers, may
often lead to miscomprehension of the unknown idioms, and in effect of the surrounding text context.
The researchers concluded that students’ misidentifications were a result of preconceived notions as
applied by students to the detriment of the use of context to guess the meaning of the words. Students would
check first against what they knew (or thought they knew) about a word, ignoring the context. If this strategy
fails when they try to guess, the result is mostly a wild guess based on internal cues, or in the more successful
cases a contextually-inappropriate guess—even if the syntax of the sentence is not destroyed. Use of context
seems to be the last resort after application of preconceived notions which students tend to have about the
meaning of a word or a phrase as well as after wild guessing. Again, we feel that the role of internal cues in L2
idiom comprehension will be totally different for idioms from the case of unknown single words, and it is a
topic that deserves further investigation in itself as it is strongly suggested that semantic transparency of idioms
and their similarity to L1 might influence EFL learners’ guessing attempts in an important way.
L2 Research on Idiom Identification
The scarcity of well-conducted empirical L2 studies on topics of idiomaticity in the reading or learning
process illustrates the profoundly limited amount of research interest that this area has received so far (Adkins,
1968; Aphek & Tobin, 1987). In his main study (Liontas, 2002b) as well as in a series of subsequent related
cross-sectional studies (Liontas, 2001, 2002a, 2002c, 2002d, 2003a), Liontas concentrated basically on the

description of L2 strategies involved in the recognition and decoding of idiomatic expressions looking for
context effects in the process. The aim of his main project was basically to find differences involved in both the
1
detection and interpretation of three different vivid phrasal idiom subtypes, i.e., LL (Lexical-Level)or
matching L1-L2 idioms, SLL (Semi-Lexical Level) or partially matching L1-L2 idioms, and PLL (Post-Lexical
Level) or non-matching L1-L2 idioms. L2 idioms were plotted along a Lexical-Image Continuum that
determines the formal similarity of target language idioms to L1 idioms in terms of differences in: (1) number
and selection of lexis included in the idiom in two languages; and (2) in concept (same literal semantic meaning)
and image (same non-literal and metaphorical meaning) evoked by L1-L2 idioms. According to Liontas
(2003b), the CSI (Conceptual-Semantic Image) distance denotes how close or how distant a TL idiom is from
its equivalent NL (native language) domain idiom. In the first stage of his study involving the IDT (Idiom
Detection Task), the participants, 53 third-year adult learners of Spanish, French, and German, were asked to
select the words making up the idiomatic expressions in each of the 15 experimental texts—mainly short
narratives and dialogs of about 6 to 10 sentences long—that contained only one L2 phrasal idiom (Liontas,
2002d). In this task, the subjects did not have to work out the meaning of the target idioms but just to detect
them in the relevant context texts where they were incorporated in the same way that L2 learners in our study
had to identify them in the first task of our main elicitation mini-questionnaire. However, in contrast to our
study where we clearly focus on the identification of largely unknown L2 English idioms, Liontas (2002b) did
not make it clear whether his research is about decoding of already known idioms or about codebreaking of
unknown idioms just as in our case, as he did not mention explicitly to have used any test to check his subjects’
current idiom knowledge. After making a decision, subjects had to explain their choice by writing a brief report
on the reading strategies and cognitive processes that guided their selection, including a discussion of the
difficulties of detecting a given VP (Vivid Phrasal) idiom and how they attempted to resolve these difficulties.
From a psycholinguistic point of view though, it seems that this task of having learners report their
subconscious processes when either identifying unknown idioms or decoding already known ones is rather
awkward and impossible to happen. Each session lasted approximately 60 minutes, although no specified time
limit was set. Total correct idiom identification was calculated for each participant, for each VP idiom and for
each language group and compared using one-way ANOVA (analysis of variance) tests to determine the
significance of possible differences in means between idiom categories and tasks.
Results showed that: (1) Neither idiom type nor the target language studied significantly affected the
number of correct VP idiom detections made. It must be noted, however, that PLL idioms were consistently
detected more often than the other two subtypes of VP idioms—LL and SLL idioms—across all languages with
the exception of the German group, where this difference among VP idiom types was almost nonexistent
(Spanish: LL: 89.64%, SLL: 83.95%, PLL: 96.43%; French: LL: 76.67%, SLL: 75.00%, PLL: 85.83%;
German: LL: 87.69%, SLL: 90.77%, PLL: 89.23%). This finding was attributed to the fact that half of PLL
idiom phrases used in the study had an animal or a body part as a key word, which was what made these
phrases had no sense when taken literally. Clearly, this merely implies that when choosing idioms for a study,
1
According to Liontas (2003b), “A vivid phrasal idiom combines powerful visual imagery (literal, referential semantic meaning)
with a memorable, striking expression (non-literal, metaphoric utterance meaning). The vividness of a VP idiom (i.e., the concrete
mental image evoked by each one of them) makes the truthfulness of the state literal meaning all the more credible in the eyes and
ears of its hearers (and readers). Thus, each VP idiom can have two interpretations: a literal, concrete one and an abstract,
figurative one” (p. 6). With the exception of the element of “vividness” that has not been mentioned by any other researcher, this
idiom definition seems to fit our own definition of idiom with respect to the double reading that the meaning of an idiom calls for.

the researcher needs to take into account internal features of idioms other than just similarity to L1 (Irujo,
1986b) such as the degree of internal semantic transparency of an idiom which we include as one of the key
idiom-type variables in our study. Since idioms in this study had not been directly checked in terms of
familiarity to the subjects, this result may also reflect their prior knowledge of PLL idioms. The participants’
average correct rate of detection as a group resulted in an overall success rate of 86.33%, while individually,
participants’ performance ranged from a low of 58.33% to a high of 100%; and (2) Many kinds of reading
strategies and inferencing techniques are used profitably in VP idiom detection. An analysis of strategies
reveals that all L2 learners of the study used most successfully translation (17%), contextual support (15%),
literal meaning of the idiom (12%), and similarity between L1 and L2 idioms (9%) as their main means in the
process of L2 idiom detection.
Clearly, research findings such as these easily lead us to expect that idioms, as a type of DT words, can be
considered to be a source of potential communication breakdown in the course of reading comprehension in an
L2 due to their misidentification and their subsequent misinterpretation in a text context. Acknowledging the
learning difficulty that idioms pose in the process of vocabulary acquisition in a second/foreign language
(Laufer, 1990, 1997b), the present study intends to investigate idioms as DT items that are most often
mistakenly identified leading as a result to disruptions in the reading comprehension ability of advanced foreign
learners in Greece. In this view, two issues seem to be worthy of detailed investigation: First, the extent to
which L2 learners are able to identify idioms as whole lexical items as they read a text, since such an awareness
on the learners’ part is considered to be the prerequisite for their effective lexical guessing. Idioms have been
hardly researched for identification, and in this respect, we believe that there might be differences in the way
they are identified by EFL learners when reading a text in English as compared with how they identify
unknown ordinary and single words in a text context. Second, successful application of lexical inferencing
strategies in the case of idioms which are identified is assessed in terms of accuracy and confidence as
measured by L2 learners’ self-assessments after carrying out the task. As has already been suggested by
previous research on guessing the meaning of unknown L2 words (Laufer, 1997a, 1989), the role assumed by
internal versus context cues in successful guessing may not be the same in the case of unknown ordinary words
as for unknown L2 idioms, where it is expected that idiom-related features in the form of semantic transparency
and L1 similarity will effectively help EFL learners interpret idiom meanings in a text context.
Design of the Study

The nature of the research is to a great extent exploratory with the exception of a few hypotheses. It
contains a correlational and a repeated-measures design that relates idiom types and subject variables with their
successful identification in text context. The data will be analyzed in two different ways: (1) with idioms as
cases to investigate relationships between the idiom-type variables with success in L2 idiom identification; and
(2) with subjects as cases to investigate the effect of learner-related factors on their success in the task of L2
idiom identification.
Quantitative as well as qualitative analyses of the data were conducted in an effort to respond to the
research hypotheses and questions formulated in the study. The data was analyzed quantitatively using the
SPSS (Statistical Packages for the Social Sciences) program version 16.0 for the idiom identification results.
The interviews with the subjects were transcribed in the original language (Greek) and the accuracy of the
transcription was also checked by a Greek language teacher. Transcriptions were carefully analyzed in order to

identify different parts providing evidence on different aspects the subjects were referring to, e.g., comments in
relation to idiom identification, the use of inferencing strategies, personal views regarding their knowledge, and
learning of idioms in English.
Method
Participants
The sample for the main study consisted of 60 EFL students in three senior high schools who were either
in the first or in the second grade of their studies during the second term of the academic year 2007-2008. The
number of the participants in each of the three schools ranged from 13 for High School 1 and 18 for High
School 2 to 29 for High School 3 including both males and females and learners of all three levels of English
language proficiency, i.e., upper-intermediate, advanced, and proficient.
Instruments and Procedure
Five instruments were used in this study: (1) The Idiom Identification and Comprehension Task (IICT)
where in the first part, learners were asked to find out the 18 English idioms that were incorporated in the text
in a natural way without being signposted as such either by presenting them in bold type letters or underlining
them. To achieve authenticity in reading for a real purpose, we also provided seven reading comprehension
questions to be completed based on the information of the text. An immediate retrospective mini-questionnaire
formed the second part of the instrument which was used to elicit information on the inferencing strategies used
by L2 learners when trying to guess at the meaning of the unknown idioms in the text as well as to measure
their confidence in relation to the accuracy of their guesses on a five-point scale; (2) The Academic Level of
Nation’s VLT (Vocabulary Levels Tests) and (3) the Grammar section of the Oxford Placement Test were used
to measure L2 learners’ level of language proficiency in English; (4) The Groups Embedded Figures Test
(GEFT) was administered to determine learners’ cognitive style of field independence/dependence (FI/FD); and
(5) A background student questionnaire was used to elicit general information on EFL learners’ demographic
characteristics, educational background, and English language learning experience as well as on their attitudes,
interest, and motivation towards idioms in EFL.
The 18 idioms included in the study were selected according to the five following principles: (1) They had
to be unknown to the learners: In a separate section in the mini-questionnaire L2 learners were asked whether
or not they already knew an idiom before guessing at its meaning; (2) interlingual similarity: Nine idioms were
grouped into three classes with three idioms each based on their formal and semantic degree of similarity to L1
Greek; (3) semantic transparency: Nine idioms were grouped into three classes with three idioms each based on
English NS (native speakers)’ intuitions on a judgment task as semantically opaque, semi-transparent, and
transparent based on the extent to which their component words contributed to the idiom meaning; (4)
frequency of use of the component words included in each idiom: The mean frequency score for every idiom
was calculated by adding up the number of times each of the content words of an idiom occurred in the BNC
and dividing the total by the number of content words in an idiom; and (5) Contextual guessability of idioms
was determined by giving the modified text to three NS where the 18 target idioms were replaced by blanks and
asking them to fill in the blanks in the best possible way by providing either the most plausible verbal idiom or
verbal phrase they could think of that fitted the context of the text.
All instruments were translated in Greek and distributed to the students by the researcher herself in class
time in the following order: the Idiom Identification Task along with the reading comprehension test, the

immediate retrospective mini-questionnaire on idiom guessing strategies and confidence, the Oxford Placement
Test, the VLT, the GEFT, and the Background questionnaire.
Research Questions and Hypotheses
The exploratory nature of the study together with the literature previously reviewed gives rise to questions
that have not been fully answered concerning the process of identification of idioms carried out by L2 learners
when reading an extended text. Some of the research question and hypotheses that this study sought to answer
were the followings.
Research Question 1. What type of variables, idiom-type or learner-related, affect Greek EFL learners’
ability to identify unknown target idioms while reading a text in English?
Hypothesis 1. There will be a negative relationship between interlingual similarity and the successful
identification of idioms.
In his studies, Liontas (2001, 2002b) found that different idioms (PLL idioms) were detected more often
than the identical or similar idioms. Hence, we can predict that interlingual similarity is a factor that does not
contribute to the successful identification of idioms.
Hypothesis 2. There will be a positive relationship between interlingual similarity and the successful
inferencing of idioms.
This hypothesis is based on results by Irujo (1986a) and Liontas (2002b) who found that L1 interference
plays an important role in the identification and comprehension of L2 idioms, especially when the source and
the TLs are close to one another in equivalent linguistics terms.
Results
Overall Idiom Identification Success
Normal
Mean = 14.75
Std. Dev. = 22.465
N = 60
Number of Subjects
Percent of Success in Unknown Idiom Identification
Figure 1. Overall success in the Idiom Identification Task.
With respect to overall success rate in the idiom identification task, Figure 1 displays that Greek EFL
learners in this study scored extremely low with a mean response that reaches only 14.75% of identified

unknown idioms only. Idioms that were already known to the subjects of the study were totally discounted
from this percent of identification success rate. The low score of idiom identification success is further
supported by the distribution of the identification scores that appear to be widely spread (SD = 22.465) and
positively skewed against the zero percent end of the scale hence not matching the superimposed normal curve.
This merely indicates that Greek EFL learners overall tended to score low in the idiom identification task,
displaying a prominent failure to identify idioms while reading a text in EFL.
However, there are some remarkable exceptions as a few individual subjects seem to have identified many
idioms correctly during reading the text scoring over 50%. Such a notable high identification score achieved by
these few learners can possibly be due to the following two reasons: (1) Many of the idioms included in our
study were in fact already known by most of the subjects participating in the experiment, and thus had to be
discounted from all relevant calculations on idiom identification and comprehension scores. The average
number of instances of already known idioms to all 60 subjects of the study was reported to be 217 out of 1,080
possible idiom responses with some learners reporting having known as many as 12 out of the 18 target idioms
included in our study. Out of the possible 863 cases of unknown idiom identification, Greek EFL learners
managed to identify successfully the hidden target idioms in the text in only 102 cases yielding a percent of
11.81% according to the examination of EFL learners’ underlinings in the Idiom Identification Task; and (2)
On the other hand, this finding can also be attributed to the fact that not many subjects tended to underline
much during their reading apart from isolated words that happened to be component parts of the idioms
included in the text but never idioms themselves. Clearly, this kind of result suggests a direct implication for L2
idiom learning, since EFL learners’ failure to identify idioms as unknown lexical items in a reasonably natural
text must result in subsequent weakness in understanding, and potentially acquiring their meaning via the use of
lexical guessing strategies.
Idiom identification has also been the focus of inquiry in four previous studies conducted by Irujo (1986a),
Liontas (2001, 2002b), and Dominguez (2008). However, the results of idiom identification success presented
in this study can only partly be compared with Liontas (2002b) and Dominguez (2008) as both researchers were
interested in investigating the process of idiom identification by foreign language learners employing an
explicit identification task. The recognition of idioms in Irujo (1986a) was rather testing the meaning of the
idiom by learners in an ESL (English as a Second Language) context. Our results only partly support Liontas
(2001, 2002b) and Dominguez (2008). Idiom identification scores by Greek EFL learners in our study were
remarkably low with an overall 13.12% success rate across all types of idioms for Idiom Identification success
scores calculated with “idioms as cases”, as compared with that noticed in the other studies where the total rate
of idiom identification success was 70.01% in Liontas (2001), 89.99% in Liontas (2002b), and 43.39% in
Dominguez (2008).
Dissimilar or different idioms in L1 and L2 were detected more often than idioms with a Greek equivalent
but nevertheless at a considerably less successful rate, 11.66%, as compared with Liontas’ (2002b) 96.43% and
Dominguez’ (2008) 53.08% identification success for different idioms. Obviously, where subjects are directed
to consciously identify idioms as the focus of a task as was the case in all these studies above, one might expect
more to be spotted than when the idiom identification task is left incidental to the main task set such as for
instance a reading comprehension task in our study. Nevertheless, we also believe that the size of the difference
in the percent of idiom identification success rate between the two studies and ours is further exaggerated by
the fact that our Greek EFL learners seem to have underreported what they identified, as there is a possibility

that in cases where they had identified a new idiom but felt that they managed to figure out its meaning with the
help of the text context, they did not underline it as such.
S6: … I recognized some of the idioms but I did not underline them because I did not have any specific problem with
them and it was easy for me to understand their meaning based on the meaning of the paragraph and/or context of the
sentences before or after the point where the idiom was. (personal communication, February, 2007)
S8: I understood that there were idioms in the text and I underlined some of them. For those I did not underline it was
because I could figure out the meaning of the text and the idioms were not really an obstacle. The meaning of the text was
also really easy and also the sentence meaning somehow helped to understand the idiom meanings and that’s why I did not
underline them as unknown. I frequently skipped throughout my reading as I thought that their meaning was not so crucial
to the text. (personal communication, February, 2007)
S9: I sort of understood what the text was all about and I didn’t pay attention to phrases that did not interfere with my
reading… I only stopped to one or two points in the text and really wondered what the text meant there, but, on the whole, I
tried to use the text context to make sense of what was going on in the passage. (personal communication, February, 2007)
As can be seen from learners’ retrospective comments during interviews and despite clear instructions to
underline anything not known prior to reading the text, subjects 6 and 8 did not feel the need to underline
idioms they had identified as unknown lexical units, as the text context they were resorting to in the form of the
paragraph as well as of the immediate sentence where the idiom was could easily give away its meaning. By
contrast, where text context offered no available clues to help subjects understand the meaning of idioms and
overcome their reading comprehension difficulties, learners tended to skip the phrases which they thought were
not central to the meaning of the text such as in the case of subjects 8 and 9 above.
Still, overall, the idiom identification scores of our subjects were on average vastly less than the scores in
both Liontas (2002b) and Dominguez (2008). Such a difference in results must in great part be attributed to the
more artificial experimental conditions under which the idiom identification tasks were carried out in both
previous studies. On the one hand, in Liontas’ (2002b) study, the target idioms for identification were
embedded in a context of a few lines making up a paragraph at least, not in one continuous text and subjects
knew that they just had to look for the idioms that each passage contained. In Dominguez’ (2008) study, idioms
were presented in one running text just like in our study but subjects still were aware of the purposes of the task,
as they were explicitly told that they had to search the text and find the idioms presented in it. Being aware of
what they were looking for, subjects were able to find the hidden idioms as their attention was directed towards
the purposes for which they had to go through the text. Although like in real life reading, Dominguez’ (2008)
study incorporated idioms within a text context as we did, nevertheless it is still a very much controlled task
that does not have to do with naturalistic situations of reading material in EFL. In order to achieve this, subjects
in our study were completely unaware that they were looking for idioms in the text as our initial aim was to see
whether idioms could be identified by subjects as unknown units responsible for potential lexical problems that
could lead to reading comprehension misunderstandings and misconceptions. Since the notion of noticing is
considered to be a prerequisite of learning in SLA (Second Language Acquisition) terms, we wanted to
examine the extent to which L2 idioms are spontaneously spotted during their reading and so can be tackled as
unknown lexical units via the use of lexical guessing strategies.
Relationship Between Idiom Identification Success and Idiom-Type Variables
Spearman rho correlations were subsequently calculated in order to answer the first research question
concerning successful identification of the target idioms in the course of a reading comprehension task and the
extent to which it is affected by each of the five idiom-type variables of this study, i.e., (1) contextual

guessability; (2) frequency of words included in the idiom; (3) interlingual similarity; (4) transparency; and (5)
existence of a Greek idiom. Results yielded significant but negative correlations between success in the idiom
identification task and just two of the idiom-type variables used in our investigation, namely, frequency of
words in the idiom (ρ = -0.495, p = 0.037) and interlingual similarity (ρ = -0.506, p = 0.032).
These results indicate that only two idiom-type variables are included in our study, i.e., low frequency of
the words within the idiom and low interlingual similarity helped learners identify the unknown phrasal idioms
that were incorporated in the reading text, as they were found to correlate significantly but in a negative way
with scores for idiom identification. With regard to the effect of low interlingual similarity on the successful
idiom identification by Greek EFL learners in this study, evidence from learners’ scripts reveals that idioms
with a high degree of equivalence in their L1 Greek tended not to be underlined, and hence, not to be identified
successfully at all as unitary idiomatic phrases. In this respect, five of the idioms included in the study with
either an identical or a similar meaning and form to L1 Greek, i.e., to leave a bad taste in one’s mouth, to cut
the cord, to pick up the pieces, to add fuel to the fire, and to build castles in the air, were not underlined at all,
and thus were not spotted as idioms as they were already known to the subjects prior to the identification task.
However, there seem to be instances of two idioms such as in the case of to (not) turn a hair, an opaque English
idiom and to clean up your act, a semi-transparent English idiom, which despite their low interlingual
similarity were not identified as such by learners in this study. This finding is attributed to the fact that since the
meaning of these idioms was thought to be easily guessed from the text context as well as from the meaning of
their constituent words, learners did not bother to regard them as phrases with a special meaning of their own.
In this sense, then, it seems that as soon as learners thought that they were able to combine successfully the
literal meaning of the familiar idiom words with the surrounding text context to comprehend the material they
were reading reasonably well, they would not identify the idiom as a whole unit but as separate known words
whose meanings could be easily interpreted against the sentence or text context. Qualitative data from
interviews with subjects can further validate this finding revealing the reasons of unsuccessful identification of
these two idioms.
S2: [To not turn a hair] It was mainly the meaning of the sentence itself. … Women will still be able to have children
even when men were to disappear from this planet. (personal communication, February, 2007)
S6: [To clean up your act] The sentence, the text and the paragraph contributed to the meaning… due to the new
situation that contrasts with what was happening up until now. … Everyone asking him to give explanations……… He
himself seems confused while trying to come to a full realization of the new reality, put things in an order and see how
things end up like this. (personal communication, February, 2007)
In the case of the idiom to not turn a hair, learner 2 appears to be using successfully the meaning of the
sentence where the target idiom occurs to interpret accurately the meaning of the idioms as is evident by her
response, i.e., “don’t bother about”. As her idiom guess seems to fit in with the rest of the text context allowing
her to understand what she is reading, the learner did not underline the idiom as an unknown unitary idiomatic
phrase, since the interpretation of the meanings of the constituent words of the idiom against the surrounding
context has aided the reading comprehension process. On the contrary, non-identification of the idiom to clean
up your act on the part of subject 6 seems to be attributed to the fact that she thought she understood the
meaning of the idiom through use of the meaning of text context clues in the sentence, the paragraph as well as
the text itself. Still her understanding is faulty leading to further miscomprehension of the text, as she reports
that the idiom probably means something along the lines of “put things in an order”.

With respect to the negative correlation between the frequency of the component words of idioms and
their identification in text context, it seems that idioms whose constituent words had a very low frequency of
occurrence as checked against the BNC (British National Corpus) of 100 million running words were easily
identifiable by the subjects as compared to idioms that contained more frequently occurring words. This result
can also be confirmed through an analysis of the words and phrases that learners most commonly tended to
underline when undertaking the identification task. However, learners had to underline the whole phrase to
count as cases of successfully identified idioms, not just single words that were included in them.
In this sense then, it seems that our findings with respect to successful idiom identification seem to lend
support only in part to Liontas’ (2002b) results to the extent that idioms with low interlingual similarity tend to
be most accurately identified most of the time in the same way with Liontas’ (2002b) PLL idioms. Results also
reveal a significant but negative correlation between frequency of occurrence of the idiom component words
indicating that the less familiar words idioms contain the more they tend to be identified as idiomatic phrases in
a text context.
Additionally, the lack of sufficient contextual clues in the text, as also happens in real life reading tasks, is
another factor that seems to have contributed to the successful identification of all possible idioms included in
the text. Unquestionably, unavailability of helpful text context added a further element of difficulty to the
learners’ efforts to understand the meaning of the new words and the way they fitted in with the rest of the
surrounding text in order to ensure that they comprehended what they were currently reading. Furthermore, the
fact that learners were not explicitly asked to be looking for idioms in the text from the beginning of the task, as
we wanted to simulate real life encounter with idioms during reading an English text, may be another reason for
their pronounced difficulty to understand that individual words belonged to idiom phrases that were to be
interpreted figuratively as whole lexical units. As a result of this, learners, such as subject 3 below, openly and
frequently expressed their inability to infer the meaning of the unknown word due to insufficient text context
clues in the sentence before or after the new word rendering their guessing attempts fruitless and leading
subsequently to the successful identification of the words that were part of the idiomatic phrases embedded in
the text.
S3: In some cases I did not know the words included in some idioms, for example I did not know what the word rat
means… and generally, the sentence context wasn’t helpful at all such as in the case for this idiom [smell a rat]. The
sentence does not say anything helpful… it only says that he then smelt a rat and that’s it. When something was going
wrong and I could not go on reading because I could not understand what I was reading and I could not figure out the
meaning of a word in relation to what the sentence was saying and I could not link what was happening before with what
was happening after in the text I thought that a bizarre phrase was there. (personal communication, February, 2007)
Based on qualitative data from the interviews that took place after the main tasks of firstly L2 idiom
identification, and secondly comprehension where learners were presented with the idioms about which they
were asked to comment on, a mismatch between the literal meaning of the idiom and the meaning of the
surrounding text emerged as a crucial third factor that made learners notice idiomatic phrases in the text of this
study. According to the comments offered by both subjects 3 and 9 on encountering unfamiliar words, learners
were trying to context guess their meaning relying predominantly on local clues available in the immediate
sentence before or after the point where the unknown lexical item appeared but with limited success and often
without making any sense as they could not figure out that the word was part of an idiomatic phrase with its
own figurative meaning.

S9: There were one or two phrases that I felt I didn’t know, for example the phrase from hand to mouth that I tried to
understand but I couldn’t and I underlined it as unknown and the other one was the phrase flew off the handle. Also riding
high in the saddle… I could not possibly understand its meaning and I thought that it was a phrase whose meaning
couldn’t fit in with the rest of the text so because of this it stood out as a special phrase with a meaning of its own. I also
underlined the word crust as it was completely unknown to me and did not know that it was part of an idiom. The same
goes for the word rough which I also could not explain as I did not know the idiom to take the rough with the smooth as a
unit. (personal communication, February, 2007)
After reading and re-reading the relevant sentences several times without ever managing to find a meaning
for the new word that suited to the context, some learners, like subject 1 below, finally assumed that the word
probably was part of a “phrase” with a special meaning. As soon as they realized that the literal translation of
the words did not fit in with the meaning of the surrounding sentence(s) and/or of the paragraph in reading
comprehension terms, they tended to underline these words as a group on the suspicion that they might have
been parts of a special phrase that had its own meaning and not single words. In this respect, unknown words
that could not be interpreted against the available context clues in the text unless they were considered to be
parts of special phrases led to the identification of idioms with the least frequently occurring words such as in
the case of ride high in the saddle and earn a crust where the words saddle and crust occur 7.1% and 6.6% per
100 million words in BNC of spoken and written speech respectively.
S1: I recognized some of the idioms as such and that is why I underlined two of them, i.e. throwing caution to the
wind and riding high in the saddle—although in this case I underlined only the word saddle because I could not figure out
its meaning. I thought it belonged to some kind of metaphorical phrase as it did not fit with what the text was saying and
could not find what it meant according to the text. After all, I know that there are idioms and/or other metaphorical
expressions that we frequently use when we speak in order to express ourselves in a particular way when we talk to other
people. (personal communication, February, 2007)
The non-significant correlations that were found between the two idiom-related factors of contextual
guessability and degree of idiom transparency in semantic terms further revealed that both the contextual clues
available in the reading text as well as the semantic transparency of the idioms under consideration were factors
that did not make unknown idioms noticeable by learners in the course of their reading. A reason why the
degree of support for the meaning of the idiom provided by the context was not found to be associated overall
with idiom identification (ρ = 0.034, p = 0.893) in this study can potentially be attributed to the fact that context
works in two ways during the task of idiom identification, i.e., either (1) It may provide good clues to the
meaning of the idioms in which case the readers spot that the idiom literally does not fit, and therefore
recognizes it (see subject 9 above), or (2) It may provide poor clues to the meaning, hence no mismatch
between text context clues and L2 internal idiom clues is spotted, but a word in the idiom is unknown and it
gets recognized by the learner such as the case with subject 3 above.
The average score for guessability that was calculated for all the idioms in our study also lended further
evidence to this argument, as it was found to be extremely low, i.e., 0.67 on a scale of 0 for idioms with no
contextual support to 1 for idioms with some contextual support to 2 for idioms with full contextual support.
Such a possibility, although probably resembling real life occurrences of idioms, by implication suggests that in
the case of vague or even incomplete clues in the text, learners are not in a position to easily identify and
interpret the figurative meaning of an idiomatic phrase on first encounter and are misled by one-to-one literal
translation of all sorts of fixed phrases they come across in their reading. Thus, the non-significance of the
correlation between contextual guessability and idiom identification may also be a result of learners not using

clues in the text, whenever they were available in the text context, in order to identify the non-literal meaning
of the target idioms that were hidden in the text, resorting to a literal mode of interpretation of the text while
reading for comprehension purposes. This is evident even in the case of idioms with high context guessability
mean scores of 2 such as for instance set the wheels in motion and be/caught between a rock and a hard place
where success in identification seems to be fairly limited as it becomes clear from our subjects’ transcripts
according to which only one out of the 10 interviewed learners reported having underlined these idioms as
unknown phrases despite the existence of contextual clues in adjacent sentences and/or in the paragraph they
were currently reading.
S8: [to clean up your act] In this case the words of the idiom again really helped my guess because of their literal
meaning …… clear his stance, opinion, that is he clarified what he wanted, his acts as well as…… the text itself…………..
where it says that he was forced to take up his responsibilities on the face of the new reality and act like an adult. (personal
communication, February, 2007)
S10: [to ride high in the saddle] That I did not know what it meant at all and I tried to discover its meaning….. yeah….
here it says that mothers and babies made him realize that the situation was impossible……. and then it says that mothers
and babies are at a high point…… that, anyway, both of them are more important in relation to the father ride high,
high….. at that moment I translated it literally………… and then I suggested that because it is something important, the
standards are very high…… (personal communication, February, 2007)
S7: [to take the rough with the smooth] I tried to translate the words one-by-one…. take the rough with the
smooth……. possibly it may mean that a situation gets to the better….. overcome difficulties……. anyway……… the
meaning of the text here is not at all clear….. it is very confusing, indeed, I did not quite understand…… well, I sort of
understood the main meaning….. but…. no…. it was confusing…. maybe that something gets bad……. (personal
communication, February, 2007)
Subjects’ comments from their retrospective protocols when trying to guess the meaning of unknown
target idioms clearly reveal the impact of the mismatch between text context clues and clues within L2 idioms
on their successful identification with respect to three idioms of low contextual guessability scores, i.e., to clean
up your act with a contextual guessability score of 0.67, and to ride high in the saddle and to take the rough
with the smooth with a contextual guessability score of 0.33. As it becomes clear, all subjects, S8, S10, and S7,
primarily rely on the literal interpretation of the words in which included the idiom itself as the surrounding
immediate text context for these idioms which come either in the form of the sentence and/or of the paragraph
where the idiom appears, do not seem to provide any helpful textual clues that would lead learners to expect
and acknowledge the existence of an idiom. It is no wonder then that learners tend to not identify at all and
misinterpret the meaning of the idiom they come across by using the literal translation of its word components
individually in relation to the meaning of the surrounding text only to find out that their attempts result in
reading comprehension inconsistencies all too often.
Idiom identification was also not found to correlate significantly with the degree of internal semantic
transparency of the idioms under consideration (ρ = 0.045, p = 0.860). This result indicates that whether
internal semantic opacity or transparency of idiomatic phrases existed or not, learners did not make use of it
consistently in order to pinpoint accurately the English idioms in the text. This excludes cases when learners
used the literal meaning of the L2 idioms to test whether the meaning of the words in the idiom matched with
the meaning of the surrounding text context. The average score for internal semantic transparency for all idioms
in our study was found to be 1.16 out of 2 on a scale that ranged from 0 for fully opaque idioms to 1 for
semi-transparent idioms to 2 for transparent idioms. Even fully transparent idioms with a mean of 2 such as to

rock the boat, to set the wheels in motion, to take the rough with the smooth, and to earn a crust failed to be
identified successfully as idioms by our learners despite the fact that the meanings of their component parts
could contribute to some extent to the figurative meaning of the idioms. Instead, learners tended to underline
only single words in these idioms that were unknown to them like rough, smooth, and crust as these constituted
a major comprehension problem for them in the course of their reading, but they were unable to identify that
the words were parts of an idiomatic phrase.
However, a finding such as this can be justified if we take into consideration the instructions and the
nature of the idiom identification task that subjects in this study were asked to perform. In contrast to similar
tasks of idiom identification used in previous research by Liontas (2002b) and more recently by Dominguez
(2008) where subjects were explicitly told to read a text and search for the idioms that were embedded in it,
subjects in our study were simply asked to underline phrases, expressions, and words they did not know and
prevented them from understanding the meaning of the text without ever drawing their attention to the
existence of the idioms that were included in the text they were confronted with, as we wanted to simulate the
real life reading situation more closely than these studies. In this sense, our subjects could not have used the
internal semantics of idioms deliberately and consciously as an idiom identification strategy simply because
they did not know that what they were expected to identify, as unknown lexical items were idioms that are
predominantly characterized by semantic non-compositionality since their meaning does not equal the sum of
the literal meaning of their component parts.
Contrary to our findings here, Dominguez (2008) reported in her research that idiom identification and
idiom transparency correlated negatively suggesting that non-transparent or opaque idioms were more easily
identifiable by her learners than transparent ones. It is precisely this level of consciousness displayed by
learners during the idiom identification task as well as the helpful text context used in Dominguez’ (2008)
study above that clearly differentiate our study from previous research in the area. Had the subjects in our study
been explicitly told that they were expected to find the idioms in the text and had our target idioms been
incorporated in a text context with sufficient clues for learners to guess from, results might have been different
in relation to idiom semantic transparency as a strategy used for their identification. Given these considerations
into account, it becomes clear that all previous studies (Liontas, 2002b; Dominguez, 2008) have been
misleading with respect to their results on idiom identification as it happens in “real life” reading, and
consequently to the significance of noticing in SLA terms.
Relationship Between Idiom Identification Success and Learner-Related Variables
In order to examine whether and to what extent each of these learner factors could possibly affect success
in the idiom identification task, we used Pearson correlations to determine the relationship between grammar
and vocabulary proficiency in the L2, and motivation and cognitive style and successful idiom identification.
The non-parametric Mann-Whitney test was also used in order to explore for any potential gender differences
with respect to how successfully males and females identified the target idioms in the text.
Results showed overall non-significant correlations between success in the task of idiom identification in a
text context and any of the individual difference variables under consideration in the present study.
Interestingly enough, lack of significant correlations between idiom identification and any of the main
subject-related variables included in our study does not provide us with any adequate data to explain for the
outstanding performance of those subjects who scored over 50% overall in the idiom identification task as

presented in Figure 1. However, level of the subjects in the private language school (“Frontistirio”) they were
attending, i.e., upper-intermediate (FCE (First Certificate in English)) vs. advanced (CAE (Certificate of
Advanced English)) and proficient (CPE (Certificate of Proficiency in English)) EFL level, was found to
correlate significantly with success in idiom identification, i.e., Z = -2.122 and p = 0.034, suggesting that the
higher level of L2 proficiency subjects had attained in terms of the University of Cambridge EFL Examinations,
the more readily they were to notice idioms in a text context. Thus, while L2 proficiency as measured in this
study through vocabulary and grammar tests did not reveal any difference between more and less proficient
students with respect to their idiom identification success, level of attendance in the private language school
might possibly offer an explanation for the nearly 100% identification success rate of a few subjects in this
study, in that the more advanced the class they were attending opted for the certificates of CAE and CPE, the
more successful they were in identifying idioms during reading a text.
These findings, however, cannot be compared with any relevant results found in either Liontas’ (2002b) or
Dominguez’ (2008) investigation as neither of the previous idiom identification studies ever considered the
effect of learner factors on successful idiom identification by FL (foreign language) learners across different
languages. In this respect, then, this part of the research question is purely exploratory and provides new
evidence that suggests the non-significant contribution of subject variables such as learners’ level of language
proficiency, motivation and cognitive style to the task of idiom identification. In contrast, it was found that
factors inherent to the task such as frequency of the words and interlingual similarity were found to
significantly correlate with idiom identification but in a negative way indicating that ease of idiom
identification was largely connected with the existence of unfamiliar word components in the idiom itself as
well as with the linguistic non-equivalence of English idioms in learners’ L1 Greek. In other words, Greek EFL
learners tended to identify idioms that had unknown lexical items as their parts and that had no equivalent
idiom in their mother tongue Greek more accurately and more frequently irrespective of their current language
proficiency in L2 English, and degree of motivation towards English as a subject, field independence, and
gender. On the whole, therefore, it seems that language factors dominate subject factors in impact with respect
to the identification task of unknown English idioms during reading by Greek EFL learners.
Discussion and Conclusions

With respect to the first research question and hypothesis of our study, analysis of our data yielded the
following main findings.
Overall success rate of L2 unknown idiom identification for Greek EFL learners in this study was
extremely low with a mean response that reached only 14.75% when calculated with “subjects as cases” and
corresponding to 13.12% across all types of idioms when calculated with “idioms as cases”.
This finding comes in sharp contrast to the success rate of L2 idiom identification of previous studies
conducted by Liontas (2001, 2002b) and more recently by Dominguez (2008) where the total rates for
successful L2 idiom identification were exceptionally high overall across all L2 involved, i.e., 70.01% for
Modern Greek in Liontas (2001), Spanish, German, and French in Liontas (2002b), and Spanish in Dominguez
(2008). In addition, dissimilar or different idioms in L1 and L2 were detected more often than idioms with a
Greek equivalent in our study but still at a considerable less successful rate, i.e., 11.66% as compared with
Liontas’ (2002b) 96.43% and Dominguez’ (2008) 53.08% identification success for different idioms. Such a
difference in results was attributed to the strictly artificial experimental conditions under which idiom

identification tasks were carried out in previous studies, where target idioms were usually embedded in a
context of a few lines and subjects were explicitly told that they had to search the text for the idioms that
existed in it. In contrast, subjects in our study were completely unaware that they were looking for idioms in the
text they were reading, as our initial aim was to investigate whether idioms could be spotted by subjects as
unknown lexical units and how their meaning could be dealt with via lexical inferencing to overcome potential
reading comprehension misunderstandings and misconceptions. Nevertheless, the fact that Greek EFL learners
exhibited a pronounced inability to identify successfully unknown target idioms while reading a text in English
disconfirms the Noticing Hypothesis and calls for its revision in L2 idiom acquisition (SLA) terms indicating
that noticing is an essential prerequisite to the process of L2 idiom acquisition, and therefore lack of it in the
form of appropriate idiom identification strategies may inevitably lead L2 learners to reading
miscomprehension and further confusion when reading L2 text materials.
Only two idiom-type variables, i.e., low frequency of the words within the idiom itself (ρ = -0.495, p =
0.037) and low interlingual similarity (ρ = -0.506, p = 0.032), helped learners identify the unknown phrasal
idioms that were incorporated in the L2 text they were reading.
This finding indicates that idioms whose constituent words had a very low frequency of occurrence as
checked against the BNC of 100 million running words as well as those L2 idioms with low degree of formal
and/or meaning similarity to L1 Greek idioms were most easily identifiable by our Greek EFL subjects. Our
finding with respect to the effect of interlingual similarity on successful L2 idiom identification further confirms
our first hypothesis and is also consistent with Liontas’ (2002b) result where PLL idioms were the idiom
category that was most easily and frequently identified by subjects in his study. In fact, context seemed to work
in two ways during the task of idiom identification: (1) in cases where it provided good clues readers were able
to understand that the idiom did not fit in literally with the surrounding context, and thus spot it; and (2) in cases
where it provided poor clues but an idiom had a rare word in it, and so it could be identified by the subjects.
Additionally, internal semantic transparency was not found to correlate significantly with successful L2 idiom
identification, since subjects in our study could not have used idiom transparency deliberately and consciously as
an identification strategy, because they did not know that what they were expected to identify as unknown
lexical items were idiomatic phrases that are predominantly characterized by non-compositional meaning.
Overall non-significant results were found between the learner-related variables included for investigation
in our study and success in the L2 idiom identification.
None of the subject variables except for level of Cambridge exam they were studying for in the private
language school was found to correlate significantly with it (Z = -2.122, p = 0.034), suggesting that the higher
the level of our Greek EFL learners’ language proficiency in terms of Cambridge EFL exams, the more
successful they were in identifying the hidden target idioms in the text.
The results on L2 idiom identification success revealed a remarkably overall low ability on the Greek EFL
learners’ part to accurately identify unknown English phrasal idioms when reading a text for comprehension
purposes. L2 idioms with no idiom equivalence in L1 Greek as well as idioms with low frequency word
components were found to be identifiable most easily and successfully as compared to L1-L2 identical and
similar idioms that were not noticed at all due to lack of salience. This finding highlights the importance of
learner training in L2 idiom identification strategies raising their awareness with respect to the feature of
“deceptive transparency” of idioms as multiword lexical units have as well as to the potential problems that
idioms’ misidentification can present L2 learners with especially in the course of reading FL material.

According to Nation (2001, pp. 63-64), noticing is considered to be the first and the foremost step in the
process of L2 vocabulary acquisition followed by retrieval and creative use and can be most effectively
achieved through decontextualization as an EFL teaching practice, when the lexical item or the idiom under
consideration is removed from its message context to be focused on as a language item.
Taking into consideration then that all language learning necessarily involves some degree of
decontextualization, i.e., in order to acquire a foreign language, L2 learners need to consciously see language
items as parts of the language system (“focus on form”) rather than only as message, then decontextualization
in the case of L2 idioms can be implemented in the EFL classroom in the following four ways: (1) While
listening or reading, the learner is guided, possibly through the use of special font or underlining, to notice an
idiomatic phrase, and is made aware of its salient feature of non-compositional meaning that does not
correspond to the interpretation of the meaning of its individual component words; (2) The learners can
negotiate the form of an idiom with each other or with the teacher, i.e., learn to identify an idiom in terms of
any special features with respect to its grammar, meaning, and use; (3) The teacher highlights an idiom and
writes it on the blackboard giving emphasis to its semantic transparency or lack of it, equivalence in learners’
L1, syntactic constraints, and functional use in different texts and genres; and (4) The teacher explains a new
L2 idiom to the learners by providing them explicitly with a definition, an L1 translation or an L1 idiom
equivalent. Explicit instruction on the key features of L2 idioms in terms of semantic transparency, syntactic
flexibility, and functional use will make FL learners’ aware of idiom’s formal characteristics and enable them
to identify unknown target idioms more accurately in L2 reading comprehension tasks.
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July 2012, Vol. 10, No. 7, 1349-1354
D DAVID PUBLISHING
Unifying Role of Malay Language in a Multilingual Nation:

A Case of Malaysia
Emeka Cyprian Onwubiko

Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
This paper seeks to elucidate the language policy in Malaysia and how it plays a unifying role. Malay language
appears to be foregrounded in Malaysia amidst reservations from other citizens who are not Malay by tribal
orientation, who may think that the continuous use of the language as the only official language could likely trigger
socio-political crises that may threaten the corporate existence of Malaysia. The thrust of this paper therefore is to
examine language policies in a diverse society such as Malaysia and how it affects the three major different ethnic
groups, Malays, Chinese, and Indian as speakers of their various languages, and more so, to understand how Malay
language serves as the symbol of national unity. The paper concludes that the language policy in Malaysia vis-à-vis
its diversity indicate not only how language plays a unifying role but the national attitudes about how language
diversity should be handle. Historical research methodology guides this study.
Keywords: language policy, multilingual, unity, identity, Malay, culture
Introduction
Malaysia, in the Southeast Asia, has regions like Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah, and Sarawak. Historically,
from the end of the 18th century till 1957, Malaysia was under the rule of Portuguese, Dutch, and British at
different times, with British colonization having greatest impact on the country’s socio-political development
(Wong & Ho, 2000). While, Gosling (1978) opined that Malaysia consists of three major ethnic groups, of
which the majority is Malay, followed by Chinese and Indians who are of the minority. The Malays are
Malaysia’s largest ethnic group, with about 60% of the population. Together with the oldest indigenous people
in Sabah and Sarawak, they form a group called “Bumiputera” which translates as “sons of the soil”. The
migration of Indians to Malaysia commenced in the second half of the 19th century, to assist in labor and other
menial jobs like working in plantations, roads, railway lines, and ports, whereas the Chinese community came
before political independence in Malaysia for commercial activities. Malay language was adopted as the
national language and medium of instruction in schools. However, Chinese and Indian communities were
allowed by the government to run schools which medium of instruction is in Chinese and Tamil languages. The
duo of Chinese and Indian communities who have adopted Malaysia as their country still see themselves as
people from one culture. They speak their language, maintain their cultural heritage and traditions, and ensure
that their identities are preserved even as they try to integrate in their host country.
In another vein, in any human society, language occupies and plays a vital role. The function of language
in any human community includes expression of thoughts in politics, in administration, in education, in social,
Emeka Cyprian Onwubiko, M.Sc. at Human Resource Development, Universiti Putra Malaysia.

1350 UNIFYING ROLE OF MALAY LANGUAGE IN A MULTILINGUAL NATION
in religious events, in legislation, and so on. The language of any human society tells a lot about that society,
therefore, it can be further emphasized that language and human society are in congruent. The aim of any
human community is to have peace and unity; many nations of the world today are facing different degrees of
conflicts, and Malaysia though has not been engulfed in a more severe nationwide conflict in the recent times,
but there are some underpinning reservations of disunity among the diverse ethnic groups that make up
Malaysia. This paper examines the role language has being playing in harmonizing Malaysians in Malaysia.
Looking at the importance of language, one cannot help but say that language is the faithful mirror of the
society; in other words, a language is what shows the true nature of any society. This implies that what a
language is meant to do in any society is to reflect to the world what that society is all about. The language of
any society therefore should give us a perfect knowledge of what that society is all about; this includes the
culture, beliefs, mode of dressing, marriage, and every other sociolinguistic information about the society.
Language is also supposed to be seen as the symbol of a nation just as the flag, anthem, currency, and others. In
other words, language is to be the window through which people can see into the society.
Fisk and Osman Rani (1982) did assert that Malaysia was “not a tightly united little nation by any means.
It is one that is subjected to a remarkable range of divisive and disruptive influences in its geography, racial
make-up, religions, political institution and international relations”. In any multicultural and multiethnic society,
the issue of language policy has been a serious concern for policy makers. In making the policy for such a
pluralistic society, a lot of considerations have to be made to accommodate all the different groups that make
up such a society. The language policies in Malaysia are quite complex due to the existence of three major
ethnic groups: Malays, Chinese, and Indians, who speak different languages and practice different cultures
(David, 2007). In his views, Hassan (1994) observed that Malaysia as presently constituted is a diverse mixture
of ethnic backgrounds, languages, and subcultures. The Malay tribe is the dominant group of the three.
However, there are other minority ethnic groups that make up the country. The Malaysian nation is based upon
cultural differences and is evolving a political culture that takes account of its plural culturalism (Cheah, 2002).
Thus, the government has been able to integrate the different races despite some misunderstandings.
Malay is the language of integration in Malaysia, amidst the compounding complexities of Malaysia
especially in relation to the language question; the only language that indexes the spirit of togetherness is
Malay. This shows clearly that so far in Malaysia, Malay language has played a very important part in keeping
Malaysians together as a unified nation. Amidst their cultural diversities and differences in beliefs, Malay
language as noted has a great role in keeping Malaysians together, and since it is the connection between the
various ethnic groups that exist in Malaysia, one cannot but give that plus to Malay language. Out of the
numerous languages that exist in Malaysia, they have a link and that link is nothing but Malay, which has
served as the means of communication between the different tribes that are in Malaysia. Thus, the prevalence of
Malay language in Malaysia tends to mean that it has prominence over all the languages and even English
within the country.
Methodology
This study employed historical research methodology and the immense benefits of this method for
analyzing this issue are pertinent. Historical method offers much to researchers to study behaviour of people.
More importantly, policy makers at any level in academic research can benefit from the contributions of
historical research in arriving at effective policies (Wiersma, 1995). This informed why Beard (1934) said that

UNIFYING ROLE OF MALAY LANGUAGE IN A MULTILINGUAL NATION 1351
historical research could be christened as the omniscience of research method.
Language Policies in Malaysia

Bearing in mind the linguistic diversity of the Malaysian cultural landscape, policy makers come up with a
language policy that reflects the heterogeneous nature of the society. Holmes (2001) supported this view when
he said, in making the language policies it requires certain process which starts from selection, codification,
elaboration, and securing acceptance of the language.
In Malaysia. the Reid commission among other things recommended the use of Malay as the national and
official language and English is the second language. The language policies in Malaysia are quite complex due
to the existence of the three major ethnic groups: Malay, Chinese, and Indians who speak different languages and
practice different cultures. It was felt and adopted the idea that a national language would help to create national
unity notwithstanding cultural and linguistic diversity (David, 2007). Similarly, supporting the adoption of
Malay as the national language, Asmah (1979) opined that “An immigrant language would not be able to give
the nation the characteristics that it required to justify an identity which it could call its own” (p. 112).
The report of the education review committee headed by Abdul Rahman Talib in 1960 recommended the
use of the national language as the medium of instruction in secondary schools which hitherto had used English
as the medium of instruction. However, two types of school were established at the primary level and these
were the national schools which used Malay as the medium of instruction and national type schools which used
English, Chinese, or Tamil, but Malay was made compulsory subject. However, it was recommended that
public secondary schools should use English or Malay as the medium of instruction. Even the Chinese medium
secondary schools were phased out. Asmah (1979) argued that the policy to terminate Chinese medium
secondary schools was taken in the interest of national unity in the sense that this category of schools would
henceforth admit children of other races. At the tertiary level, English and the national language were used as
medium of instruction.
The year 2002 was another important mark in the annals of history in Malaysia, where there was a change
in policy in the teaching of Science and Mathematics. The government announced that henceforth Mathematics
and Science will be taught in English instead of the national language which is prevalently Malay language.
However, there has been resistance to this policy by those in the rural areas.
The controversy still rages and persists in the country. As we have earlier pointed out the various roles
Malay language in the attainment and sustenance of national unity, however, the author believes that it would
have been better if the role(s) played so far by this language had been played by English language; this is no
intension or attempt to denigrate Malay language. Malay language no doubt has greatly contributed to
Malaysia’s national unity. But the author is of the opinion that the situation would have been better in given all
and sundry sense of belonging if English language is employed more since British was the colony and the mode
of instruction bequeathed by British is English language not Malay.
Language and Identity

Language and identity to some extent can be said to be interrelated, because when a native speaker speaks
we can easily identify him/her; there is definitely an attached symbolism in language of one’s origin. This is
also the case when a second language learner of the language, especially adult learners speaks the same
language. Commenting in the same direction, Spolsky (1999) said language is a central feature of human

identity. When we hear someone speaks, we immediately make guesses about gender, education level, age,
profession, and place of origin. We can also identify a person’s nationality by the way he/she speaks. In
addition, Crystal (2000) opined that the disappearance of the language of a group has immense repercussions
for healthy self regard.
Similarly, Wright (2004) believed that language is a robust marker of group membership and one that is
not easily changed. It is one the strongest markers of identity, because there are cognitive as well as
psychological barriers to be overcome when individuals shift language.
Thus, Wright (2004) asked one fundamental question: Can immigrants who assimilate linguistically in the
host country maintain their identity?. In the case of Malaysia Chinese for instance, though they speak the
national and official language which is Bahasa Melayu or Malay, they speak their own language, Mandarin,
Cantonese, or Hokkien, and also have their own traditional and religious belief intact. For instance, the Chinese
in Malaysia also celebrate the Chinese New Year at the same time their Kith and kin all over the world are also
celebrating, while the Indians in huge number pay allegiance to their feast back home in Indian, also many of
them travel to Indian, and some prefer to marry from there. In a similar sense, Wright (2004) said identification
with the land of origin may continue to be very strong and maintain through religious practices or cultural
maintenance in diet and dress, and even where given the need to survive and the hope of prospering in the new
environment, there is linguistic accommodation.
Language Misrepresentation and Effects

As we have noted above that language and identity are interrelated, it is also important to note in this vein
that the misrepresentation of language is one of the major reasons for conflict that we have around the world
today originated from the use of words/utterances, where ideas intended have been wrongly presented. You can
never attain the level of proficiency a native speaker would in his/her language and this has caused a lot of
people what they never bargained for; it has sent many to their untimely grave. A man’s language is seen as the
tool that helps him express his thoughts unfortunately for a man by using another man’s language which is said
to be his second language; he succeeds in misrepresenting his ideas. In such a situation he uses a word out of
context and some people could be so sensitive to the use of word.
Many of the conflicts and ethnic dispute that most given countries have had in the past could have been
averted. Unfortunately, more recently in Malaysia, there were major skirmishes among the majority Malay
Muslims population and the Christians faithful, for the later used of word “Allah” which led to the burning of
places of worship. Though the word “Allah” itself is not a Malay language but it has since been an integral part
of Malay language as claimed by the majority of Malay populace. The reason of such loggerheads is that many
people have orally misrepresented the facts due to their low level of proficiency, distortion, religious fanaticism,
and perceived division that exist among them. More so, they have chosen the wrong word at the wrong time
and this led to unhappy situations that led to conflagration witnessed in January 2010 because of the usage
“Allah” by Malaysian Christians in their Holy Bible.
There is no definite definition of language but the common notion according to William, Stephenson, and
Robert (n.d.):
Language is the expression and communication of emotions or ideas between human beings by means of speech and
hearing, and the sounds spoken or heard being systematized and confirmed by usage among a given people over a given
period of time. (p. 716)

UNIFYING ROLE OF MALAY LANGUAGE IN A MULTILINGUAL NATION 1353
Hence, it suggests that a language is supposed to communicate the internal (original) idea and express
what a particular speaker has within. But this is not always so in a case where a particular speaker is not
proficient in the language he/she is using as a medium of communication at a point in time. For instance, a
Chinese man who wants to communicate with a Indian or a Malay man will have to use Malay language, where
his level of proficiency is low; compared to his first language, there is likely possibility that such a person is
very likely to misrepresent some of his intensions during communication and such could lead to barrier or
conflict between them. In such case would one say that language has been able to play it role well? This has
definitely not justified the meaning of language and the essence of communication.
The way a particular thought is conveyed is very important during communication; hence the essence of
any communication is to present accurately the internal idea of a speaker. Many migrant Malaysians try to
communicate their intentions in Malay and in some cases ideas have been misrepresented; they do not have the
correct word to represent their thoughts or the next person may not have the broaden knowledge of the word.
The situation is not the same when interlocutors from the same ethnic background and where they both have
proper knowledge of the language.
Historically, the British colonization of Malaya’s (what is the present day Malaysia) colonial name from 1786
to 1957 brought the English language to Malaysian shores. English is widely used as the medium of
communication in the commercial and professional sectors and also courts of law. Other languages or dialects that
are widely spoken alongside include Mandarin, Hokkien, Cantonese, Tamil, and Hindi. However, Malay has been
the prominent language of instruction and has since overshadowed other languages. The author may be proven
wrong here; to the author’s mind, English language is neutral and accepted to people of diverse cultures and
linguistic affiliations. And as far as Malaysia is colonized by British, there is need that people in Malaysia should
give English preference to Malay language, and not to make English less strategic as it is the case in Malaysia.
As we know where there is a similar language and better understanding (certainly the understanding of language
will be accurate), there will be reduction in the level of conflict. Malaysia recently recognizes that English
language is important to sustain unity, more recently, English as a medium of instruction to teach Mathematics
and science in all schools, colleges, and universities is introduced. This will go a long way in reducing the level
of the reoccurring conflict in Malaysia. Since the source of most of these conflicts has been the way and manner,
our various ideas have been wrongly expressed or interpreted, or how one section feels marginalized.
Conclusions
To this end, this paper has indicated the immense role language plays in the national unity. The paper
suggests that there is urgent need for the authority to inculcate language as a vital factor of unity in the country
and to see how they can use this as a tool to foster national unity, as to make Malaysia a more unified country,
thereby forestalling all ethnic and tribal differences among all Malaysians. Hence, every Malaysian should
begin to think and see how language can contribute to the growth of the nation. As Hassan (1994) asserted that
Malaysia has achieved some respectable measure of success, and Malay language has become a viable
language used in education, administration, and in some cases among the regional countries.
In this juncture, the paper shows that the government also accords recognition to other languages spoken
by immigrants from China and India, as Asmah (1979) argued that the government has given a great deal of
attention to the welfare of the Chinese and Tamil schools. Asmah (1979) opined that more of such schools have
been built since the beginning of independence, and the training of teachers for these schools has been taken

over by the government. However, in the “author’s opinion”, it should be noted that the implementation of the
national language policy could have some adverse effects, especially since the emphasis is on the national
language it could mean the demise of English language that allows for globalization where there are people of
diverse culture. One of such ways that could negate globalization is in terms of Malaysian relationship with the
outside world where English language is needed the most.
Lastly, the effort by the government to unite all the different ethnic groups together is commendable
through the prism of Malay language. Although one thing is obvious, both Chinese and Indians who migrated
have adopted Malaysia as their country, but they still see themselves as people from diverse heritage and
therefore still have preference to their various language orientations. They speak their respective languages,
maintain their cultural heritage and traditions, and ensure that their identities are preserved even as they try to
integrate in their host country. Malay language is already a part of the fabric of Malaysian life.
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for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan. (Michigan papers on South and Southeast Asia, 13).
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Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Wiersma, N. (1995). Research method in education. US: Allyn And Bacon.
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Wright, J. (2004). Language policy and language planning from nationalism to globalization. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

July 2012, Vol. 10, No. 7, 1355-1374
D DAVID PUBLISHING
Teaching Adult Learners English Through a Variety of Activities:

Perception on Games and Rewards*
Supamit Chanseawrassamee
TOT (Telephone Organization of Thailand) Academy, TOT Public Company Limited, Nonthaburi, Thailand
This paper attempted to examine how a Thai EFL (English as a foreign language) instructor employed a wide array of
tasks to encourage and motivate her adult EFL students to learn English grammar in a livelier and more meaningful
environment. Using a questionnaire and a follow-up informal talk, the research study was conducted with 25 adult
learners in an in-house advanced grammar training course at a state-owned telecommunication conglomerate in
Thailand. At the time of the study, the subjects’ average age was 44 years. The research findings are in line with earlier
studies in the sense that adult learners have positive attitude towards activities or fun games. Nonetheless, the entailed
rewards can convey both positive and negative connotation. Rewards thus must be used with utmost caution and
sensitivity. The study also provides suggestions and recommendations for educators and teachers on introducing fun
activities or games to an English classroom. This research reconfirms Case’s (2008) preconceived notion that games
can be used with adult learners, because most students like games however old they are.
Keywords: ESL (English as a second language), adult learner, game/activity/task, English training at a workplace
Introduction
Since the first day the author decided to receive a scholarship from her employer, a state-owned
telecommunication company, to pursue her doctoral degree, she realized that the task awaiting her would never
be simple or easy. Teaching English to her fellow colleagues, who are all adults, is not easy. Only working with
them is not easy already—that is why we have to learn about interpersonal communication at work! Teaching her
work colleagues is even tougher and more complicated than the author has ever thought. In a way, sharing a
similarity in employment at a state-owned company makes it rigid and sometimes awkward when playing
*
A preliminary version under the title “Feeding students or not: An experience of a non-native teacher in a state-owned
telecommunication conglomerate in Thailand” was presented and appeared in the Proceeding of the Asian Conference on
Education (Ace 2011) on October 27-30, 2011, in Osaka, Japan. Based on the original article, another extensively revised version
under the title “Teaching Adult Learners English Through Games: Activity and Reward” obtained the Honorable Mention from
2012 NIDA Research Award announced on March 23, 2012.
Acknowledgements: The author would like to express her deepest appreciation to all AEG (Advanced English Grammar)
students who wholeheartedly joined this research study for the betterment of the course in the future. She does deeply appreciate
her affiliate which allows her to create as many good courses as she wishes. She is also genuinely grateful to Ms. Chalika
Sukhavachana, who has been her excellent course coordinator/organizer and who strongly encourages the author to keep on
offering this course. Without her constant support, the author could not have taught English efficiently and happily.
Supamit Chanseawrassamee, senior lecturer of English, TOT (Telephone Organization of Thailand) Academy, TOT Public
Company Limited.
1356 TEACHING ADULT LEARNERS ENGLISH THROUGH A VARIETY OF ACTIVITIES
different roles—teacher-as-controller role and student-as-follower role—in the classroom. In another, holding
the same status makes it more comfortable when doing some fun activities or games together in class.
Apparently, the world has changed and more and more teachers tend to become facilitators or evaluators
(Shin, 2003) rather than classroom controllers as before. However, the effect of such trend—supporting roles—is
twofold. On the one hand, adult learners who stick to the traditional teacher-student relationship become
confused. They may have some questions like, “Is it acceptable for students to argue with the teacher or with
other students in class rather than keep listening and jotting down what they have heard?”. Young-generation
students may become more outgoing and do the talk themselves. They may dominate the class and think they
learn nothing from the teacher as facilitators. On the other hand, the full effect falls on teachers. Allowing
students to respect their inner world of intellectuality (O’Reilley, 1993) may turn out to be an impression that the
teacher is lazy or even unknowledgeable. For the time being, in many schools at higher education level, students
are even allowed to evaluate their teachers’ performance. Such performance results do not only affect the KPIs
(Key Performance Indicators) of the teacher but also a certain school/program or even its educational institute as
a whole. With or without educational change and advancement, all ESL (English as a second language)/EFL
(English as a foreign language) teachers have to adhere to their major duties in allowing their students to
experience the language in genuine communication as much as possible, to create linguistic attention in the
domain of content-oriented communication, and to encourage students to assume full responsibility of their own
learning or even make it their lifelong learning (Lund & Pedersen, 2001, pp. 63-64). The teaching then becomes
more difficult when students do not have high self-motivation to learn English seriously anymore, because they
are already being employed.
Bearing the teaching roles according to Lund and Pedersen’s (2001) notion, a vast variety of tasks are
introduced to the author’s classroom. “Tasks” or activities are important, because they are designed to correspond
to different teaching goals, thereby becoming “a central focus in both second language acquisition research and
second language pedagogy” (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, pp. 26-27). Games, for instance, are used for an increase
in students’ self-motivation to learn and for ease in boring pattern-practice drills. In this study, the adult learners
were attending an advanced grammar class. Therefore, a closer look into how they felt about games provided in
the classroom was significant.
This paper will begin with a brief overview of adult learner theories. Then, the social changes, such as
globalization and global community which calls for a high level of competence in English and technology will be
described. Adult learners’ requirements will then be discussed in the domains of activities and rewards they enjoy.
The author provides some examples of activities performed in the classroom as well as some discussions based
on previous works and her real experience. The description of adult learners is first presented, followed by the
current requirement for English proficiency in the Thai context.
Adult Learners
Many researchers in adult education have found that adults are unique (Crandall, 1979; Burt, Peyton, &
Adams, 2003; Nunan, 1999). These gurus concur that adult learners can succeed in learning ESL when the
materials they learn befit their real-life expectations, such the dominant language in the place they live or at their
TEACHING ADULT LEARNERS ENGLISH THROUGH A VARIETY OF ACTIVITIES 1357
workplace. “Adults who need English for access to technical texts or training for employment have a strong
motivation to acquire the language” (Crandall, 1979, p. 7). Like Crandall’s assertion, Nunan (1999, p. 59) pointed
out that good language learners should have three essential characteristics: motivation, preparedness to take risks,
and determination to apply their developing skills outside the classroom. Nunan’s assertion is not very far from
what professor Crandall had found 20 years earlier. This is unsurprising, because in order to develop high English
proficiency, self-motivation as well as adequate exposure to the language is a must for good language learners.
“Adults can learn best when the content is personally relevant to past experience or present concerns and the
learning process is relevant to life experiences”, stated Nunan (1999, p. 15). Adult learners enter into learning
activities through multiple channels that are meaningful to them. That is why, as a rule, classroom-based teaching
should be accompanied by extracurricular activities, e.g., light reading or reading for pleasure, surfing the
Internet, movie-going, listening to music and karaoke, partying with foreigners, travelling abroad, etc.. This
heightened esteem for Western style education resulted in an increased interest in Western cultures and values,
which in turn led to the popularity of Western cultural products in the forms of songs, films, and literature in
non-English speaking countries (Baker & Phongpaichit, 2005, p. 167). Currently these cultural products
transferred come in the form of digital devices which totally require English competency.
While some adult learners become more familiar with, can use technology effectively, and prefer online
learning, others prefer classroom-based, because they yearn for face-to-face interaction. Most recently, there was
a study by two Iranian professors who had found that online learning was still underway as a consequence of
culture and personality traits (Zakersalehi & Shahsavarani, 2011). Rather than one-way learning with the
computer, according to these two researchers, most adult learners still want to listen to what the teacher says and
ask questions when they do not understand something in class. Such interaction helps to develop both teachers
and students to increase openness and awareness like Parker Palmer’s notions of telling the truth and urging
students to do the same as follows:
We prepare for a meeting for learning by trying to become vulnerable to both hurt and healing in others and in
ourselves… Whatever the subject of study in the classroom, the shadow subject is ourselves, our limits, our potentials. As
long as that remains in the shadow, it will block both individual and group from full illumination. But if both hurt and
self-doubting can be brought into the light… then learning will flower. (as cited in O’Reilley, 1993, p. 118)
Likewise, Galloway (1970) has found that face-to-face communication in the classroom may sometimes
lead to negative consequences, e.g., misunderstandings and mental hurting in the classroom. Some negative
attitude towards certain reward types made this study significant.
To understand the Thai ESL learners whose average age is 40+ years old and who are participants in this
study, it is important to know how they are taught English since young and the new requirement. Thus, before the
author proceeds, the history of Thai education is described. The author then delves into the global change and
current mainstream which affect both life and work of many Thais, especially those at work.
Thailand Context
English Education in Thailand From Past to Present
In her dissertation, Chanseawrassamee (2007) provided recorded history of the English education in
Thailand. English has been taught as a foreign language in Thailand for over 100 years. Encouraging foreign
language studies, King Mongkut (1851-1868) hired and assigned foreigners including an English teacher, Ms.
Anna T. Leonowens, to teach royal children including King Rama V, or Prince Chulalongkorn (National Identity
Office, 2005, p. 13). Since then, the face of English education in Thailand has changed. These changes have
occurred as the Thai culture has reformed in what could be described as a reciprocal process.
According to Fry (2002), there are three major eras of educational reform in Thailand that combine the
influence of westernization, the importance of foreign languages, and Thai/English bilingualism. The first era
started with the reign of King Chulalongkorn whose experiences during his childhood may have been a strong
influence on later Thai education reforms. Before the education reform in his reign, Buddhist temples were the
center for educating Thai people, from princes to commoners. Fry (2002) observed that King Chulalongkorn
placed significant importance on educational reform as a way to modernize Thailand and to maintain
independence. To avoid being colonized, King Chulalongkorn began sending a number of his sons and
commoners to be educated in Europe and America to learn about other countries’ scientific and technological
progress with the hope that “They would return to help develop the country” (National Identity Office, 2005, p.
13). Among them, Prince Vajiravudh, who later became King Rama VI, finished his studies at Oxford University
(National Identity Office, 2005, p. 13). With this experience, King Vajiravudh continued his grandfather and his
father’s educational reforms by establishing Chulalongkorn University, the first university in Thailand, and
Vajiravudh College, a boarding school for boys. Among many other accomplishments, he founded Thai boy
scouts, supported the Red Cross, and translated Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice (1596-1598) which
became a part of the Thai school curriculum (National Identity Office, 2005, p. 13).
Another concern of these kings was making and keeping Thailand a regional trade center. Even before King
Mongkut’s reign, Thailand’s location was already regarded as a hub of trade and commerce in Asia and Southeast
Asia; therefore, individuals with skills in both commerce and English were highly needed (Fry, 2002, pp. 6-7). To
promote English proficiency, King Chulalongkorn endorsed English-Thai bilingualism at schools. At the beginning
of modern Thai education, Suankularb—one of the first Thai schools—was a precursor to today’s language
immersion schools. It required an equal division of Thai and English instruction, and that eventually changed to
English instruction only after completion of “primary education in Thai” (Fry, 2002, p. 7). Finally, in 1960, under
the reign of King Bhumipol and in anticipation of the emerging globalization of economies, English became a part
of the compulsory curriculum for all Thai students grade five and above (Aungpredathep, 1989, pp. 9-10).
The second era emerged after Thai students fought against the military leaders and created democracy in
Thailand. In 1973, there was a student revolution against the military leaders which helped students realize their
own power and significance. Klein (1998, p. 9) noted that during the years after the student revolution, Thailand
moved toward true democracy, leading to the 1997 Constitution and educational reform. Dickson and Comming
(1996) reported that during the economic boom in the 1980s, English was not only a tool to gain access to modern
technology but also a key to professional accomplishment, because the workplace demanded communication
with foreigners. According to the 1992 Thai National Scheme of Education, English had become the most
popular foreign language with some students beginning their English studies as early as the third grade (Dickson
& Comming, 1996, p. 121).
The third educational reform era started after the Thai economic crisis in 1997. In the early and mid-1990s,
Thailand was influenced by steady forces of globalization and internationalization (Fry, 2002, p. 14). The
government envisioned that globalization would move Thailand’s political conditions toward democracy with
more emphasis on human rights and environmental preservation (Royal Thai Embassy, Washington, D.C., 2003).
Despite these high expectations, mismanagement of the plan for globalization of the Thai economy arguably led
to the economic crisis of 1997. Fry (2002) asserted that the Thai educational reform originated from “the shock of
the Asian economic crisis” (p. 17), explaining that one of the major causes of economic collapse was the
inadequacy of international capabilities development: “Many Thais are not adequately interconnected with the
global knowledge system, largely because of language limitations” (p. 29). The Thai government concluded that
“inefficiency in the provision of education was one of… [the economic crisis’s] causes” (Office of the Education
Council, 2004, p. 169).
Evidence of this inefficiency can be found through scores on standardized tests such as the TOEFL (Test of
English as a Foreign Language), which though not necessarily a reflection of English oral communication
competence is nonetheless an important indicator of language proficiency for officials in Thailand. In a survey
conducted by the CU ATC (Chulalongkorn University Academic Testing Centre) during the years 1995-1998,
Thais ranked the highest in terms of the number of TOEFL takers in Southeast Asia (Vichitsorasatra &
Paisalpichitsodsai, 2002). However, the same survey reported that Thai students had the lowest English
proficiency; lower than 500 for the paper-based test, similar to Laos. On the other hand, Singapore and the
Philippines ranked first and second respectively in terms of TOEFL scores. More recently, a survey by Thailand’s
English Language Development Centre revealed that among Southeast Asian countries, Thai student’s TOEFL
Computer-Based Test scores ranked next to last in the one-year period ending in June 2005, with an average
score of 201 out of 300 points, above only Cambodians, who averaged 200 points (The Nation Editorial, 2005).
These two reports emphasize the urgency for adopting effective English language teaching in Thailand.
As a result, “The Government is committed to initiate educational reform whenever it is necessary to keep
up with the pace of change” (Office of the Educational Council, 2004, pp. 15-16). In keeping with this
commitment, Thailand’s new Constitution, as of October 1997, added many sections concerning education; for
instance, Section 81 requires that Thailand “improve education to be in harmony with economic and social
change” (Office of the Educational Council, 2004, p. 15). Today, under the educational reform of 1999, English
is taught in Thai public schools from first through 12th grades (Kaopatumtip, 2005). More specifically, because a
nation cannot participate effectively in a global economy without English, the National Education Plan
(2002-2016), based on the 1997 Constitution, was implemented with an emphasis on English learning in
conjunction with bilateral and multilateral organizations such as the UNESCO (United Nations Education,
Scientific and Cultural Organization), the IEA (International Association for the Evaluation of Educational
Achievement), and the APEC (Asia-pacific Economic Cooperation), among others.
Thus, it is understandable that among the educational reforms, the development of bilingual schools is of
significant importance (Office of the Educational Council, 2004, pp. 80-84). Fasold (1987, p. 10) noted that even
though Thailand has never been colonized, English, a world language, is taught to people primarily for economic
reasons. After the crisis, the high cost of an overseas education resulted in the increasing establishment of
international elementary and secondary schools as well as universities in the home country. The Office of the
Educational Council (2004) reported that there were 46 international schools (elementary and secondary private
schools that only use English) in 1999, 67 in 2002, and 89 in 2003. Similarly, higher education (both private and
public) provided by universities, institutions, colleges, or other types of institutions had 356 international
programs in 1999, 465 in 2002, and 521 in 2003 (Office of the Educational Council, 2004, p. 149).
The economic crisis stimulated the growth of bilingualism in Thai elementary and secondary schools. At the
elementary level, bilingual schools are, thus far, confined to private institutions, whereas secondary bilingual
education is found in some public schools. According to the Office’s report, bilingual schools focus on using
English in communication, while simultaneously teaching Thai. Like international schools, the number of Thai
schools wishing to offer bilingual programs nearly doubled from 104 in 2003 to 198 in 2004.
Considering the fact that the subjects in this study are at the age of 40+, they might have very little exposure
to English both in the classroom and outside class. Regarding the educational environment at the time, it was
quite rare for most of them to have attended international or bilingual programs when they were young. Even
though around 90% of the subjects received Master’s degrees, their degrees are local, not abroad. Specifically,
the fact that they could not pass a test at Wall Street Institute confirmed that they needed some more preparations
in English before becoming independent learners. In other words, the participants in the current study are still
dependent learners requiring teacher’s assistance and facilitations. The reason why these state-owned employees
attempted to study English becomes clear with the globalized mainstream and global village movements. With
such requirement, a closer look at the labor market situation and forthcoming AEC (ASEAN (Association of
Southeast Asian Nations) Economic Community) Agreement in 2015 will help clarify the high demand of
English proficiency among current government sectors.
Current Labor Market in Thailand
For the time being, increasing globalization and exchange of ideas and peoples across national borders have
made linguistic competency in ESL a prized asset and in many cases a necessity. The status of English as a
lingua franca becomes even more obvious with the forthcoming enforcement of the AEC Agreement in 2015.
Concrete evidence is that more and more Thai government agencies and private sectors have put in their job
screening process the score of 550+ TOEIC (Test of English for International Communication) as an essential
precondition for job application eligibility. According to the document on Strategy in Production and Developing
Workforce of the Nation in the Second Decade of Education Reform, B.E. 2009-2018 reported by the Office of
the Educational Council (2011, p. 13), newly-emerging industries require people with high proficiency in foreign
languages with economic significance including English, Chinese, Japanese, or Southeast Asian languages.
Aside from linguistic competence, these labors also need to be well equipped with computer literacy at the
effective user level. Therefore, those who do not have access to state-of-the-art technology nor English
proficiency as a prerequisite skill may experience limited opportunities for employment, because
English-speaking abilities are preferred, particularly by international companies.
In furtherance to the aforesaid high unemployment rate, job competition in the labor market becomes
severe and parents wish their children the best in education, thereby sending their children to bilingual or
international programs. Thus, on the one hand, new graduates are well prepared in the area of English
communication. On the other hand, the unemployed or new graduates have high motivation enough to learn
English because they want to be employed (Crandall, 1979). Most members in this group tend to have high
proficiency in English. However, for the employed adults especially government officials, learning English
tends to be an individual choice rather than a part of the compulsory education or the company’s strict
requirement. Specifically, in Thailand, state-owned jobs are regarded “a job for life”, resulting in low
motivation for any self-adjustment. In reverse to their employees’ stigma, many state enterprises and
government agencies, or even academic institutions, have moved on with their privatization plans in order to
diminish red tape and encourage businesslike implementation.
Despondently, most of their employees still do not recognize the fact that they have to adapt themselves to
cope with the company’s modernization processes. In today’s world, those who can understand English tend to
be more privileged than those who do not. Even worse, both private and government agencies tend to prefer
flexible or multi-skilled people rather than loyal or long-serving ones. At a telecommunication conglomerate
like the author’s, where the present study was conducted, for example, employees who were 45+ years old
were being strongly encouraged to think about their early retirement just now, comparing to 50+ in previous
years. Consequently, senior employees who still want to work for the company need to readjust themselves to
the ever-changing world and the globalization mainstream. Many of these long-serving employees may be
faced with some difficulties learning English at the age in the neighborhood of 40s. Their stress to handle the
ongoing global change becomes more intense with the roadmap of the AEC which is planned to become fully
formed in 2015.
Forthcoming AEC in 2015 for Real
Most recently, a fresh key cause which has driven Thailand’s entering into the English mainstream society is
its becoming part of ASEAN community in 2015—only four years from now. The ASEAN was established on
August 8, 1967. The 10 Member States of the Association comprises Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia,
Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Viet Nam. The ASEAN Secretariat is
based in Jakarta, Indonesia. According to the roadmap for an ASEAN community 2009-2015, the free flow of
professionals and skilled labor involved in cross-border trade and investment-related activities will be greatly
facilitated (Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), 2009, pp. 29-30). Likewise, core competencies
and qualifications for job/occupational and trainers skills required in the priority services sectors (by 2009) will
be mutually developed. Standard job requirements in other service sectors will be further carried out and
completed by 2015. Accordingly, there will be high mobility in the cross-border labor market where English is
expected to be an international language used in communication. Using English at work is an inevitable change
which Thais need to accept and prepare themselves for.
Regarding the foregoing roadmap, many universities and educational institutes thus have tried to prepare
their current students not only with content-based subjects and cutting edge of technology but also linguistic
competence so that they become attracted by recruiters. For private companies, having employees with high
proficiency in English certainly enhances opportunities of customer acquisition while creating a positive image to
conglomerates in the global market. For employees, having high English proficiency means a career ladder and
greater responsibility. Hence, many international behemoths in non-English speaking countries like Thailand
have made many endeavors to develop expert users of English for effective communication at work. As many
long-serving employees hardly change, the responsibility to encourage students mainly falls on the teacher. With
the philosophy of motivation underlying education, a variety of activities are introduced to the classroom.
Activities
Why Activities Are Needed?
From 1980s, language learning activities are proposed as practical “vehicles” for learning English,
promoting learning, and supporting learning processes (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p. 223). Richards and
Rodgers contended that these activities or tasks are believed to assist in second language acquisition, because
they stimulate learners’ strategic and cognitive processes. Like Richards and Rodgers, in their Curriculum
Resource Handbook, Hudelson, Italiano, and Rounds (1993) have proposed many ideas for activities to be used
in an English classroom. They classified these activities into content, picture, art, drama, song, game, holiday and
custom, and multicultural activities. The present study will focus on a variety of activities, each of which will be
discussed in detail later in this paper. Whether the use of games/activities, nevertheless, is successful or not
mainly depends on students’ reaction and attitude towards the provided games/activities. Consequently, it is
interesting to know what games fit adult learners in this study.
Before proceeding further, the author would like to make a note on her usage of “activity”, “task”, and
“game”. First of all, the author takes on the definition of “activity” or “task” as specified by Richards and
Rodgers (2001). Particularly, the author uses the term “game” for her activities, because all activities, whether
hard or easy, are rewarded. In the latter issue, the author follows the term “game” defined by Case (2008).
Research examining students’ reactions to pedagogy has revealed that if teachers teach in a relaxed manner
while providing ample opportunity for students to fully comprehend the material and actively participate in class,
they can learn more effectively (Paulsen & Feldman, 1995; Hudelson et al., 1993; Crandall, 1979; Burt et al.,
2003; Nunan, 1999; among many others). Richards and Rodgers (2001) have found that proper activities or tasks
in the classroom can assist students’ second learning acquisition. According to these educators, adults learn well
when they practice in a meaningful communicative activity—mostly related to work—and do not experience
extreme stress or anxiety. However, like the participants in the current study, adult learners usually have to work
while learning a second language, they may often face the problem of “busy”, “a lack of time”, “a tight schedule”,
etc., even those who live in the US, where English is required (Krashen, 1993). This means that the time the adult
learners will use in preparing themselves before class and/or reviewing the lessons may be limited or even
insufficient. Some facts about the adult learners who are respondents in this study will be discussed in detail later
in this paper. Even though they pay assiduous attention in class, their endeavor may be insufficient for some
students to master English. Age does affect this group of students (Krashen, 1993). However, with the author’s
strong belief in the old saying, “No one is too old to learn”, both teacher’s and students’ determined endeavors
have to be made.
Despite the author’s belief, when considering the previous educators’ ideas, the author concurs with the
notion that it may be somewhat difficult to motivate employed adult learners to learn if they do not have specific
goal to attain. For instance, adults may learn successfully if they want to be employed at a company, or be
admitted to an education program, or even marry a foreigner. Without such high self-motivation, the
responsibility for motivating the students often falls on the teacher. In this study, participants have been working
for a telecommunication conglomerate for over 10 years on the average. They may thus have low motivation to
learn English, with a good excuse that their job requires no English competence. Proper in-class activities, e.g.,
games, must be incorporated!
Many researchers, who are teachers and educators themselves, have found activities, usually coming in the
form of games, can help their learners, especially children, learn well. Games are fun and children love to play
games. Through games, children can perform experiment, discovery, and interaction with environs (Lewis &
Bedson, 1999). While games can stimulate young children to learn English, they bring the target language to life.
Games make children learn without their noticing (Mei & Yu-jung, 2000). Games allow students to learn English
while enjoying themselves (Kim, 1995). Because language learning is a hard work and requires great efforts,
games can produce constant efforts when students practice language skills (Wright, Betteridge, & Buckby, 1984;
Ersöz, 2000). Games can reduce anxiety, making English acquisition more likely (Richard-Amato, 1988). Even
shy students can participate positively and without stress (Mei & Yu-jung, 2000).
Case (2008) set out the following major reasons why fun activities should be also introduced to an adult
class. In his opinion, fun activities like games allow adults to gain learning experiences in a more energetic way:
more drilling/controlled practices, better memory, and class spirit, and realize their performance via game points,
a natural way of learning, competition, and motivation. Case emphasized that most students, regardless of their
ages, like games. Based on the aforementioned studies, the author believes that games may link adult learners’
experiences to their past. For some, games allow students to redo what they might have done when they were
young. For some, games may help them recall their good experiences in learning English. For others, games help
them learn in a relaxing and non-threatening environment. Games will allow these adults to naturally learn
English with fun and do repetitive grammar drills without boredom.
More importantly, according to a reliable practical guide for K-12 ESL programs, “Games can be used as a
motivator” (Hudelson et al., 1993, p. 151; Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p. 27). There are a vast variety of games to
reinforce vocabulary and grammar ranging from word searches, jigsaw puzzles, cloze exercises, etc.. As games
are usually viewed and believed to be language learning activities for young children (Lewis & Bedson, 1999;
Toth, 1995; Wright et al., 1984; Lengeling & Malarcher, 1997; Nguyen & Khuat, 2003; Uberman, 1998), their
applications in the adults’ English classroom is thus significant and worth examining. In the present study, the
author thus introduced many games/activities to her classroom.
How and When to Apply Games to ESL Classroom for Adult Learners?
There is no fixed course for games. Even though one game suits one classroom, it is not necessary to match
another classroom. Not all activities work out, but with special adaptation, they may (Hudelson et al., 1993).
Therefore, the use of games has to be extremely cautioned and constantly reviewed. A certain game which works
well with a particular group may not work well with another group. Likewise, a game which once worked well in
a basic level course may not work out well with the same group of students in a higher level course. Apparently,
students’ expectation may differ from one level to another and/or from course to course. For instance, a
“dictation” game may work well when studying basic grammar, because students deemed it a “nice break” or “a
supplement to boring grammar lessons”. In a different course or a course at a higher level, this activity may be
deemed too childish or even silly. Adult learners’ requirements and expectations are usually ongoing and become
more demanding at a higher level. They want to learn something related to their real-life requirements (Crandall,
1979; Burt et al., 2003; Nunan, 1999).
Researchers who favor using games in English classrooms believe that games should not be introduced to
class only, because there is nothing else better to do (Lee, 1979; Rixon, 1981; Uberman, 1998). Rather, games can
become a major part of the class if they are properly and carefully selected. According to Uberman (1998),
“Games also lend themselves well to revision exercises helping learners recall material in a pleasant, entertaining
way” (p. 3). The author calls most of her activities including dictation and publishable essays as games, because
the author brings them into her classroom as a fun part and the winner receives some rewards as a result of their
victory/success.
Good ESL teachers always attempt to find a better way to teach students and make their students’ learning a
lifelong experience. As widely well-known that teaching English to young learners is hard enough, it is even
harder to teach adult learners. Non-native ESL instructors need to apply many strategies to attract their students’
attention while slightly pushing them towards language learning success. The next section suggests the
methodology which is aimed to describe the research design, research question, participants, and data
collection/analysis used in the present study.
Methodology
Research Design/Data Collection/Analysis
In this study, the author acted both as the participatory researcher and the teacher of a grammar course. The
author’s major strategy used in attracting adult learners to go back to school and relearn English in a more
effective manner is to provide activities and games when appropriate and reward students’ achievements. A
two-page questionnaire was distributed at a reunion party of the advanced grammar class. The party took place a
month after the class ended. All participants seemed to be very happy to see each other again after the course was
over. They were asked to complete the questionnaire in either Thai or English as they wished. Four-scale options,
i.e., Like most, Like very much, Like a little, and Dislike were employed. Percentage of each option was then
calculated to find significance of their preference. Open-ended questions for free expression of opinion are also
provided for students’ free articulation. 100% of the participants were willing for further informal discussion.
Research Question
The study addressed five major questions which focused on the role of gaming and rewarding systems
applied in the classroom: (1) Do adult learners like to play games or do fun activities? (2) What game/activity do
adult learners like most? (3) What reward do they prefer? (4) What extra-curricular activity do adult learners like
most? and (5) Can games/activities motivate adult learners to learn English?
Throughout six months of teaching an advanced grammar class, the author found that the game/activity and
rewarding system may work as a good motivator (or, “extrinsic” rewards in Smith’s (1988) term) at the outset.
What is even more important at the later time is student’s self-motivation (or, “intrinsic” value in Smith’s (1988)
term). To be specific, in addition to the class spirit, each student may enjoy the extrinsic rewards at first and
eventually develop the sense of love of study by themselves through the time of their in-class learning (Smith,
1988; Krashen, 1993). Before going into the other details of the participants, an overview of the AEG (Advanced
English Grammar) course is provided.
Nature of AEG Course at TOT (Telephone Organization of Thailand) Academy
The AEG course is a free in-house training course provided to only TOT people who fail in the WSI (Wall
Street Institute) test. At TOT, the entire English Grammar course takes one and a half years. Each level takes 120
hours. AEG students have to enroll in the basic and intermediate courses as essential prerequisites. The class
meets once a week for six hours per day (from 9 to 16 hours) for 20 weeks. The course is provided at the
company’s training center for the purposes of pulling out the students from their routines. Nevertheless, in an
urgent case, students are permitted to go back to work, because the training center is about 15-30 minutes far from
the headquarters.
In this course, AEG started from February 1-June 28, 2011. Macmillan English Grammar in Context:
Advanced (2008) by Michael Vince was used as the main textbook. It is important to note that despite the
one-year experience in ESL grammar classroom, the textbook was still deemed difficult for some of the
participants in the present study in the areas of grammar and vocabulary. Thus, while learning, students may feel
tired or bored; games would then be brought in to cheer or wake them up. The use of games in the author’s
classroom is like what other teachers do. That is, games are played as supplementary activities (Ersöz, 2000) at
the beginning of the class during the class, or at the end. As Nunan (1999) put it, adult learners will learn only
what they want to. Games are then intervened when students feel like playing.
To apply their developing skills outside the classroom in Nunan’s viewpoint, the author encouraged her
students to read outside class. To be specific, instead of simply teaching English grammar, the class was assigned
to read two self-development books outside the classroom and reading-aloud became a morning session for each
class. These books were selected based on the privatization policy of the company. Implicitly, the author’s main
purpose was to have her students learn to read something which was closely related to the changing world,
importance of English, and their adaptation in a meaningful way. In the AEG class, the two reading books were:
Peaks and Valleys (2009) by Spencer Johnson, M. D. and Who Moved My Cheese? (1998) written by the same
author. In the basic and intermediate levels, this group of students was assigned to read the book It’s Not How
Good You Are, It’s How Good You Want To Be (2003) by Paul Arden. Both Spencer’s books were chosen at the
advanced level, because they shared the same theme as Arden’s notions of positive thinking, great creativity, and
strong determination at work and life. The two books, Peaks and Valleys and Who Moved My Cheese?, were
written by the same author. These two books are aimed at helping learners to familiarize themselves with the style
and lexis used by the same author. The content related to life and career improvement makes the students feel like
reading the books, because the content is generally meaningful to them.
Fun activities or games in English grammar classrooms are legion. The activities adapted from many
teaching gurus are used for checking the general progress of the author’s adult students. A brief description of
activities/games frequently used in the author’s classroom is as follows:
(1) English reading-aloud contest. As a rule, for all courses, whether grammar, reading, or writing, the author
assigned her students some readings related to their job and business (details of reading texts assigned to then
author’s students were already discussed above in this section). In addition to reading for content elicitation for
their work, students are also asked to read a short paragraph in a small book every morning of the class. There will
be one weekly winner. The auhor made this activity into a competition and the winner came from the votes made
by all students. Thus, instead of learning to read, the students learned to listen at the same time. In the second round
these finalists have to videotape their reading from home. The files are then sent to an anonymous independent
adjudicator. The winner will be decided by the adjudicator and the votes from classmates. If the judgment of
adjudicator and the votes disagree, all the winners will be rewarded. This game helps students to learn to read
aloud while practicing pronunciation without their noticing. Adult learners also learn that they can read out loud
well, pronounce well, and pause for thought at the right place when they completely understand the text.
(2) Timing grammar test. To review grammar drills in an interesting and enjoyable way, adult learners have
to finish each test on different grammatical rules, e.g., present tense, irregular verb form, passive voice, etc., in a
specified time. The scores they gain will tell them how proficient and fluent they are but in a non-threatening way,
because they feel fun. This activity can be performed both as a team or an individual. For this test, adult learners
usually blame time and/or their slow speed of writing by hand, making the result fun rather than humiliating.
(3) English song contest. The objective of this activity is to promote class spirit and encourage students to
become more outgoing. Yet, this activity must be done with caution especially with shy students by nature. Some
students may feel too embarrassed to come to class, because this activity, on the one hand, really depends on a
person’s characteristics and preference. Culture, personality, and peer pressure, on the other hand, really play a
large part in the success of this activity.
(4) Publishable essays. To teach adult learners to learn how to use their English in real life, it is important to
encourage them to submit their short essays to printing sources, i.e., a leading English-language newspaper. The
topic is “A Panic Bag”. Eighteen students from 30 got their work published. When their essays were posted in a
leading English-language newspaper, the writers were given a big box of chocolate costing around 450 baht (15
dollars). This is a difficult challenge, but the author puts this activity as a game, because those who have their
work published will gain some rewards from the author as the teacher. What was found in the current study was
that this activity was slightly too hard for some students who were not highly proficient in English writing. They
struggled to finish their writing piece in a time frame a great deal.
(5) Dictation. A way to boost up students’ lexicon power is dictation. Many students said that they enjoyed
this game, because they did not want to be in front of the class. Once, in Thai-English translation course, a shy
newcomer knew the value of the word “score”, which was equal to 20. She loves the class and has never wanted
to miss the class ever since. It may sound irrelevant when stating that shy students love this game. Nonetheless, in
informal talk, many students said that dictation games allowed them to think and write. They said that they loved
this game, because they preferred writing games than oral games. This game is fun and can motivate students to
learn more enthusiastically. This game is used in the intermediate grammar course and translation course, not in
the advanced grammar one.
(6) Cloze test. Along the line of teaching adults to learn to use English effectively, reading comprehension
and vocabulary skills have played a significant part. Cloze test helps students to develop the sense of word
definitions in a meaningful context as well as vivid imagination. All cloze tests employed in class usually come
from the grammar book.
(7) Lesson presentation. To make adult learners feel confident of their English proficiency and ability to
learn, adult learners are encouraged to teach two grammar points each, e.g., present tense, direct/indirect speech,
to mention a few. Students have to review the lessons in their responsibility and make two presentations on the
date specified. For this activity, the students act like they are teachers themselves. In addition to offering lessons,
they provide some drills for their peers. Many students have found this activity fruitful. Nevertheless, this activity
should be introduced to the class when students have high language proficiency.
(8) Vocabulary book. To make adult learners take full responsibility for their own learning, they are
encouraged to keep a lexical list. They can keep a record of new and/or unfamiliar words in a notebook or in a
spread sheet and retain it in a binder. The more often they keep the vocabulary words, the more proficient they
become. Those who can keep a great deal of vocabulary will be rewarded when the course ends.
It is worth mentioning here that the activities introduced in the two prerequisite grammar courses—at the
basic and intermediate levels—are different from the ones the author used at the advanced level. To be specific,
during the basic level, the singing contest was used to 91 students. At the intermediate level, the class became
much smaller to 41 and the activities consisted of dictation and speech contest. At the advanced level, three extra
activities were given as follows: reading-aloud contests, timing grammar game, and publishable essays in an
English-language newspaper. As all these game winners are rewarded, all these activities are regarded as games.
To promote class spirit, some more extracurricular activities are also added as shown below:
(1) Free lunch after tests/midterm test/finals. To keep up high class spirit among all students, free lunches
are provided after tests. During lunch, these students have ample opportunity to share ideas and feelings. Talk is a
way to relieve stress brought by tests.
(2) Reunion party. Upon special occasions after the course completion, students organize a reunion party
and invite the teacher to join it. The class spirit is kept this way and extends beyond the classroom to promote
closer cooperation in the workplace. A close rapport among the students in English classroom can be seen
through the substantial telephone calls made among them during the mega flood crisis in Thailand from October
to December 2011.
The subject of any research is deemed unique, essential, and resourceful for further insight. Next, the current
study’s participants are described in detail.
Participant
Questionnaires were completed and returned from 25 students out of the entire 30 (male: 6; female: 24) in
the AEG course provided at TOT Academy, TOT Public Company Limited, formerly Telephone Organization of
Thailand. Their ages were between 38 and 49, with an average of 44 years old. To take this grammar course, the
students had taken a test at WSI and could not pass its requirement to study at WSI. Thus, they were considered to
have low English proficiency. After their failure to enroll in WSI course, they had taken and passed the “Basic
English Grammar” and “Intermediate English Grammar” courses at TOT Academy for a year in total.
Unfortunately, because the number of participants is small and the proportion between male and female students
is not very large (20 : 5), the author does not look into the difference in gender term. Because adult learner
research is rare, this current research needs to be conducted.
Before going into methodology in other dimensions, some facts about TOT employees are worth stating.
Many TOT adult learners have (very) limited time for education. Krashen (1993) pointed out the same
situation even in the US where English was required, few adults spent 100 hours in adult literacy classes; most
dropped out during the first few weeks. Adults learn what they want to learn (Nunan, 1999). Many TOT
employees do not see the importance of learning English or having high English proficiency, because most of
their work does not directly require this competency or direct contact with foreigners. Many adults have low
motivation to learn English, because English proficiency is not one of their KPIs or required competency at work
or brings about any rewards and/or incentives. This is also true for most of TOT employees. Because of the low
frequency of jobs requiring English competency, many adults prefer asking people around to do the job requiring
English competency for them rather than doing it on their own. Their easy excuse is that they are old and do not
need to learn any more. They are afraid of starting to learn English at an old age. They do not want to look stupid.
Yet, the old saying, “No one is too old to learn” is strongly emphasized.
Findings and Discussion

This section will offer answers both quantitatively and qualitatively to the research questions above.
Do Adult Learners Like to Play Games or Do Fun Activities?
Table 1
Do You Like Playing Games in Our English Class? (N = 25)
Answer Percentage (%)
YES 100
NO 0
As shown in Table 1 above, 100% of students tend to favor the games played or activity done in the
classroom. This finding confirmed Case’s (2008) emphasis on games/activities as the favorite part for most
students, regardless of their ages, like games.
What Game/Activity Do Adult Learners Like Most?
Table 2
What Kinds of Games/Activities Do You Like the Most? (N = 25)
Game/activity Most (%) Very much (%) A little (%) Dislike (%)
(1) Reading aloud contest 44 48 8 0
(2) Timing grammar game 56 44 0 0
(3) Publishable essay 32 60 8 0
Table 2 has clearly shown that “Timing grammar game” is the most favorite game among the adult
participants in the present study, with 100% of “most” combined with “very much” responses altogether. It is
good to hear from the students’ own voices about how they truly feel. From the open-ended questions, some
students added:
Games have provided a wide variety of activities. Coupled with knowledge gained in the classroom, games can help
me develop an ability to use the language.
Games help to test learners’ accuracy in grammar. They are much fun. There should always be games like this.
Games help to build up English skills because there are always new words to learn. Reading and speaking games
also help me improve my listening skill at the same time.
Games help me to think faster. Continuously playing games helps me develop my English skills.
Fun, fun, fun! I gained knowledge while learning without my noticing.
Games help me memorize than only reading books.
Games keep my brain alert all the time. It helps me to think faster; thus, it gave me fun. It made feel like learning
English. Sometimes, games help me memorize much better than just reading books. I can memorize the images I think of
when playing games.
English reading contests made me know whether we read it correctly or not. In reading contest, I have learned that
good readers also needed to express their feelings as well. All games are useful in their own way. (personal
communication, August 19, 2011)
These replies have shown that games are useful for adult learners’ learning just like the children’s (Case,
2008).
What Reward Do Adult Learners Prefer?
Table 3
What Reward Do You Prefer? (N = 25)
Reward Most (%) Very much (%) A little (%) Dislike (%)
(1) Chocolate 68 24 8 0
(2) Thai snacks 20 64 12 4
(3) Foreign snacks 40 44 16 0
(4) Eggs 48 32 16 4
(5) Preserved plums 24 40 28 8
(6) Books (grammar guides, dictionary, etc.) 96 4 0 0
Generally, the findings have revealed a very positive attitude toward rewards. There were some exceptions for
Thai snacks (16% for a little and dislike altogether), foreign snacks (16%), eggs (20%), and preserved plums (36%).
Thai snacks may be too familiar and easy to find—too native. The course was provided in Thailand; therefore, Thai
snacks are not that interesting and attractive. Foreign snacks may cost exorbitantly high, and this may have made the
students feel too considerate toward the buyer—their teacher. Eggs and preserved plums offer negative attitudes,
because 50 eggs were given to those who got zero point. According to Nunan (1999) and Crandall (1979), adult
learners will learn successfully in a non-threatening environment and without fear of humiliation.
When the rewards convey a negative sense, then they embarrass or even humiliate learners without the
teacher’s noticing. Based on the teacher’s observation and talks with some students, those who got zero looked
happy and fun in class. In reality, they might have felt deeply embarrassed. Since preserved plums literally mean
“the lowest or the last”. In class, those who got the lowest scores would be given a big jar of preserved plums. The
negative connotations of both rewards may be the best explanation why both eggs and plums received the two
most unfavorable percentages among all the six rewards given.
The best reward tends to be the book. Even though the teacher is very sensitive to students’ nonverbal cues,
the students are mature enough to conceal their real feelings. A written questionnaire is proved to be useful in this
matter as well. Below are data from learners.
Rewards are cute and impressive.

All rewards are good but the teacher has to spend a lot of money on this, which made me feel considerate. Only eggs
are enough. Eggs make me feel full enough.
I like books the most because I can go back and read them at home.
Rewards attract students to learn more enthusiastically. We usually brag about rewards we got. It was much fun.
Books are like gold. Knowledge gained from the book is endless.
I love all rewards, but because the teacher paid for it. I think rewards should not be that expensive. It should be a
little souvenir, or hand-made.
I have never thought of buying books. However, after I was rewarded with a book, I saw its importance. Now, I use
it every day. My rewarded dictionary is worn out right now. (personal communication, August 19, 2011)
The rewards to be given will be discussed in detail in a separate section “What Rewards We ESL/EFL
Teachers Should Give to Students” below.
What Extracurricular Activity Do Adult Learners Like Most?
Table 4
What Extracurricular Activity Do You Like Most? (N = 25)
Activity Most (%) Very much (%) A little (%) Dislike (%)
(1) Lunch after tests 56 36 8 0
(2) Special party 68 20 12 0
Games can effectively bring about class spirit (Case, 2008). This study has also found the same results. Most
of them (92%) love lunches and/or special parties, e.g., reunion party. A very low percentage of “a little like”
partly came from the fact that many lunches and parties were paid by the teacher or the course coordinator.
Culturally, Thais are considerate towards other people’s generosity. Such cultural sense ingrained since young
can best explain the findings. Further, the rewards may not work well with some students. The participants’
comments thereof are shown below.
I want some more special parties. I have never laughed like this for a long time. I love to have lunch together.
When we all have lunch, we keep talking about activities and lessons. Having lunch together made us all classmates
feel closer.
Extra-curricular activities help us learn in a relaxing way. It made our learning more effective. (personal
communication, August 19, 2011)
Can Games/Activities Motivate Adult Learners to Learn English?

At this stage, it may be too soon to conclude that games/activities can effectively stimulate students to learn
English. What can be concluded is that the participants love games/activities, have positive attitude towards
games/activities, and see the importance of games/activities in their English learning. However, it is still unclear
to pinpoint that games/activities can motivate these students to learn further. To exemplify, based on the author’s
observation, students always asked for games/activities when they felt exhausted with grammar drills or when
they felt sleepy. It is definitely worth noting that adult learners have their self-concept of learning English and
they react to each experience as they perceive it, not as the teacher presents it (Nunan, 1999). It is thus quite
impossible for the teacher to force them to play games or do activities if they do not like the activity themselves.
Around 53% (16 out of 30) furthered their English studies by enrolling in Basic and Intermediate
Thai-English Translation at TOT Academy, respectively. Some of the rest took the test at WSI and could pass the
entrance exam. The translation course is quite stressful, because students are required to be well-equipped with
good grammar and word power. At the end of the day, however, students usually ask whether or not they can play
some games or do some activities.
Next, the author will discuss some issues about rewarding systems in ESL/EFL classrooms.
What Rewards ESL/EFL Teachers Should Give to Students
As all ESL teachers may know, many times games or activities do not come alone. As a rule, they are
accompanied by rewards. A sudden question arises, “What kind of rewards should be given to adult learners?”.
Again, the best answer is “It depends”. When the author observed elementary classrooms in the US, they usually
put big jars of pretzels, chocolates, sweets, etc., on the big long table. Students learn to be rewarded and honest at
the same time. As in children’s case, rewards can teach them not only that good deeds are rewarded. Rewards can
also lead to personal pride, class spirit (for teamwork), or even further study. The English language per se entails
its culture (Baker & Phongpaichit, 2005). When introducing games into English classrooms, it is inevitable to
introduce its products such as chocolate in the form of eggs and rabbits for Easter, red and green color products
for Christmas, etc.. In her English class, the author usually provides her adult students with local snacks, foreign
snacks (e.g., some chips), chocolate, books, eggs, and preserved plums. Regarding the way adult learners study
English, there are many factors of what rewards should be. As previously mentioned about features of successful
ESL learners, when deciding to provide activities and rewards, teachers should thus embrace all these factors for
the best selection of rewards.
Even though students are usually excited about rewards, rewards themselves can be both constructive and
destructive. Smith (1988; as cited in Krashen, 1993), argued that extrinsic rewards, e.g., gold starts, cash awards,
or any other incentives, can backfire students to learn to read English. With her own students, the author has
found a similar backwash. If rewards can be easily found in the neighborhood—local snacks, they may not thrill
or motivate the students enough to learn further and harder for the rewards. In some culture, rewards can make
students feel too considerate or even uneasy to the giver—the teacher, especially if the rewards come from the
teacher’s pocket.
Rewards usually convey connotations, whether positive or negative. In an ESL classroom, students are
usually happy when being given some candies, chocolate, etc., which convey happiness, season celebrations, or
joy. This is not necessarily always the case. Truly, intrinsic rewards—the higher proficiency of English—are more
important. The rewards conveying unpleasant feelings may even lead to negative attitude toward English learning.
If teachers do not have high awareness or sensitivity enough, they may overlook the destructive influence of such
rewards on their students. Based on what the author has learned from the present study, for instance, teachers
should not give away rewards which convey the sense of humiliation or failure such as the rewards which bear the
meaning of “a loser”, “zero score”, or “the last” to the student. Of course, on the one hand, such rewards may be
believed to encourage students to work harder and develop their self-motivation. On the other hand, the negative
rewards can put a scar in the students’ mind, leading to their mental hurting. Their apparent reaction may be a
broad grin or a big laugh to share some fun and class spirit or express active participation. Deeply in their mind or
back home, they may feel embarrassed and may silently try to avoid class later.
Too expensive rewards should be also averted, because they may undervalue the teacher’s real pedagogical
capability. It is hurting if the teacher has overheard a rumor that students come to study because of the rewards,
not effective pedagogical practice per se. Books like grammar guide/manual, dictionary, to mention a few, are
appropriate, but their prices are exorbitantly high. “Rewards might serve, in some cases, as a jumpstart” (Krashen,
1993, p. 42); nonetheless, when time passes by and learners start to know how English works, the intrinsic
pleasure will control instead. In other words, what students learn or knowledge they gain from learning is the real
intrinsic motivator which encourages students to continue learning, not extrinsic motivators (Paulsen & Feldman,
1995). Krashen (1993) made a brief remark, “Rewards do not always work” (p. 42). The findings gained from this
study totally concur with this statement of Krashen’s.
What ESL/EFL Teachers Can Conclude

No matter what games/activities are provided to students does not matter as long as those games/activities
help learners understand the language they are exposed to and the meaning they do not understand, and gain the
feedback from what they hear (Lund & Pedersen, 2001, p. 64). Like any other pedagogical approaches, the use of
activities/games incorporates both teaching and learning aspects.
For learning mode, in addition to other essential factors, teachers need to be aware of their adult students’
personality traits, which are identified by Tucker, Hamayan, and Genesee (1976) as a significant factor of good
ESL/EFL learners. Before introducing any games/activities into an adult classroom, the teacher has to observe
the students’ general personality. This may include the national and traditional culture in a particular place. For
shy students, an activity like dictation may be fun. For outgoing ones, reading aloud may be more suitable, for
instance. However, along the English learning pathway, if shy students gradually change their attitude and want
to become more expressive at a later stage of learning, teachers must be aware of and cope with these changes
through their nonverbal cues (Paulsen & Feldman, 1995). Which games/activities and how to apply them into an
ESL adult classroom really depends on the context: students, their attitudes toward games/activities of English
learning, cultural traits, personality traits, so on and so forth.
For teaching mode, the teacher has to be aware of his/her own personality and belief as well. “Teaching is a
highly personal matter” (Galloway, 1970, p. 13). To acquire pedagogical skills, teachers need to analyze their
own teaching behaviors as well. In this case, games/activities may not be something for shy teachers as well. Like
learners, no matter what games/activities the teacher prefers and wants to introduce to his/her classroom does not
matter much as long as students can be engaged in a communicative learning forum, a meaningful content, and
full responsibility for their own learning (Lund & Pedersen, 2001, p. 64). Kim (1995) as well as Hudelson et al.
(1993) noted that whatever game/activity is incorporated in the classroom does not matter much as long as both
the students and the teacher feel comfortable and have fun with it. Even though the present study tends to confirm
these researchers’ notions, learner-based approach must not be disregarded.
The author strongly believes that all ESL teachers try to teach English with our whole heart and to our best.
To encourage our students however old they are to learn, we deploy as many approaches as we can and see
fit—whether in terms of the activities, materials, or medium of instruction. While many pedagogical approaches
are applied and adapted for the best teaching and learning, such approaches must be selected with utmost caution.
Both learner-based and teacher-based viewpoints are always brought into play. Some games/activities may seem
fun at first, but many students may not really enjoy them. Some games/activities may not befit the teacher’s
personality traits, and neither may the rewards motivate the students. While teachers’ belief and knowledge are
important to their teaching, students’ non-verbal communication must not be overlooked either. Dedicative ESL
teachers should be highly sensitive to students’ non-verbal cues in all activities. Even in some cases, non-verbal
cues cannot tell anything negative, an attitude survey must be performed as a follow-up.
Many research studies stated that research with adult learners, especially at work, is really rare. Therefore,
even though the activities or games applied to this classroom may not new to ESL/EFL researchers/teachers/etc.,
the findings are unique, valuable, and significant per se.
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July 2012, Vol. 10, No. 7, 1375-1382
D DAVID PUBLISHING
Thinking on Dialect Translation in LU Xun’s Novels From the

Perspective of Poetics of Chinese Modernity*
CONG Zi-hang
Zhejiang Shuren University, Hangzhou, China
The translation of dialects from the novels is usually translated randomly, simply with the tastes of the translators,
so is the translation of the dialects in LU Xun’s novels. Instead of being confined with the strategies of translation,
studying the significance and the functions of the dialects used by LU Xun, and then to choose the proper
translation strategies and ways can be regarded as the theory guide of dialect translation. In this paper, the author
studies the modern poetics in the dialects of LU Xun’s novels, the characteristics of the dialects in LU Xun’s novels,
and the translation strategies of the dialects in LU Xun’s novels. The purpose is to make the breakthrough in the
aspect of dialect translation.
Keywords: novels by LU Xun, modern poetics, dialect translation, thinking
Introduction
Many a LU Xun’s novels was translated into different languages with a variety of translation editions.
However, research on the translations, especially the translation condition of dialects in his novels is quite limited.
According to incomplete statistics, the existing researches are made by WANG Bao-rong (2007), BAO Ji-ping
(2005), and MENG Wei-gen (2003). There are also some researches coming into the public eye in the form of
treatises, of course most of which are written by some teachers from Zhejiang Universities, such as WU Zi-hui
(2007). This is largely concerned with Shaoxing, the place where LU Xun was born, the proximity in region,
culture, custom, and language enables the research on dialects in LU Xun’s novels to get a certain degree of
vigorous development. Lu Xun’s Cultural Poetics (2006) by WANG gives LU Xun’s poetics a new interpretation
from cultural context in the 1990s, that is, putting LU Xun into new vision of contemporary cultural thinking to
verify the vitality of LU Xun’s poetics. An Introduction to Poetics Structure of Lu Xun’s Novels by CAO (2010)
conducts diversified and layered comb and analysis to poetic structure of LU Xun’s novels, and in this course,
achieves “gap-filling” and interpretation towards diversified and rich cultural aesthetic implication in LU Xun’s
novels. The use of dialects in LU Xun’s novels is no doubt concerned with the author’s living environment, the
language that he is familiar with and so on, and concerned with the characters created, strong humor, and
poignant sarcasm, however, these are only part of the factors. In the author’s opinion, it has more profound
factors internally, that is, his appeal for the modernity of poetics. In that sense, a study on the translation of
*
This subject is “Hangzhou Philosophy and Social Sciences Planning Subject Results” (No. B11YY05).
CONG Zi-hang, professor at Foreign Language College, Zhejiang Shuren University.
1376 THINKING ON DIALECT TRANSLATION IN LU XUN’S NOVELS
dialects in LU Xun’s novels has a great significance. This paper is to deal with from three aspects: the poetics of
modernity of dialects in LU Xun’s novels, dialect characteristics in LU Xun’s novels, and dialect translation
strategies in LU Xun’s novels, so as to break through the research on dialect translation in more levels.
The Poetics of Modernity in LU Xun’s Works

If we say a penetrating topic at the end of the 20th century was the conflict between globalization and
localization, then, the topic at the beginning of the 20th century was the conflict between nationalism and
cosmopolitanism. The scholars including LU Xun spoke no words without talking about Freud and Borges.
Although some of them had solid old Chinese learning foundation, however, the spirit building to prop up their
literature concept was world literature spirit in the new age. As WANG (2006) said, “A Brief History of Chinese
Fiction is enough to prove LU Xun’s deep understanding of traditional culture, however, such understanding
itself just became a drive for him to resist and go beyond this tradition” (p. 6).
In traditional Chinese culture, “士 (scholar)” is always at the center of social structure. “士 (scholar)”’s
political criticism or social criticism is always inseparable from reconstructing new political order and cultural
order. As YU (1997) said:
However, from general social psychology, “scholars” are “the people who learn and are reasonable”; the moral and
intellectual training (of course with Confucian classics as the core) they receive make them the only eligible people
govern the country and lead the society. (p. 164)
When LU Xun held the dream of “curing the country with medicine”, actually he was in fact held double
dreams of “curing body” and “changing thoughts”. Until the early years of abandoning medicine for literature
afterwards, he (1981a) still believed that literature could change the national spirit: “The first and foremost thing
is to change their spirit, and what could change the spirit, I believed at that time it of course would be literature
and art. So I wanted to advocate literature and art campaign” (p. 416).
Even as great and profound as LU Xun, he himself had such simple and naïve thoughts as ordinary people by
trying to use “empathy” function of literature and art to wake insensitive, ignorant, and weak Chinese people, and
infusing “ideal human nature” into their minds; it is going to be “casting pearls before swine”. CAO (2010)
commented: “In some sense, the sense of wholeness in such role is just the internal cause to make LU Xun link up
the causal relationship between ‘diagnosing’ and ‘curing’ too close” (p. 68). LU (1981b) also described such
tangle himself:
… We basically can diagnose the diseases of our fellow countrymen, yet there are two difficulties in curing them:
first, don’t know what medicine should be prescribed; second, their teeth clenched too tightly. Smearing vinegar on their
cheeks can open clenched teeth, or by having them destroyed with hawkbill, yet medicine is difficult to be prescribed. (p.
345)
The success of the October Revolution by the Soviet Union no doubt lightened the hope of LU Xun in the
darkness, the empathy function of literature began to rise again in LU Xun’s heart, even not in the vortex center of
the revolution, and not assuming the responsibility as a “curer”, undertaking the duty as “a diagnoser” was
nevertheless inevitable and obligatory. Exposing the disadvantages of the old society, shouting, encouraging, and
enlightening through unremitting efforts for the purpose of awakening the consciousness of the Chinese people
became a career direction pursued by LU Xun.
THINKING ON DIALECT TRANSLATION IN LU XUN’S NOVELS 1377
As for “how to write” and “to whom it is written”, CAO (2010) believed from the viewpoint of rhetorics that
LU Xun set two types of readers for his works, namely, “intellectual readers” and “ordinary readers”. The former
had matching level with implied author, and they were in the same camp, without any obstacles in
communication, while the latter had “gap” with implied author in the level of understanding, and the “dark” side
inside implied author was of course the world not acceptable by them, so “threshold” needed to be set. Anyway,
LU Xun’s works bore such social value connotations as shouting, encouraging, enlightening, and exploring
national character, the purpose was to transfer temperament and reform society, the target group was readers, and
the purpose of reforming society could be achieved only by “reforming” the readers. LU Xun’s works fully and
profoundly show his poetics of modernity, which is also the reason why his works are concerned by people for
such a long time. To sum up, there are two aspects: One is trimming the distance with ordinary readers and
changing their temperament. “For the public, striving to be simple and easy to understand is just the correct effort
for progressive artists” (LU, 1981c, p. 24). The other is the resistance to the writings in classical style.
LU Xun employed a lot of dialects in his works, which was of course concerned with the region he lived in
and the language he was familiar with; for the readers, especially the general readers, they can taste a sense of
humor and kindness from it. From the perspective of poetics of modernity in his works, let us discuss and analyze
in depth the use of dialects in his works.
LU Xun and Dialect

As for art characteristics of LU Xun’s writings, people have already classified and summarized from all
aspects: imagery narration, line-drawing technique, humorous style, irony skill, symbolism, etc.. Of course, all of
those belong to specific operation level, i.e., the level of “skill”. However, the connotation reflected in them is
unique in LU Xun, especially his use of dialects, the sharpness, kindness, humor, and local flavor in those dialects
let the readers feel an authentic LU Xun. It is no doubt that literature activity is a kind of thing with the most
individual character, and also a thing that can neither make oneself a model of others nor make others a model of
oneself in this world. While LU Xun is a model writer with the most individual character, “He is a peak made of
the blending of ancient and modern Chinese and Western culture, yet he is not authentic successor of any school
of culture heritages in ancient and modern Chinese and Western culture; he is what he is” (WANG, 2006, p. 135).
Many Chinese and foreign writers will use dialects in their novel writing; the purpose is nothing more than
vividly depicting the characters and achieving humor effect, etc.. The British writer Dickens is a typical case in this
respect. The dialects in some Chinese writers’ (such as JIA Ping’ao and SHEN Cong-wen) works give the readers
unique local flavor with strong personalized features. When reviewing the use of dialects in LU Xun’s works on the
basis of understanding of his poetic appeal of modernity, the author is afraid that it cannot be so simple as only to
portray the characters and achieve humorous effect. In the author’s opinion, there are the following factors.
Strong Sense of Responsibility to Arouse the Chinese People’s Crisis Awareness
Abandoning medicine for literature is an important turning point in the course of LU Xun’s movement of
thought; he turned from externally caring individual survival state to individual inner state of mind, and from
natural science in the world to mental state of the nation. LU Xun said in his letter to XU Guang-ping on April 8,
1925: “I can still do something to attack against these root causes of disease, and don’t want to let go, however,
even it works, I’m afraid it’ll be too late for me to witness it” (LU, 1981d, p. 40). From “curer” to “diagnoser”
and from caring “result” to thinking “process”, although LU Xun hesitated about which way to go during this
period, he was still full of hope: “With the cultivation by the spirit, flesh and blood of many soldiers, China has
indeed grown out some happy flowers and fruits which previously did not exist, with the hope of gradual growth”
(1981e, p. 410). He (1981f) had a definite positioning for his own role when he saw the Russian writer Chekhov
assumed multiple roles as artist, revolutionist, and general public educator, that is, literature “must be ‘for life’,
and must improve this life” (p. 512). For example, one of national deep-rooted bad habits is “spectator attitude
看客心态”, which is a huge “heritage” given by the Chinese culture to the Chinese people, one of the most
common attitudes held by the Chinese, and also one of the most important issues in LU Xun’s national character
criticism. “看客心态” has great harm to the nation, society, and individuals; for this, LU Xun once took great pains
to depict the image of spectators (“看客”). From saw/seen pattern further developed to eaten/eat pattern, it reflects
the people’s spiritual sterility: no idea, no belief, no moral principle, no ethics, and no value judgment. Therefore,
LU Xun is soberly aware of China’s top priority—changing unwisdom and cowardice in national spirit.
Transition From Classical Chinese to Modern Language
Traditional Chinese novels have two established modes, that is, classical Chinese and modern vernacular
Chinese—the novels in classical Chinese are usually short stories, such as literary sketches, while the novels in
modern vernacular Chinese are often long stories, mainly chapter book. For traditional literati long immersed in
classical Chinese, it is not an easy thing for them to switch to modern vernacular Chinese writing, thus appeared
the phenomenon of “translating eight-part essay into modern vernacular Chinese”. However, vernacular Chinese
at that time was not entirely satisfactory words; its “extremely straightforward and extremely dry” did not apply
to literature (FU, 1917, p. 223). In view of the above, FU (1917) put forward the solution of Europeanization:
Namely, directly use western language’s style, method, morphology, sentence structure, art of composition, figure of
speech… all rhetorical skills to create a kind of Chinese beyond the existing Chinese, a Europeanized Chinese, and thus
achieve a Europeanized Chinese literature. (p. 223)
Such thought of full westernization has its historical factors. As merely language concerned, according to
WANG’s (2011, p. 216) analysis, there are two very important concepts behind “Europeanization”: Firstly,
Chinese language—even vernacular Chinese—has serious defect and must rely on words and grammar in
Western language for supplement; secondly, the relationship between language and thought. Precise thoughts
need to be expressed with precise language. LU (1981g) was not satisfied with vernacular Chinese too, and he
said such words:
Chinese characters or words, are far from precision. The secret of composition is to avoid words already learned and
delete empty words, this is what a good article lies in, when speaking, one’s word does not express his idea, this is
because the words are not enough, so teacher must use chalk when teaching students. (p. 382)
In this case, translation plays a special role. At that time, Chinese words were very poor; all adjectives, verbs,
or prepositions that described exquisite and complicated relationship were almost none. Importing new
techniques of expression could help create many new words, new sentence structures, rich vocabularies, and
exquisite, precise, and correct expressions, thus reforming Chinese language and creating new modern Chinese.
LU (1981g) also held the same view: “importing as much as possible on the one hand, and digesting and
absorbing as much as possible on the other hand, those that can be used pass on, and let the useless leave in the
past” (p. 383). He (1981h, p. 520) also pointed out that, vernacular Chinese in the 1930s was much more precise
than those in the May 4th Movement period. It is the result of importing Europeanized grammar.
Of course, the aforesaid are words after. Under the times background of transiting from classical Chinese to
vernacular Chinese to modern language, LU Xun’s authoring language is different from his translation language.
From the point of writing content, an important resource came from daily life; he sought creation inspiration from
the stage of China’s old drama and “paper flowers observed by the children” in daily life. And correspondingly,
the language used in daily life expressed them. He did so and also said so. No wonder, the dialects in LU Xun’s
works become a highlight in his artistic creation, and are praised highly by the readers.
The Influence of Regional Culture and Family
Chinese traditional culture has been continuously merging with regional culture in the process of its
development, while regional culture mirroring traditional culture with its unique way, therefore, traditional culture
in different regions has different ways of expression and has different function and influence on the individuals
involved in it. To understand the dialects in LU Xun’s works, one should have some knowledge about the region,
society, and family where he lived in. Shaoxing has a long history and profound cultural tradition, which:
Provides important conditions for constant localization of mainstream culture, traditional cultural values, way of
thinking and behavioral pattern have constantly exchanged with local culture and eventually led to the unification,
continuously forming cultural traditions that are completely unique to this region, thus exerting direct impact on the
individuals. (LI, 2006, p. 8)
Unique geographical environment creates colorful folk culture, especially three women with whom he lived
shaped the way he spoke. First of all, his mother is a “country woman”. That is to say, she was lacking in both
material life environment and cultural education level. As for his mother later married into the ZHOU family,
being able to read literary works through self-study, that is another story. The second woman is LU Xun’s
grandmother. The grandmother plays a role as intermediary and bridge in the life of LU Xun’s childhood. Her
kindness, humor, the aesthetic view, and the way of thinking represented in her way of telling a story laid a
foundation in the formation of his aesthetic ideal later, during which, the use of dialects naturally has indelible
mark. The third woman is his nanny. In LU Xun’s childhood, the nanny Achang had no blood relationship with
him yet they built close affection with each other. Achang gave the little boy sincere care, and spiritually her
impact on LU Xun even exceeded his grandmother and mother. Achang’s comedy character in her tragic fate no
doubt let LU Xun’s childhood full of playfulness and joy, and Achang’s unique way of story-telling such as
describing taboos and folklores, adapting original story, and rendering terror atmosphere allowed him into a
world different from “happy” stories told by his grandmother; at the same time, as we can imagine, vivid and
lively dialects further enriched his vocabularies.
The Creation Technique of the Novels
LU Xun’s writing style can always give the readers strong reading pleasure; dialect plays an important role
in it. Dialect as a narrative means can help shape character images and endow the characters with more distinct
personalities; meanwhile, it also can show strong sense of humor and pungent irony and by this means to reflect
social life and express the author’s thoughts and feelings. In the face of heavy and absurd history, LU Xun did not
choose Sisyphean stirring and self-abusive attitude of life, but adopted Taoist unfettered and humorous way of
life. LU Xun’s humor is not just superficial farcicality and witticism, but a thorough marrow of stabbing pain and
sharpness. WANG (2006) summarized it into three features: The first is unique care system; the second is unique
language system; the third is unique thinking system (pp. 92-95). When looking at Western self-awareness type
reflective thinking, LU Xun became aware of the truth of “out of three realms and not in five elements” from
Taoism, accomplishing great transformation from philosophical concept to way of cognition. As a result, the
transformation from thinking system to language system became a thing happened without extra effort, forming
exclusive literary existence in the 20th century of Chinese literature history. LU Xun’s language belongs “neither
political language, nor academic language” (WANG, 2006, p. 94). In the final analysis, it is a rare individual
language phenomenon, penetrating into all aspects of culture composition in a way that is more difficult to
observe or describe than thought influence.
Thinking on the Translation of Dialects in LU Xun’s Works

As for thinking on the translation of dialects in LU Xun’s works, we unavoidably think of the fact that LU
Xun himself had translated a lot of other people’s works, especially his hard translation theory that stirred up a
debate in literature translation circle. The reason why LU Xun took “literal translation”, or even “jerky
translation” as a translation method “would never change until death”; there are many factors behind it. First of
all, Chinese language’s weakness was too far from being precise; words were not enough for use. The translators
could not adopt free translation approximate to explanation; therefore, they could do nothing but “surrender”, and
the readers could bite the bullet to read it through. Secondly, “hard translation” helps to improve and create new
language. Starting from the late QING dynasty, people were willing to learn from the West for a prosperous and
strong China, from “playing off one power against another” to “Chinese learning for the essence and Western
learning for practical use” and to “fully westernization”, in which translation played an important role. However,
LU Xun and QU Qiu-bai further endowed translation with another special function, that is, helping reform
Chinese language. In concrete translation technique, LU Xun’s attitude was very clear; he did not advocate
“cutting nasal and gouging out the eyes”, so for some points, he (1981i) “would rather remain awkward
translation” (p. 353). Regardless of the translation claim of LU Xun is correct or not, at least one thing is clear:
Translation never should be regarded as an individual behavior, and also, a translator’s behaviors including
selection of materials and translation strategies are also affected by various factors like time and that place.
The situation in English-Chinese translation is alike, the same is true for Chinese-English translation. In the
translation of dialects and special vocabularies, the translator on the one hand makes every effort to convey its
interests to the readers, while at the same time is entangled with using what kind of technique that it can be fully
appreciated by the readers. Some scholars believe that from skopos theory a translator should adopt
corresponding translation strategy according to different translation purpose. Neutralization strategy should be
employed when translating special vocabularies of ethnic minorities, that is, using transliteration, free translation,
and literal translation, and interpreting translation and transference simultaneously (YANG & ZHOU, 2011).
Some scholars put forward that the present situation in the translation of northwest dialects in contemporary
Chinese novels is not very good. Although some excellent novels have the English translations, however, the
translation treatment for northwest dialects is not satisfactory. The northwest dialects are often translated by
adopting standard English interpretation, ignoring dialect’s characteristics and literal translation of dialect
vocabularies, borrowing English idioms and slang, etc.. The problem is these methods do not fully reproduce art
effects of northwest dialects (YANG & ZHOU, 2011). Although the researcher referred to conduct in-depth
exploration of English translation of dialects in conclusion, because good English translation helped depict
character images, endow the works with strong local color, and reflect many art effects such as humor, sarcasm,
irony, etc., yet he did not mention the countermeasures for the translation. Other scholars found that the
American new journals usually adopt transliteration or literal translation when translating special Chinese
culture-loaded words, or sometimes even ignore its acceptability in English, creating a lot of Chinese style
English vocabularies (GU, 2005). In the researcher’s opinion, there are three reasons as for why the translation
strategies and methods used by American news and journals are inconsistent with the current translation theory:
first, the positioning of target readers which means caring more towards Chinese readers who know English
language well; second, aiming to satisfy the curiosity of Western readers to remote and mysterious “oriental
country with an ancient civilization”; third, demonizing and uglifying China (GU, 2005).
It is easy to see from the above study on Chinese culture-loaded words that the translator’s guiding ideology
largely determines translation strategies and methods he/she will employ. Back to the translation of dialects in
LU Xun’s works, one thing the translator should sort out first of all is that the use of dialects in LU Xun’s works
should not just be regarded as an artistic characteristic, but should be taken as his writing ontology together with
agrestic novels for study purpose. Secondly, dialects as a carrier are just the reflection of a modern intellectual’s
thoughts and feelings full of contradictions in specific literary form. Besides LU Xun, FEI Ming and SHEN
Cong-wen were also contemporaries and the authors of agrestic novels; however, the themes that each of them
tried to represent were different. Some scholars analyzed:
The theme in LU Xun’s agrestic novels has such connotation of “being caught up in the conflict between new culture
camp and old one, wandering and hesitating which way to go while holding the weapon”; such crisis consciousness for
national culture cannot be understood by ordinary people; it bears a May 4th Movement pioneer’s loneliness and sadness.
(DING, 2009, p. 404)
That declined, withered and backward countryside found and written by LU Xun and so-called “local realism”
writers influenced by him quietly retreated in FEI Ming’s works, old country showed vitality and stunning fantasy, full of
eternal life rhythm and romantic charm of heaven-man unity. (DING, 2009, p. 388)
SHEN Cong-wen is one of the writers greatly influenced by FEI Ming; the themes of his local novels are
converse, “penetrating a kind of ‘lyric poetry of countryside’ atmosphere, with a slight loneliness and sadness, as
if everything coming into contact with has a kind of ‘compassion’ feeling” (SHEN, 1984, p. 89). However, even
so, DING still analyzes the difference between SHEN Cong-wen and FEI Ming both of whom are non-realistic
novel writers full of lyrical taste.
The works of the former are permeated with unorthodox rustic charm, “counter-culture” that does not fit traditional
ethics, the reoccurrence of “counter-civilization”, while the works of the latter are mostly filled with traditional
Confucian’s free and easy situation after returning back to countryside, coincident with traditional Taoism and Buddhism
thought, basically the feedback and refraction of “culture” and “civilization”. (DING, 2009, p. 408)
In conclusion, although both of them are figures in the May 4th Movement period and also local novel
writers, the themes reflected in the works will be entirely different due to their different poetics of modernity,
aesthetic values, personal and cultural values, and personalities. The carrier of local novel—dialect, of course
should be translated by employing different strategies and methods according to different themes. The
deliberation about the translation strategies for dialects in LU Xun’s works in other articles.
Conclusions
A novel will have different translations due to different translators; this is particularly true for dialect
translation of local novel. This paper tries to jump out of the fencing of translation strategies through combing
different dialect translation studies so as to think the translation of dialects in LU Xun’s novels from a broader
view, that is, trying to lay a theoretical foundation for translation strategies and methods from three aspects of
poetics of modernity of dialects, dialect characteristics, and translation strategies for dialects in LU Xun’s novels.
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Cognitive-Based Methodology of English Phrasal Verbs

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Cognitive-Based Methodology of English Phrasal Verbs

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Aims and Scope:

Editorial Board Members:

David Publishing Company

David Publishing Company

Cognitive-Based Methodology of English Phrasal Verbs 1297

Chikako Takahashi, Akemi Matsuya

On the Relationship Between Multiple Intelligences and Grammatical and Writing

Accuracy of Iranian Learners of English 1306

Abbas Ali Zarei, Fatemeh Mohseni

A Context-Structure Analysis of Yorùbá Proverbs in Discourse 1318

Rahim Kajogbola Ọmọlọ̀ṣọ́

Idiom Identification in L2 Reading by Greek Learners of English 1330

Unifying Role of Malay Language in a Multilingual Nation: A Case of Malaysia 1349

Emeka Cyprian Onwubiko

Teaching Theory & Practice

Teaching Adult Learners English Through a Variety of Activities: Perception on

Games and Rewards 1355

Thinking on Dialect Translation in LU Xun’s Novels From the Perspective of Poetics

of Chinese Modernity 1375

Cognitive-Based Methodology of English Phrasal Verbs

Chikako Takahashi Akemi Matsuya

Keywords: cognitive linguistics, English phrasal verbs, second language acquisition

consistent from the control group to the experimental group.

Conclusions and Limitation

Appendix 1: Moving Pictures of Particles

The sun came out.

Would you please put off the light?

Appendix 2: Pretest and Posttest

1. Let’s start today’s meeting. Has everyone s yet?

7. I’ll make tea. Could you f the kettle with water?

On the Relationship Between Multiple Intelligences and

Abbas Ali Zarei Fatemeh Mohseni

Keywords: MIs (multiple intelligences), grammatical accuracy, writing accuracy

Musical intelligence: The ability to compose or perceive music well.

Results and Discussion

A Context-Structure Analysis of Yorùbá Proverbs in Discourse

Rahim Kajogbola Ọmọlọ̀ṣọ́

Keywords: context-structure, Yorùbá, analysis, proverbs, discourse

Rahim Kajogbola Ọmọlọ̀ṣọ́, Ph.D. at Department of Languages, Al-Hikmah University.

Review of Some Related Works

CSA (Context-Structure Analysis)

Figure 1. The concentric structure of Yorùbá proverbs in discourse.

Example (7) Tótó ó śe bí òwe o.

Yorùbá Proverbs and Their Pragmatic Acts

Àwọn Òśìṣiẹ́: B’ó bá ti yá, ó yá náà nùnun. Kí ni eégún ń śe tí ò lè fàárọ̀ jó?

Declarative Proverbs Used as Interrogatives

Serial Proverbs Expressed by a Sequence of Sentences

Summary, Findings and Conclusions

Idiom Identification in L2 Reading by Greek Learners of English

Keywords: L2 (second language) idiom identification, noticing, L2 vocabulary acquisition

Misidentification as a Problem for L2 Idiom Research

Design of the Study

Percent of Success in Unknown Idiom Identification

Figure 1. Overall success in the Idiom Identification Task.

Discussion and Conclusions

Unifying Role of Malay Language in a Multilingual Nation:

Emeka Cyprian Onwubiko

Keywords: language policy, multilingual, unity, identity, Malay, culture

historical research could be christened as the omniscience of research method.

Language Policies in Malaysia

Language and Identity

Language Misrepresentation and Effects