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Materials Science and Engineering C 28 (2008) 1057 – 1064

www.elsevier.com/locate/msec

Electroactive carbon nanotube actuators: Soft-lithographic

fabrication and electro-chemical modelling
Alberto Mazzoldi a , Mario Tesconi a , Alessandro Tognetti a , Walter Rocchia b , Giovanni Vozzi a,⁎,
Giovanni Pioggia a , Arti Ahluwalia a , Danilo De Rossi a
a
Interdepartmental Research Center “E. Piaggio”, Faculty Of Engineering, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
b
NEST, IIT and Scuola Normale Superiore of Pisa, Piazza dei Cavalieri, 7, I-56126, Pisa, Italy

Received 19 October 2006; received in revised form 12 March 2007; accepted 16 April 2007
Available online 21 April 2007
The authors dedicate this paper to the memory of Alberto Mazzoldi

Abstract

Carbon nanotube (NT) actuators were fabricated using the micromolding method. In order to prevent the nanotubes from aggregating, they
were enclosed in a partially cross-linked polyvinylalcohol–polyallylamine matrix. A unimorph matrix bender in the form of a small multi-layered
strip, 5 mm × 15 mm was fabricated. The resulting composite system: NT/PVA, solid polymer electrolyte and metal contact, was characterised
using impedance analysis and cyclic voltammetry. Initial measurements on electro-mechanical transduction show a conversion efficiency of
0.2 μm/mV. An electrochemical model of the impedance of the system was then developed, with which the experimental results agree fairly well.
© 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Carbon nanotubes; Soft-Lithography; Electro-chemical modelling; Bender; Cyclic voltammetry

1. Introduction their mechanical properties have been made by many groups

Carbon nanotubes exhibit electronic properties that range
from metallic to semiconductive, and their integration into
nanoscale electronic devices is the subject of several studies
directed at finding potential uses for this interesting material.
The main limitation in the realisation of micro and nano struc-
tures with nanotubes is the difficulty of obtaining a perfect
emulsion of NT.
Previous studies [1–4] have concluded that it may be
necessary to increase the concentration of carbon nanotubes in a
carbon nanotube bucky paper to increase the electromechanical
response. In order to enhance the mechanical properties, we
have tried to embed nanotubes in a PVA (polyvinyl alcohol) gel
matrix. Ideally, the gel should act as an inert matrix and should
not substantially alter the electrical properties of NT. Similar
considerations on NT bucky papers and attempts to improve
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: g.vozzi@ing.unipi.it (G. Vozzi).
0928-4931/$ - see front matter © 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.msec.2007.04.032
[5].
PVA gels have been used in our group for a wide range of
applications varying from thermo-expansive pseudo-muscular
actuators to orthodontic implants [6,7]. Their biocompatibility
together with the fact that both the elastic properties as well as
the porosity of the gels can be easily modulated through thermal
or chemical cross-linkage, make them excellent candidates for
many applications. In this case, we choose PVA for its hydro-
philicity and because of its potential role in acting as a steric
stabiliser for NT mixtures. In principle, nanotubes can be cov-
ered with an adsorbed layer of polymer to prevent their
cohesion. Moreover, PVA avoids the bridging flocculation and
depletion aggregation as observed during the preparation of
pigment suspensions for paper making [8,9]. PVA–carbon
nanotubes have also been utilised in several applications such as
actuating [10] and sensing [11].
In this paper we present a microactuator based on the phys-
ical and electrical properties of a mixture of carbon nanotube
(NT), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and polyallylamine (PAA).
1058 A. Mazzoldi et al. / Materials Science and Engineering C 28 (2008) 1057–1064
The NT/PVA mixture was analysed in order to optimise its
flow properties for processing through microfabrication.
Fabrication methods which involve extruding the NT solution,
such as the pressure assisted microsyringe (PAM) [12] are un-
suitable because NTs tend to form a suspension, and the particles
aggregate in regions of low shear-stress and form clogs.
Actuators were therefore fabricated using micromolding
[13], a variation of Soft-lithography [14]. Micromolding, a
technique developed by our group in conjunction with UCSD,
was considered the most suitable for NTs as it employs inert
molds which can be filled with any type of solution.
The prototype bender realised is a four-layer actuator
(unimorph bender) made up of two layers of a conductive paint,
an active nanotube–PVA–PAA layer, and a layer of solid state
electrolyte (SPE). The physical mechanism underlying the
bending process is the nanotube longitudinal strain induced by
the charging process. As the double layer around the nanotubes
builds up, they undergo a strain which is proportional to the charge
facing their accessible surface; in contrast, no deformation is
induced in the embedding PVA matrix. The resulting mechanical
unbalance causes the observed bending process [15]. The dis-
placement of the bender was measured using an isotonic position
transducer, and its electro-chemical behaviour modelled in a
lumped parameter scheme.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Preparation of PVA/PAA and carbon nanotubes suspension
The polymer mixture was obtained by adding 0.8 ml of a
10% aqueous solution of PVA (Sigma, Italy) to 0.2 ml of a 10%
aqueous solution of PAA (Fluka, Italy). We then added to this
mixture a variable concentration in weight of 1 ml of single
walled carbon nanotubes (2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6.6%) in
dimethylacetamide (DMA) (Sigma, Italy). The blends were
sonicated for 3–4 min and then heated up to 80 °C for different
amounts of time (10 to 240 mins) allowing an increasingly
higher degree of crosslinking of the hydrogel matrix. The solid
polymer electrolyte (SPE) used was prepared by dissolving 12%
(v/v) polyacrylonitrile (Sigma, Italy) in 38% ethylencarbonate/
38% propylenecarbonate/12% sodiumperchlorate (all v/v,
Sigma, Italy) solution, thermostated at 100 °C, and stirring
continuously for 1 h to avoid the formation of clumps. When the
solution is perfectly homogenous, the excess of solvent can be
evaporated off.
2.2. Characterisation of the matrix
Solution viscosity is an important parameter for microfabri-
cation through molding, and depends on the degree of cross
linking of the matrix as well as the concentration of NT. A highly
viscous solution is difficult to apply and spread whereas a
solution with low viscosity produces thin unmanageable films
usually with insufficient actuating properties. The gels were
thermally cross-linked by heating them to 70 °C for various time
intervals (10 to 240 min), until a constant resistance was ob-
tained. Matrix characterisation was performed by depositing a
1 μl drop of the blend on an alumina substrate with gold
electrodes 3 mm long and 300 μm apart. Although the 6.6%
mixture had the highest conductivity, it was much too viscous to
be used. The 5% blend had a fairly low resistance of 5.6 kΩ, and
was chosen as the optimum blend. The impedance of the blend
was measured with an impedance meter (Agilent, USA), and the
response was interpreted according to a model where PVA has a
purely resistive behaviour whereas NT has the behaviour of a
lossy capacitor.
2.3. Micromolding
The micromolding technique [13] allows solutions of
viscous polymers, such as polylactic acid (PLLA), poly-
caprolactone (PCL), polylactic–Co–glycolide (PLGA), and
mixtures of PVA to be microfabricated in desired patterns. The
main advantage of micromolding is the possibility to construct
three-dimensional structures. This technique is derived from
Soft-Lithography and it requires an elastomeric mold, which
can be obtained from a photolithographic master.
The photolithographic master was obtained using standard
techniques [13], with a simple mask to produce rectangular
structures of 1 mm height, 5 mm width and 10 mm length.
Subsequently, a PDMS solution was poured onto the master and
baked in oven at 60 °C for 4 h. The silicone stamp is a perfect
negative copy of the master (Fig. 1) and can be easily detached
from it using a pair of tweezers.
2.4. Fabrication of the bender
The microactuator realised was composed of:
• A conductive paint layer, acting as electrode through which
the voltage difference is applied to the active layer;
• A carbon nanotube–PVA–PAA active layer;
• A solid polymer electrolyte layer;
• A conductive paint layer, acting as second electrode.
The planar dimensions of the bender are the same as the
columns of the master.
To obtain the bender, first a fixed volume (300 μl) of the
solution of NT–PVA–PAA was cast on the PDMS mold,
ensuring that the solution filled the rectangular template. It was
then heated up to 70 °C for 90 min, to cross link the polymer. On
the active layer realised in that way, a thin SPE layer of known
weight (43 mg) was cast, heating the stamp up to melt the SPE
so that it could fill the mold evenly.
After cooling of the stamp the bender obtained was peeled
off, as shown in Fig. 1, and the conductive paint layer, colloidal
silver (RS, Italy), was carefully applied on both sides with a fine
brush.
2.5. Impedance measurements
In general the electrical properties of a device or a network can
be determined by impedance measurements. Impedance is a pa-
rameter that provides important cues in order to understand
 A. Mazzoldi et al. / Materials Science and Engineering C 28 (2008) 1057–1064
Fig. 1. Silicone stamp and actuator realised.
physical and chemical processes in electrochemical transduction.
It is the measure of the opposition of the device to the flow of an
alternating current at a given frequency and it is represented by a
complex quantity. It can be expressed using the rectangular-
coordinate form or the polar form as a magnitude and a phase
angle. It can be also represented by a series and parallel
combination of real and imaginary components within an
equivalent circuit model. Impedance estimation is a widely
studied problem and several methods exist in literature. In
particular, as regards the accuracy, an auto balancing bridge
measurement technique tailored to avoid the influence of parasitic
currents was adopted. The high precision impedance meter
(Agilent, USA) was calibrated with dedicated fixturing and
cabling. A small platform with 2 copper electrical contact plates
about 3 mm wide was constructed to mount the actuator. One side
of the actuator was gently squeezed between the plates using a
screw, and this setup was used to perform both impedance and
bending measurements. To provide input parameters to the model,
the impedance of a micromolded layer of SPE was also measured.
2.6. Bending measurements
The displacement of the electrically stimulated actuator was
measured an optical sensor (Opto NCDT, model ILD1400-10,
UK), having a nominal resolution of 1 μm. A small laser spot
(0.7 mm × 0.5 mm) is reflected off a mirrored surface – in this
case the silver painted actuator – and detected by a photodiode
array. Displacements were calibrated reflective surfaces.
Preliminary measurements were performed on a unimorph
actuator with one electro-active layer. The actuator was stimulated
with a square wave voltage of different frequencies and
1059
amplitudes and its deformation was detected using the optical
sensor. The applied voltage was buffered before application to the
nanotube actuator to protect against any possible short circuits.
The voltage was applied across two electrodes and the mea-
surements were made using steps of less than 500 mV.
2.7. Characterisation under controlled humidity
Since PVA is highly hygroscopic, the quantity of water in the
matrix, and hence ion mobility in the actuator, depends on
ambient humidity. It was thus considered important to char-
acterise the behaviour of the actuator system as a function of
humidity.
The actuator assembly was placed in a box and held at two
different levels of humidity (47% and 83%) while measuring the
output current in response to a 500 mV voltage step.
2.8. Cyclic voltammetry
In order to investigate the charge–discharge mechanism, the
mechanical behaviour of the actuator was evaluated using cyclic
voltammetry. Our aim was to measure the current flowing into
an electrochemical cell where the actuator acts as working
electrode in response to the application of voltage waveforms.
Generally, a potentiostat is used to superimpose triangular-wave
voltages to the electrochemical cell. When the electrode po-
tential equals the oxidation or reduction potential of one the
ionic species in solution, a current proportional to the concen-
tration of the species is produced.
The actuator was immersed in an electrolyte bath of 10− 2 M
sodium benzenesulfonate (Sigma Co., USA) in a mixture of
1060 A. Mazzoldi et al. / Materials Science and Engineering C 28 (2008) 1057–1064
acetonitrile (J.T. Baker BV, The Netherlands) (95% in volume)
and de-ionized distilled water (5% in volume). The upper ex-
tremity of the actuator was mechanically fixed by a clamp with a
gold contact electrode. A potentiostat (EG and G Princeton
Applied Research model 273, USA) provided voltage wave-
forms between a Pt counter-electrode and the actuator working
electrode; Ag/AgCl was used as reference electrode. 0.25 Hz
triangular waves with different amplitudes of up to 1 V were
applied. The switching potentials of the triangular waveform
were stepped in 0.1 V increments. Data was collected on a
digital plotter (HP, USA, model 7090A).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Impedance measurements of SPE
In order to derive a model of the bender, the impedance of the
SPE layer was measured and the response is illustrated in Fig. 2a.
The modulus of the impedance is very high at low frequencies
and tends to decrease at higher frequencies. An equivalent circuit
able to model the impedance trend of SPE layer is shown in
Fig. 2b. A least squares fitting of the experimental values
allowed single discrete components to be evaluated, and the
fitted data are also plotted in Fig. 2a. The element values for the
approximate equivalent model for the solid polymer electrolyte
were: RSPE = 10 kΩ, CSPE = 6 μF, Rc = 10 Ω, Cc = 40 μF.
Fig. 2. (a) Corresponding equivalent circuit of SPE, (b) phase and modulus of
measured and theoretical frequency response of the SPE.
3.2. Electro-chemical model of bender
The physical system we are dealing with is basically composed
of two well distinct phases: the Solid Poly-Electrolyte (SPE) and
the Carbon Nanotubes embedded in a PVA–PAA matrix. It can be
thought as a bilayer located between two electrodes, so we can
position a monodimensional set of cartesian coordinates orthog-
onally to the layers in such a way that the origin is at the SPE/NT
interface. We are interested in modeling the electrochemical
behavior of this system in its linear response regime. The voltage
amplitude range where the response is linear was identified by
simply looking at how the response scales when a saw teeth
voltage of variable amplitude is applied to the sample.
In order to model the NT–PVA module, we used the diffusive-
elastic-metal assumption [16], in which the polymer is treated as a
three-dimensional electrochemical capacitor charged and dis-
charged via the diffusion of ions through the adjacent electrolyte.
We therefore ignore the visco-elasticity of the SPEand gel.
Under these assumptions, the electronic current is in
principle able to instantaneously compensate for the ionic cur-
rent that is entering the module so that the voltage drop inside
the module itself is negligible. Diffusion is the major driving
force for ions, thus the rate of charging is limited by the rate of
ionic diffusion into the matrix. The rate of charging also deter-
mines the bending behaviour of the system. In this context, the
phenomena that have to be modelled are the behaviour at the
interface and the diffusion inside the SPE and the NT–PVA
layers. Nanotube charging and strain is considered essentially
instantaneous [17].
We consider a scenario in which a constant voltage is applied
between two electrodes; ions within the electrolyte are dragged by
electrophoretic forces. The charges concentrate at SPE/electrode
and SPE/NT interfaces. Since the electronic resistance is much
lower that the ionic resistance, as the ions approach the latter
interface, the NT surface charges electronically, preventing the
electric field from penetrating inside. We call the capacitance
involved in this charging process Cδ and it characterizes the
boundary between a medium where ionic flux is given by the
electrical drift and a medium in which it is given by a gradient in
concentration.
We shall call a and b the thickness of the SPE and the NT–PVA
layers, respectively; moreover, let w and p be the dimensions in
the two other directions. We assume w,p ≫ a,b.
Rc is the contact resistance, the capacitance Cδ represents the
double layer of charges at the NT–SPE interface, I is the Faraday
constant, zi and ci are valence and concentration of the i-th charge
carrier. The overall current can be modelled as the sum of two
contributions; one is diffusive in nature, due to the concentration
gradient of charge carriers, which we call iD. The other is actually
a displacement current iC, due to the capacitive charging of the
double layer at the solution boundary with the polymeric matrix.
The current charges up the double layer, which is simulta-
neously discharged by the diffusion of ion/electronic carrier pairs
into the polymer.
In this model, schematised in Fig. 3a, we assume that no
Faradic reaction takes place between the SPE and the NT–PVA
layers.
 A. Mazzoldi et al. / Materials Science and Engineering C 28 (2008) 1057–1064 1061

is obtained by solving the diffusion equation (i.e.second Fick's

law) with suitable initial and boundary conditions. In particular,
we solved Fick's second law over the interval [0,b] with null
initial concentration profile. As boundary condition in x = 0, we
took a generic time varying concentration μ(t)Θ(t), where Θ(t)
is the Heaviside step function. Moreover, we considered null
flux at x = b.
Then, applying the separation of variables method [16] in the
Laplace domain, we obtained:
" pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi #
2X l
sin kn x
Ci ð x; sÞ ¼ Mi ðsÞ 1  s pffiffiffiffiffi ð6Þ
b n¼0 kn ðs þ kn Di Þ

where Mi(s) is the Laplace transform of μi (t)Θ(t) and λn = [((n + 1 /

2)π) / b]2. Relationship (6) provides the concentration profile for
the i-th charge carrier throughout the sample induced by a
concentration variation, namely μi(t)Θ(t), at one of its boundaries.
Fig. 3. (a) Equivalent circuit of composite bender represented as the SPE in Consequently, the concentration spatial derivative is:
series with Cδ the double layer capacitance at the PES, NT–PVA–PAA
ACi 2X l
j
interface, and ZNT the impedance of the NT-–VA–PAA layer, (b) Impedance 1
response of the experimental system and model. ð x; sÞ x¼0þ iMi ðsÞs ð7Þ
Ax : b n¼0 ðs þ kn Di Þ
Other assumptions made in this model are that:
Now we can solve for the impedance of the NT region,
1) the main phenomenon causing polymer/matrix elongation is obtaining:
the nanotube strain due to the inserted ions at their surface; VNT IC =sCd 1
2) the mentioned strain is directly proportional to injected ZNT ¼ ¼ ¼ ð8Þ
IC þ ID IC þ ID sCd ð1 þ ID =IC Þ
charge [1];
3) both positive and negative ions contribute to the current that where
penetrates the NT–PVA mixture. In a first approximation the  
two diffusive coefficients have been assumed to be equal P P
l
zj Dj Mj ðsÞ 2b 1
despite different ion dimensions since pore diameters in the j ðsþkn Dj Þ
ID =IC ¼  P n¼0
ð9Þ
i zi M i ðsÞ
PVA and SPE matricies are known to be large. d

Given these assumptions we can write that the total current Now, the concentrations of different charge carriers at the
i(t) is the sum of diffusion and displacement contributions: sample surface, and, therefore the Mi(s), are not independent,
but we can suppose that they are subjected to the Boltzmann
i ðt Þ ¼ i C ðt Þ þ i D ðt Þ ð1Þ distribution and so we can suppose that they are equal. With the
further assumption that diffusion coefficients for anions and
The double layer charging current is:
cations are equal, we obtain that:
X Aci
iC ðt Þ ¼ IAd z
i i At
ð x; t Þ j x¼0 þ ð2Þ
ZNT ¼ 
1
 ð10Þ
P
l
where δ is the thickness of the double layer. sCd 1  2D
bd
1
ðsþkn DÞ
n¼0
The diffusion current at the electrolyte/NT interface is given
by Fick's law: and so the total impedance is:
X Aci
iD ðt Þ ¼ IA zD
i i i Ax
ð x; t Þ x¼0þ j ð3Þ
ZTOT ¼ Rc þ
1
þ
RSPE
sCc 1 þ sRSPE CSPE
Switching to the Laplace domain, we have: 1
þ   ð11Þ
P
l
I ðsÞ ¼ IC ðsÞ þ ID ðsÞ ð4Þ sCd 1  bd
2D 1
ðsþkn DÞ
n¼0
The voltage tension across the SPE is:
Making use of the expansion
RSPE I ðsÞ
VSPE ðsÞ ¼ ð5Þ
1 þ sRSPE CSPE
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
tan h s=4q X
l
1
The equation relating each concentration gradient at the pffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 2
ð12Þ
4 qs 0 s þ p ð2n þ 1Þ q
2
interface to the rate of change in concentration inside the matrix
1062 A. Mazzoldi et al. / Materials Science and Engineering C 28 (2008) 1057–1064

Eq. (11) becomes:

1 RSPE
ZTOT ¼ Rc þ þ
sCc sRSPE CSPE
1
þ  qffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffi ð13Þ
sb2
sCd 1  sdD2 tanh D

With (13) we can note that the electrical response of the

system is characterised by a number of time constants:

1) τSPE =RSPE CSPE is the response time of the SPE; (so τSPE =0.06 s
or 60 s);
2) τD = b2 / D is the diffusion time in the NT–PVA–PAA matrix;
3) τRC = (RC + RSPE) Cδ is the double layer charging time;
4) τC = δ2 / D is the double layer diffusion discharging time,
where at times less than τC diffusion currents are negligible.
Since RC ≪ RSPE, we can also write τRC = RSPECδ, and hence
τRC = τSPECδ / CSPE therefore the double layer charging time
depends mainly on the electrical characteristics of the solid
polymer electrolyte.
We can assume that bending will only take place if τRC is
greater than the characteristic diffusion time since the bending
mechanism is based on the displacement of charge form the SPE
matrix through the PVA matrix to the double layer of the
nanotube surface.
An experimental measurement fitting procedure based on
non linear weighted least squares was used to determine the
following time constant values:
sD ¼ 280μ s;
sRC ¼ 2:3s;
sC ¼ 250μ s:
The measured impedance and modelled response are plotted
in Fig. 3b. The experimental modulus is in good agreement with
model, whilst the phase response is less accurate.
In the model, τRC is much greater than the “competing”
diffusive times, and therefore the NT matrix is uniformly
charged upon the application of a potential difference. This
charging causes nanotube elongation and consequent bending
Fig. 5. Composite bender response to a successive changes in applied voltage.
The bender is held at 500 mV for 7 min, followed by 7 mins at 0 mV, then the
polarity is reversed (− 500 mV) for a further 7 min, then returned to 0 mV.
of the actuator. According to the model, characteristic bending
times should be of the order of 2 s. In actual fact, the times are
much higher as shown from the bending measurements – about
100 s – and this is due to the fact that the model does not
account for the viscoelastic properties of the composite system,
particularly the SPE.
3.3. Bending measurements
Two series of experiments were performed to characterise
the bending behaviour of the NT–PVA–PAA actuator:
• A step voltage of 500 mV, applied for 6 min. This was long
enough to ensure that the actuator attained saturation,
assuming that the SPE loading times were fairly long. A
typical result is shown in Fig. 4, in which the deformation
about 150 μm. The deformation is held even after the applied
voltage is reduced to zero. This behaviour was attributed to
the diffusion of ions within the matrix that of the electro-
active layer. Using the equations for radial deformation [18]
we estimated a maximum strain of about 0.2%, comparable
to the strain reported in [1].
• The second series of experiments was performed using
positive and negative voltage steps but with an interval of
7 min at zero voltage in between. Fig. 5 shows the
relationship between measured deformation and applied
voltage. In the first 2 min, the actuator is held at 0 V. Then a
voltage of 0.5 V is applied for 7 min, followed by 7 mins at
0 V. The polarity is then reversed for a further 7 min, then
returned to 0 V. The first step leads to a deformation of about
100 μm, and the actuator keeps on bending in the same
direction even after the voltage stimulation is removed.
When finally the actuator is held to ground, it does not go
back to its initial position but to the position that it reached
after the application of the first step voltage. This reflects the
fact that the equilibrium was not reached.

The bending measurements were all performed at room

temperature (T = 27.4 °C) and at a humidity of 47%. On aver-
Fig. 4. Composite bender response to a step charge (500 mV) in voltage. age, the electromechanical conversion efficiency was around
 A. Mazzoldi et al. / Materials Science and Engineering C 28 (2008) 1057–1064 1063

0.2–0.3 μm/mV which is the same order of magnitude the wet

nanotube actuator reported by Baughman et al. [1].

3.4. Characterisation under controlled humidity

The current response to step voltage changes during different

conditions of humidity is shown in Fig. 6a–d.
The actuator current response was much faster at 83%
(Fig. 6d) than at 47% (Fig. 6b), indicating that the presence of
water in the PVA matrix improves ionic diffusion. PVA is a
hydrophilic polymer able to attract humidity which increases
the ionic exchange between the electroactive NT and SPE
layers, thus improving actuation properties.

3.5. Cyclic voltammetry

In Fig. 7 the applied potential waveforms and the relating

cyclic voltammograms of the composite bender are shown. It
can be underlined that up to about 500 mV, the current-potential
responses are approximately linear, suggesting a capacitive
charge–discharge mechanism, with some losses. Applying
higher potentials the response tends to be non-linear, probably
due to faradic effects at contact electrodes. According to Barisci
et al. [19] carbon nanotubes exhibit quantum chemical effects at
low voltages. Below 500 mV, we can assume that electronic
current instantly compensates for the ionic current in the NT–
PVA–PAA matrix, so that the voltage drop within the electro-

Fig. 7. Cyclic voltammetry measurements on the bender as a function of

increasing potential.

active element is negligible. The NT–PVA–PAA system can be

considered as a single entity and the quantity of charge is
limited only by the number of ions, which diffuse across the
interface through the SPE. In this case, the expansion of the
system is due to the inflow of ions in the matrix, and the
measured strain is directly proportional to the quantity of charge
entering through the interface.

4. Conclusions

Fig. 6. Composite bender response to a step charge (500 mV) in voltage (a) at We have demonstrated that it is possible to fabricate
47% (b) and 83% humidity. nanotube based microactuators using a gel/NT composite.
1064 A. Mazzoldi et al. / Materials Science and Engineering C 28 (2008) 1057–1064
The use of a gel matrix embedded with carbon nanotubes
allows us to obtain suspensions with an optimal viscosity such
that they can be processed with the micromolding technique.
Using this method, a composite bender composed of an actuating
layer and a solid polymer electrolyte, was fabricated and char-
acterised using impedance, cyclic voltammetry and through
bending behaviour. An electrochemical model of the bender was
proposed and it shows reasonable agreement with the experi-
mental impedance data. Several aspects of the model and bender
prototype still need refinement. In particular the correlation be-
tween electrochemical response and viscoelastic behaviour of the
system was not addressed in the model. The composition of the
actuator could also be optimised to increase the electromechanical
response; this aspect is currently under investigation.
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