1AMT Juanatas

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH DISEASES

TISSUES
Histology- study of tissues
can be classified:
 Epithelial
 Connective
 Muscle Goblet Cells- produce mucus, present in the
 Nervous respiratory tract

Epithelial Tissues Transitional Epithelial Tissue- is stratified but its

 Cover and line all body tissues (organs, shape is difficult to determine
vessels, ducts)  Is designed to stretch, lining the urinary
 Named by 1st: shape of the cell, 2nd: amount bladder
of layering of the cell
SIMPLE CUBOIDAL
Shapes of Cells  Function: secretion and absorption
1. Squamous- flat and thin  Salivary glands
2. Cuboidal- cube-shaped  Mammary glands
3. Columnar- tall column-shaped  Lung bronchioles
 Kidneys
 Basement Membrane separates tissues
from other tissues

Layering of Tissues
1. Simple Tissue- single layer
2. Stratified Tissue- stacked layers
3. Pseudostratified Tissue- false layering, all cells
have contact with basement membrane

SIMPLE SQUAMOUS
 Function: rapid diffusion or transport of
materials, secretion of lubricating serous
fluid
 Inside the lungs
 Blood vessels
 Outside of the stomach and intestines

SIMPLE COLUMNAR
 Function: absorption and secretion, mucus
from Goblet cells prevent destruction of
stomach lining from acidic gastric juice
 Uterus
 Uterine tubes
 Inside of the stomach and intestines
PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR
 Function: mucus traps dust in air and
foreign materials, cilia sweep mucus and
trapped material towards the throat to be
coughed, swallowed, or spat out
 Bronchi
 Nasal Cavity
 Trachea
STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS KERATINIZED
 Function: protection against abrasion and
pathogenic invasion; retards water loss
through skin
 Skin

STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL
 Function: secretion (glands, ovarian
hormones, sperm) and protection
STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS  Salivary glands
 Function: protection against abrasion and  Sweat glands
pathogenic invasion  Ovaries
 Anus/Vagina
 Mouth
 Esophagus
 Cornea
* lumen(lumia)- central space in an artery or vein
through which blood flows
STRATIFIED COLUMNAR
 Function: protection; limited secretion
 Ducts of mammary glands
 Ducts of esophagus glands
 Male urethra
TRANSITIONAL
 Allows urinary organs to stretch when filled
with urine; protection against caustic urine
 Ureter
 Bladder
 Urethra
Connective Tissues
 All have cells and fibers in a matrix
(background substance)
 Can be determined by density of the matrix
and type of cells and fibers
1. LOOSE/AREOLAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 Function: Loosely binds membranous
epithelial tissue to deeper tissues, contains
blood vessels to provide nutrients and
oxygen to avascular epithelial tissue;
support
 Has loose arrangement of fibers in a matrix
with a thick fluid consistency
 Middle layer of the skin (dermis)
 Between the layers of the mesenteries
 Skin
 Muscle
 Internal Organ
 Blood Vessels
* Epithelial layers contain no blood vessels
(avascular), so they must receive nourishment via
diffusion of substances from the underlying
connective tissue, through the basement
membrane
 3. DENSE IRREGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 Function: provides strength and resists
stretching in all directions
 Has interwoven pattern
 Weave of its fibers is much denser than that
of loose/areolar connective tissue
 Dermis
 Bones
 Outer coverings of body tubes
 Capsule around organs
 very little open space (matrix) present

2. DENSE REGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE

 Function: Can withstand strong pulling
forces in the direction of the collagen
bundles; tightly binds bone to bone
(ligaments) and muscle to bone (tendons)
 Ligaments
 Tendons
 Has most dense bundles of collagen
(protein) fibers that run parallel to each
other
 Fiber making cells (fibroblast) interspersed
between fibers
 The cells in this tissue are immobile, this 4. ADIPOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
arrangement gives strength and resistance  Function: energy storage, reduces heat loss,
to pulling forces for the tendons and protective cushioning for organs, insulation
ligaments of this tissue for breast organs and greater omentum
 Bone marrow
 Around the heart and kidneys
 Subcutaneous layer (hypodermis) beneath
skin
 Composed of lipid-storing fat cells
 They are active cells that convert
carbohydrates to fats
  Ends of long bones
 Larynx
 Nose
 Bronchi
 Cartilage between ribs and sternum

5. BLOOD CONNECTIVE TISSUE

 Function: Red blood cells transport gases
(oxygen and carbon dioxide); white blood
cells protect the body from infections and
are involved in allergic reactions; platelets
help to clot blood; plasma transports
nutrients, wastes and other substances
throughout the body
 Composed of RBC, WBC, and Platelets in a
very fluid matrix called plasma
 Within blood vessels
 Within the heart

*Lacuna- refers to the small cavity in the

substance of the bone containing an osteocyte

 Elastic Cartilage Connective Tissue

 Has elastic fibers running in all
directions; these fibers allow this
cartilage to snap back to shape if bent
6. CARTILAGE CONNECTIVE TISSUE  Ear
 Have cells surrounded by a very durable gel-  Epiglottis
like matrix
 Hyaline Cartilage Connective Tissue
 Function: Provides a smooth surface at
joints that minimizes friction and
absorbs shock at joints, keeps airway
open, provides rigidity and flexibility in
nose and ribs
 has very smooth and glassy appearance;
fine collagen fibers
  Fibrocartilage Connective Tissue
 Has dense bundles of collagen fibers
running in the same direction
 Allow to function as a shock absorber
 Disks between the vertebrae
 Meniscus of the knee
 Strongest Cartilage

8. RETICULAR TISSUE
 Function: Forms a supporting structural
framework; white blood cells remove old
red blood cells in spleen and microbes in
7. BONE CONNECTIVE TISSUE lymph nodes
 Function: provide great strength  Lymph nodes
and support for the body; site of  Bone marrow
attachment of muscles; protect  Spleen
organs (e.g. skull protects brain);
stores calcium.
 Hard, calcified bone matrix
arranged in concentric rings
(lamellae) around central
(haversian) canals that contain
blood vessels; osteocytes reside in
lacunae and connect to each other
via tiny channels called canaliculi
 Collagen fibers in the matrix allow a
little bit of flex so the bone is not
brittle
Muscular Tissues 2. SMOOTH MUSCLE TISSUE
 Composed of cells with high concentration  Function: movement of food
of proteins (which allow muscle cells to (gastrointestinal tract), blood (blood
contract) vessel), air (bronchioles) and urine (ureter,
bladder and urethra), allows vessels to
1. SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE change diameter
 Function: move the body; maintain  Structure: small, squamous-shaped cell;
posture; generate heat (e.g. shivering) non-striated; single centrally located
 Structure: large, long, cylindrical cells; nucleus; adjacent cells can be connected
appear striated (dark/light bands); via gap junctions
multinucleated with nuclei located at edge  Location: in the wall of hollow organs (e.g.
of cell; no junctions between cells stomach, intestines) and tubes (e.g. blood
 Location: mostly attached to bones via vessels, trachea)
tendons  Nervous Control: under involuntary
 Nervous Control: under voluntary (subconscious) control
(conscious) control  Capacity for Regeneration: considerable as
 Capacity for Regeneration: limited; any cells can divide
regeneration occurs via differentiation of  Trachea
satellite cells into new skeletal muscle cells  Blood vessels
 All skeletal muscles  Stomach
 Intestines
 Nervous Tissue
3. CARDIAC MUSCLE TISSUE
 Used for communication through electrical
 Function: pump heart, which propels blood and chemical signals
around the body
 Composed of nerve cells called neurons;
 Structure: short, branched cells; appear and support cells called neuroglia that
striated; single centrally located nucleus; protect and assist neurons in their functions
adjacent cells are connected via
intercalated discs which contain gap
junctions and desmosomes (is a cell
structure specialized for cell-to-cell
adhesion)
 Location: Heart
 Nervous Control: under involuntary
(subconscious) control
 Capacity for Regeneration: None; any
repair is done via scar (dense, irregular)
tissue
 Specialized junctions between cells allow  Function: Frontal lobe- voluntary motor
fast transmission of electrical impulses functions, aggression, smell, and mood;
Parietal lobe- receives and evaluates
sensory information; Temporal lobe-
receives and evaluates input for smell and
hearing and plays and important role in
memory, thought, and judgement; Occipital
lobe- receives and integrates visual
information
Modes of Tissue Growth, Change, Shrinkage, and
Death
Tissue Growth
1. Hypertrophy- tissues grow because the existing
individual cells grow bigger (not by increasing the
number of muscle cells, but by enlarging existing
cells) ex. Body building
2. Hyperplasia- tissues grow because more cells
are produced, ex. Growth during childhood
3. Neoplasia- uncontrolled growth and
proliferation of cells of abnormal or nonfunctional
tissue
- This kind of growth results in neoplasm
(tumor); tumors compete with healthy tissue for
nutrients causing angiogenesis (blood vessel
growth) to feed the tumor cells; tumors can be:
1. Malignant- cancerous because cells
break off and travel to other parts of
the body and reproduce abnormal
cells; this migration is called
metastasis
2. Benign- tend to be encapsulated,
remain local, and are noncancerous
-can be deadly, they
compete for space that healthy
tissues normally occupy, ex. Brain
tumor
Cancer are results of mutations. Can stem from
mistakes made in DNA replication, environmental
factors called carcinogens (ex. Radiation from uv
rays, chemicals like nitrite in bacon, viruses like
HPV) that affect the DNA. The mutations may turn
on oncogens (genes that code for uncontrolled
cellular growth stimulating mitosis or the receptors
for the growth factors)
*the mutations can also damage tumor suppressor
genes (which inhibit oncogens)
Cancers are named for their tissue of origin:
 Carcinomas- originate in epithelial tissues
 Sarcomas- connective tissue or muscle
 Lymphomas- lymphoid tissue
 Leukemias- originate in blood-forming
tissues in the red bone marrow
Tissue Change (Differentiation)
*tissue type is not absolute
 Metaplasia- change of a tissue from one
type to another
 Example: normal development of the lining
of the vagina. From simple cuboidal
epithelial tissue to stratified squamous
epithelial tissue (more durable lining,
better adapted for sexual intercourse and
childbirth)
 Example: bronchi of a heavy smoker. From
ciliated pseudostratified columnar
epithelium to stratified squamous
epithelium (the loss of cilia reduces the
lining’s capacity to remove debris normally)
Tissue Shrinkage and Death
 Atrophy- shrinkage of tissue due to
decrease in cell size or number, could be
caused by aging or lack of use. Normal
appearance and function can be achieved
through exercise
 Necrosis- premature death of tissue caused
by disease, infection, toxins or trauma. Ex.
Gangrene- resulting from insufficient blood
supply often associated with an infection.
 Infarction- sudden death of tissue which
results from a loss of blood supply. Ex.
Myocardial Infarction- due to a blocked
coronary artery
 Apoptosis- programmed cell death,
removes cells that have fulfilled their
function and are no longer needed. Ex.
Developing fetus- fingers and toes are
originally webbed but cells of the webbing
die by apoptosis. The cells that die through
apoptosis are consumed by macrophages
(large, infection-eating cells)
ADDITIONAL NOTES FROM LECTURE:
*Anatomical Lab- deals tissues and organs
*Clinical Lab- deals with fluids
*Complete Blood Count (CBC) Testing- RBC, WBC,
Differential WBC, Hemoglobin, Hematocrit (HCT)
*Tubules- are always cuboidal
*Blood Vessels are in the connective tissue
*Young cells are underneath
*There are more cells in the epithelium
*There is more extracellular matrix in the to differentiate into more-specialized cells that
connective tissues become layered across the developing embryo
*Glands (Glandular Epithelium) are classified into:
Merocrine Glands- no part of the cell is lost with
the secretion (ex. Salivary glands)
Apocrine- the top of the cell is lost with the
secretion (ex. Mammary glands)
Holocrine- the whole cell detaches with the
secretion (ex. Sebaceous glands)

*Parts of the Basal Membrane

*Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)- transporting

oxygen from the lungs to all of the body tissues
* White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)- protects the
body against both infectious disease and foreign
invaders

*Germ layer, any of three primary cell layers,

formed in the earliest stages of embryonic
development.
Embryonic Tissues:
1. Ectoderm (outer)- skin and nervous system
2. Mesoderm (middle)- muscle, bone, blood
Neutrophils- make up the majority of the total
vessels
white blood cells, mainly target bacteria and
3.Endoderm (inner)- digestive tract lining
fungus
*The germ layers form during the process of
Eosinophils- target larger parasites, such as worms,
gastrulation, when the hollow ball of cells
and modulate allergic inflammatory responses
that constitutes the blastula begins
Monocytes- are the largest type of white cell
Lymphocytes- work the front lines to identify and
destroy foreign invaders

*Cell Junctions
Tight junctions- block the flow of fluids between
epithelial cells
Desmosomes- form links between cells, and
provide a connection between intermediate
filaments of the cell cytoskeletons of adjacent cells.
This structure gives strength to tissues
Gap Junctions- the need for signaling is a function
of gap junctions that form pores connecting
adjacent cells. Small molecules and electrical
signals in one cell can pass through the gap
junctions to adjacent cells. This process allows
tissues to coordinate responses to stimuli
Hemidesmosomes- are very small stud-like
structures found in keratinocytes of the epidermis
of skin that attach to the extracellular matrix