Gender Inequality

Introduction

After the World War II, in the post modernization era, one of the issues which had
attracted the attention of the policy makers and social scientists was gender issues and
concerns. Gender issues mean the discussion on both men and women, though
women who suffer from gender inequality. From all gender issues, gender inequality
is the most prevalent in India. Consideration of gender inequality is now common in
Government, Non-Government organizations, and in the politics in India. The policy
makers are strongly believed that a positive commitment to gender equality and
equity will strengthen every area of action to reduce poverty because women can
bring new energy and new sights. A lot of debates are going on women and their
development since last few decades. Thus, several national and international
organizations are trying to promote the advancement of women & their full
participation in developmental process & trying to eliminate all forms of inequality
against women. The importance of feminism has been steadily growing and gaining
intellectual legitimacy.

Gender Inequality

This problem is simply known as gender biasness, which in simple term means the
gender stratification or making difference a male or a female. According to the United
Nations Development Program‟s Human Development Report (2013), India ranks
132 out of 187 countries on the gender inequality index- lower than Pakistan (123).
The report states that all countries in South Asia, with the exception of Afghanistan,
were a better place for women than India, with Sri Lanka (75) topping them all.
Types of Gender Inequality: - According to Nobel Laureate Prof. Amartya Sen
(2001), there are seven types of gender inequalities at present in India. Here is a
brief explanation of all the types of gender inequality.

1) Mortality Inequality:- In this, Inequality between women and men directly

involves matters of life and death, and takes the brutal form of unusually
high mortality rates for women and a consequent preponderance of men in
the total population, as opposed to the preponderance of women found in
societies with little or no gender bias in health care and nutrition.
2) Natality Inequality: - In this kind of inequality a preference is given to boys
over girls. It is ardent in many of the male dominated societies and these
manifests in the form of parents wanting their newborn to be a boy rather
 than a girl. With the availability of modern techniques to determine the
gender of foetus, sex selective abortions has become common in India.
3) Employment Inequality: - In terms of employment as well as promotion at
work women often face greater handicap than men. This is clearly
exemplified as men getting priorities in getting better work opportunities and
pay scale than their female counterparts.
4) Ownership Inequality: - In many societies ownership of property can also
be very unequal. Since ages the traditional property rights have favored men
in the most parts of India. The absence of claims to property can not only
reduce the voice of women, but also make it harder for women to enter and
flourish in commercial, economic and even some social activities.
5) Special Opportunity Inequality: - Even when there is little difference in
basic facilities including schooling, the opportunities of higher education
may be far fewer for young women than young men. Indeed, gender
biasness in higher education and professional training can be observed in
India.
6) Basic-Facility Inequality: - Even when demographic characteristics do not
show much or any anti-female bias, there are other ways in which women
can have less than a square deal.
7) Household inequality: - There are often enough, basic inequalities in
gender relations within the family or the household, which can take many
different forms. Even in cases in which there are no overt signs of anti-
female bias in, say, survival or son-preference or education, or even in
promotion to higher executive positions, the family arrangements can be
quite unequal in terms of sharing the burden of housework and child care.

HISTORY OF GENDER INEQUALITY

If we highlight ancient India, an Indian woman was in the position of high esteem
and was pronounced by the word of maata (mother) or Devi (goddess) in the Vedas
and Upanishads. Same as Manu Smriti, woman was considered as a precious being
and in the early Vedic age, girls were looked after with care. Then practice of
polygamy deteriorated the position of woman and in the medieval period, the
practices of purdha system, dowry system, and sati system came into being. But
with the passage of time, the status of woman was lowered.

After the development of science and technology, female feticides is being

practiced by large number of people .This has also led to a drop in the female ratio.
The Indian census 2011 state wise shows that Kerala represent the highest sex ratio
with 1084 females per 1000 males while Haryana represents the lowest sex ratio
 with just 877 women per 1000 males. Then the dowry became popular and it was
the starting period of female infanticide practices in few areas.

In India, a sex-selection phenomenon has been in place since the 1980s, with men
born during this period now at marriageable age. Then the urbanization since the
1990s where a lot of families and men have moved to cities to look for work.
People are much wealthier but at the same time there‟s pressure to produce sons as
an heir, so educated, wealthy families are now more likely to have sex selection.
These entire factors are coming to play and creating this toxic mixture, which has
turned violence against women into a bigger issue today.

The origin of the gender inequality has been always the male dominance. At least
in India, a woman still needs the anchor of a husband and a family. Their
dominating nature has led women to walk with their head down. It was all
practiced from the beginning and is followed till date. In the case of a woman‟s
reservation in parliament, the opposing parties believe that women are born to do
household tasks and manage children and family.

In many parts of India, women are viewed as an economic and financial liability
despite contribution in several was to our society, economy and by their families.
The crime against women is increasing day by day. Domestic Violence, Rape,
Sexual harassment, molestation, eve- teasing, forced prostitution, sexual-
exploitation, at work places are a common affair today. So, it‟s an alarming issue
for our country.

The major reasons for the gender inequality are identified as the need of a male
heir for the family, huge dowry, continuous physical and financial support to girl
child, poverty, domestic – violence, farming as major job for poor and the caste
system.

FACTORS BEHIND GROWING GENDER INEQUALITY

There are so many factors which are fully responsible for gender inequality in
India. These factors are as follows:-

ECONOMIC FACTORS
➢ Labor participation: - There is wage inequality between man and woman
in India. A substantial number of women enter the labor market after thirties,
 generally after completion of their reproductive roles of child bearing and
rearing.
➢ Access to credit: - There are large disparities between men and women in
terms of access to banking services. Women often lack collateral for bank
loans due to low levels of property ownership and micro-credit schemes
have come under scrutiny for coercive lending practices.
➢ Occupational inequality: - Women are not allowed to have combat roles in
military services. Permanent commission could not be granted to female
officers because they have neither been trained for command nor have been
given the responsibility in India.
➢ Property Rights: - Although women have equal rights under the law to own
property and receive equal inheritance rights, yet in practice, women are at a
disadvantage. The Hindu Succession Act of 2005 provides equal inheritance
rights to ancestral and jointly owned property, the law is weakly enforced.
➢ Women’s inequality in proper inheritance:-Women are insignificantly
deprived of their proper inheritance culturally and religiously as well. The
religious constitution doesn‟t give women equal inheritance; there is a
segregation of giving the property to women as they will not be given the
property as men can have. Though Islamic constitution permits women
having at least half of the property as man, society is reluctant to give the
desired property to women let alone giving the equal share.

Employment inequality: - Some common inequalities that take place in the

workplace are the gender-based imbalances of individuals in power and command
over the management of the organization. Women are not able to move up into
higher paid positions quickly as compared to men. Some organizations have more
inequality than others, and the extent to which it occurs can differ greatly. In the
workplace the men usually hold the higher positions and the women often hold
lower paid positions such as secretaries.

SOCIAL FACTORS
➢ Education: - The female literacy rate in India is lower than the male literacy
rate. According to census of India 2011, literacy rate of female is 65.46%
compared to males which are 82.14%.
➢ Health:- On health issue, the gender inequality between women‟s and
 men‟s life expectancy and women live compared to men in good health
because of lots of violence, disease, or other relevant factors.
➢ Patriarchal Society: - Most of India has strong patriarchal custom, where
men hold authority over female family members and inherit property & title.
It is the custom where inheritance passes from father to son, women move in
with the husband & his family upon marriage & marriages include a bride
price or dowry.
➢ Dowry: - The dowry system in India contributes to gender inequalities by
influencing the perception that girls are a burden on families. Such belief
limits the resources invested by parents in their girls and limit her bargaining
power within the family.
➢ Gender-based violence: - Gender-based violence such as rape, sexual
assault, insult to modesty, kidnapping, abduction, cruelty by intimate partner
or relatives, importation or trafficking of girls, persecution for dowry,
indecency and all other crimes are practiced on women. These crimes show
the high degree of inequality in India.
➢ Women’s inequality in decision making: In India, Women have less
authority than men to legal recognition and protection, as well as lower
access to public knowledge and information, and less decision-making
power both within and outside the home. This is also one of the reasons for
inequality in gender.

CULTURAL FACTORS

➢ Old age support from sons: - A key factor driving gender inequality is the
preference for sons, as they are deemed more useful than girls. They are
supposed to support the old age security of their parents.
➢ Patrilineality system: - It is a common kinship system in which an
individual's family membership derives from and is traced through his or her
father's lineage It generally involves the inheritance of property, names, or
titles by persons related through one's male kin.
➢ Role of sons in religious rituals: - Another factor is that of religious
practices, which can only be performed by males for their parents' afterlife.
Sons are often the only person entitled to performing funeral rights for their
parents.

Son Preference: - Boys are given the exclusive rights to inherit the family name
 and properties and they are viewed as additional status for their family. Moreover,
the prospect of parents „losing‟ daughters to the husband‟s family and expensive
dowry of daughters further discourages parents from having daughters. There is a
strong belief that daughter is a liability.

GENDER INEQUALITY IN INDIAN SOCIETY AND ROLE OF

WOMEN’S EDUCATION IN REMOVING GENDER INEQUALITY

1. INTRODUCTION - GENDER INEQUALITY:

For centuries women were discriminated and ill-treated by men. Women
were considered as inferior to men and viewed as a sub-ordinate to men,
ignored, neglected, confined to house hold activities and forced to be as a good
mother.
De Beauvoir (1949) says on gender inequality - “One is not born, but
becomes a woman. No biological, psychological, or economic fate determines
the figure that the human female presents in society: it is civilization as a
whole that produces this creature, intermediate between, male and eunuch,
which is described as feminine. Only the mediation of someone else can
establish an individual as another”.
Gender inequality may be defined as discrimination against women based on
their sex. Women are exploited, degraded, violated and discriminated both in
our homes and in outside world. Discrimination against women is everywhere
in the world and more so in Indian society. Gender discrimination is varying
from one community to another.

2. GENDER INEQUALITY - A BRIEF DISCUSSION:

Gender inequality has been a social problem for centuries and it needs to
be removed from the society. Sexism is the biggest threat to gender equality
and marriage is the second major factor to gender inequality. After marriage
majority of women tend to think that they are less power than men and their
duty is to obey husband, in laws and look after family.
The whole world believed that women should not work at all around a
century ago. Even though we have come closer to equality, there are still many
people believe that certain careers and jobs are made just for women or just for
men. Furthermore, when a man is being assertive, he is seen as a strong,
confident individual. When a woman is being assertive, she’s judged as
controlling and self-centered. This is pathetic and ridiculous.
 Why is gender inequality such a huge issue? Instead of working together to
improve the world, why does it seem as if people are trying to make every
situation a battle of the sexes? The problem is that people, especially men,
cannot accept the fact that it is possible for men and women to be equal. At
present, it seems that gender inequality is decreasing, but women are still
treated less than men. Men cannot survive without women and women cannot
survive without men; it is a well-known fact.

3. CAUSES OF GENDER INEQUALITY:

Religious beliefs and the socio (patriarchy system) – economic (poverty)
conditions of the women are the main causes for gender inequality in Indian
society. Patriarchy system is the root cause of gender inequalities in India.
Sylvia Wallaby, famous sociologist says - patriarchy is “a system of social
structure and practices in which men dominate, oppress and exploit women”.
The system of patriarchy finds its validity and sanction in major religions of
India.
Manudharmshastra says “Women are supposed to be in the custody of their father
when they are children; they must be under the custody of their husband when
married and under the custody of her son in old age or as widows. In no
circumstances she should be allowed to assert herself independently”. Over the
ages these kinds of beliefs and practices were imposed on our Indian society. Even
women were forced to accept and practice these beliefs.

4. FORMS OF GENDER INEQUALITY:

Working Hours - Women work longer than men
It is evident that women work more than men. Women are not only
working in the offices, factories, institutions and industries but also they work
at home. But, this is not considered as women are working more time than
men. Previous studies proved that women are paid 34% less than men though
they work approximately 50 minutes more time than men.
Inequality in grabbing employment opportunities and earnings
At present somehow women are paid equal wages in the organized and
government sector. But, they are not paid equal wages as men in unorganized
and private sector. Even now women are going through not only less pay but
also they are not provided sufficient employment opportunities equal to men.
This discrimination against women at employment opportunities and earnings
clearly shows that women are not considered as equal to men.
Ownership Inequality
From the ancient times women are denied from having right to property.
So, automatically men became the owner of the property. This made women to
 depend on men. The sexist practices in ownership of land and property in India
is one of the main reasons for social and gender inequalities.
Survival Inequality
This is the worst form of gender inequality in Indian society. Female infanticide
is the best example for survival inequality, Desire of parents and family members for
baby boy led to increase of survival gender inequality.
Bias based on gender in the distribution of education opportunities and health care
These are the important areas where women experienced extreme discrimination
due to gender. For several centuries women were denied of getting proper education
and health care. Current researches proved that women have been experiencing
discrimination in choosing their career and health care when compared to men.
Gender Inequality in Freedom Expression
Freedom of speech is the constitutional right of every Indian citizen. In our
society women are considered low to men and viewed as they cannot make right
decisions. Due to this simple, stupid and unacceptable reason, women were denied of
enjoying the freedom of speech. When compared to men, women have less freedom to
express their views and opinions not only on common issues but also on their personal
life aspects.

5. SIGNIFICANCE OF WOMEN EDUCATION:

Education is a light which enlightens life of a person. Education not only
removes ignorance but also makes a person conscious, skilled and productive.
According to Napoleon, The Great - "Nation's progress is impossible without trained
and educated mothers”. It is said that if we educate a man, we educate a man only, but
if we educate a woman, we educate the whole generation. This highlights the
importance of female education, which is the first and foremost factor in removing
gender inequalities. Education not only helps in the development of personality of the
child but also decides his future.

6. ROLE OF EDUCATION IN REMOVING GENDER INEQUALITY:

Education plays very important role in the life of men as well as in the women’s
life. Education is the key weapon to remove gender inequalities in our society.
Following are the fruits of women education:
Socio - Economic empowerment: as long as women economically depending on
men, the helpless condition of them cannot be changed. Women can achieve economic
empowerment and independence only through proper education and employment.
Economic development and prosperity: Education leads to socio –
economic empowerment of women and it promotes women to come forward
and contribute towards the development and prosperity of the country.
Improved life chances / Standards: Education helps a woman to lead a good
life. Through education she can read and learn about her rights. It leads
towards improved life chances / standards.
Improved health conditions: Educated girls and women are aware of the
importance of health and hygiene. Through health education, they are
 empowered to lead a healthy life-style. Educated mothers can take better care
of both herself and her children.
Dignity and honor in the society: Education enhances dignity and honor of
women. It removes all the stereotype situations and makes them become inspiration to
the coming generations.
Social justice: Educated women are more informed of their rights for justice. It
helps them to fight for their rights and free from social evil such as child marriages,
dowry and female infanticide and to get equal employment opportunities in all
fields.

Alleviates poverty: Women education is a pre-requisite to alleviate poverty. It leads to

Socio – economic empowerment of women.

At present women are given equal opportunities as men in all fields.

Participation of women in politics and social activities is increasing day by day. Proper
education sensitizes women on their civil, social, political and economic rights. It
improves the overall wellbeing of women in our society.
To achieve gender equality, first of all we need to change our mind set and it
will be necessary to provide for equal opportunity to all not only in access to
education, but also in the conditions for success and also there is a need of bringing
structural changes in the society. Gender inequality can be eliminated by conducting
mass awareness programs to the parents, families, institutions and organizations.
Women should be given high level of education and employment opportunities and
also their participation in the politics and social activities must be increased.
Being citizens of a participative democratic country, the genders, women and men,
has to found solutions to the problem of gender inequality and would take us all
towards our cherished dream of a truly modern society in both thought and action.

Gender Inequality in Education

In educational institutions, gender inequality has been experienced. Girls have

been discriminated against in terms of various aspects as compared to their male
counterparts. The primary aspect in terms of gender inequality has been experienced is in
participation. The students are required to participate in number of areas in educational
institutions. Girls were provided with less participation opportunities as compared to
their male counterparts and hence, it led to prevalence of gender inequality. In rural
communities, this problem has been more severe as compared to urban communities.
Gender inequality in education is regarded as the major impediment within the course of
overall progression of the system of education. Therefore, it is vital to formulate
measures and programs that are focused upon making provision of equal rights and
opportunities to girls, not only within the course of acquisition of education, but also in
the implementation of other job duties. The parents at home and teachers in school need
to provide equal participation opportunities to girls. The main areas that have been taken
into account are, factors causing gender inequality in education, factors influencing
educational attainment, and programs promoting women’s education.

Gender Inequality in education is a persistent problem within the Indian society,

especially for the girls, belonging to economically weaker sections of the society. Gender
inequalities are important in various dimensions, these include, education, health,
employment or pay (Klasen, &Lamanna, 2008).During the past several decades, there
have been progressions made in the achievement of universal enrolment of students in
schools. Furthermore, there have been enactment of policies and procedures to address
gender inequality in education. However, in the present existence too, there have been
education gaps. The major factors that contribute to education gaps are, socio-economic
factors, accessibility to learning materials and resources, time devoted towards formal
learning activities and the cultural viewpoints and perspectives among individuals and
communities regarding the education of girls (White, Ruther, & Kahn, 2016). In usually
rural communities, there has been prevalence of the viewpoint among individuals that
girls are meant to carry out the household chores and school education is not meant for
them. They have to eventually get married and in their marital homes, they would not
have any opportunities to make use of their educational skills, but carry out the
household responsibilities. But these perspectives are changing and girls too are
encouraged towards acquisition of education.

In the present existence, there have been formulation of measures and programs
that equal rights and opportunities should be made available to the girls. In the past,
individuals possessed this viewpoint that male members of the family should be
educated. When the males would acquire education, they would render a significant
contribution in promoting goodwill and well-being of their families through attainment of
employment opportunities. But, in the present existence, in urban as well as in rural
communities, individuals and communities have brought about changes in their
viewpoints and perspectives and are encouraging girls as well towards acquisition of
education. Girls and women too can render an effective contribution in promoting
welfare of their families and communities. When they obtain support from their parents,
then they are able to attain good-quality education.

Factors Causing Gender Inequality in Education

There are existence of multiple and diverse connections between gender equality
and fulfilment of the basic right to education. The women and girls are experiencing
denial of human right to education not only in India, but in other countries of the world
as well (Gender Discrimination in Education, 2012). The factors causing gender
inequality in education have been stated as follows:

Conditions of Poverty

When individuals are residing in the conditions of poverty, then they experience
number of problems and challenges in making ends meet. In some cases, they even
experience problems in meeting their daily nutritional requirements. The individuals and
families, who are residing in the conditions of poverty have the primary objective of
generating sufficient income to sustain their living conditions satisfactorily. They usually
do not possess financial resources to meet the expenses, involved in the pursuance of
education. Even when education is provided free of cost, they still need to meet other
expenses, involved in education. These are, stationary items, books, bags, uniforms,
transportation costs and so forth. The poverty stricken individuals experience problems in
meeting these expenses.
 The poverty stricken individuals possess this viewpoint that acquisition of
education is of utmost significance in sustaining one’s living conditions. Hence, they
aspire to get their sons enrolled in schools. They possess this viewpoint that education
should be provided to the sons, so they are able to get engaged in good employment
opportunities in future. Whereas, girls are trained in terms of performance of household
responsibilities and minor jobs to earn some income to support their families. For
instance, when parents are engaged in production of items, then they encourage their
children, both boys and girls to assist them in production and sales. The boys are required
to get engaged in this job after school hours. The girls are usually discouraged from
acquisition of education, due to limited financial resources. Their male siblings teach
them, what they have learned in schools, primarily to enhance their basic literacy skills of
reading, writing and numeracy.

Prevalence of Traditional Viewpoints

The individuals and communities usually possessed traditional viewpoints

regarding the education of girls. Particularly, when they possessed limited financial
resources, then they believed that these resources should be saved for marriage of their
girls and should not be spent on education. Another viewpoint was that in marital homes,
girls would not be able to utilize their educational skills and would primarily have to
implement the household responsibilities. Taking this aspect into consideration, from the
initial stage, they train their girls regarding the implementation of household
responsibilities. In the past period, girls and women were merely confined within their
homes and not allowed to participate in any social functions or events. They were not
allowed to express their viewpoints and perspectives in the decision making matters.
They primarily sustained their living conditions on the income earned by men and were
meant to obey the decisions and rules formulated by them. Hence, due to the prevalence
of traditional viewpoints, they were discriminated against and were deprived of certain
rights and opportunities.
 The acquisition of education of girls, is usually affected by traditional practices
associated with adolescence. In some rural communities, prevalence of certain traditional
practices prove to be hindrances within the course of acquisition of education on the part
of the girls (Linda, 2014). Due to the prevalence of traditional viewpoints and
perspectives, girls are not only deprived from acquisition of education, but also in
attaining self-independence. In other words, these are barriers within the course of
attainment of empowerment opportunities. Therefore, for bringing about empowerment
opportunities among women and girls, it is necessary to bring about transformations in
traditional viewpoints and give equal rights and opportunities to women and girls.

School Infrastructure

The school infrastructure is regarded as significant in the formation of suitable and

amiable learning environment and in the pursuance of academic goals. With the
availability of adequate infrastructural facilities, the members of the educational
institutions are able to carry out their job duties in a well-organized manner. Furthermore,
the students are also able to feel pleasurable within the school environment and get
motivated towards their studies. Research has indicated that due to lack of appropriate
infrastructural facilities, the students usually drop out, before their educational skills are
honed. This applies particularly to the girls. The important infrastructural facilities in
schools that are essential to enhance the system of education are, furniture, equipment,
materials, technologies, restrooms, civic amenities, transportation facilities, playgrounds,
classrooms, library facilities, laboratories and overall school environmental conditions.

When these infrastructural facilities will be well-maintained, then the educators,

staff members and students will feel pleasurable and contented within the working
environment. It is apparent that to facilitate learning, schools need to make provision of
proper teaching-learning materials, library facilities, laboratories related to science
subjects, and computer centres. When the educators as well as students will have access
to these facilities, then they will be able to carry out the teaching-learning processes in a
well-organized manner. In India, in urban areas, normally infrastructural facilities are
well-developed. Whereas, in rural communities, these are not well-developed. Therefore,
it is vital to formulate measures to bring about improvements in infrastructural facilities
in rural schools. The provision of appropriate infrastructural facilities would lead to an
increase in the enrolment of students and augment the retention rate.

Discriminatory Treatment among Girls

Research has indicated that among the deprived, marginalized and socio-
economically backward sections of the society, the girls and women usually experience
discriminatory treatment. The discriminatory treatment among girls is depicted in number
of aspects. These are, acquisition of education, attainment of employment opportunities,
empowerment opportunities, deprivation in right to property, deprivation from having a
say in the decision making matters, deprivation from expressing their viewpoints and
perspectives, discouraged from participation in social, economic, cultural and political
activities, remaining confined within the households, implementing household chores and
taking care of the needs and requirements of their family members. Furthermore, they
also experience discriminatory treatment regarding health and medical facilities and even
food items. Good quality food was provided to the male members and females were
given simple food. The prevalence of discriminatory treatment against women regarding
these aspects is not only a barrier within the course of their progression, but also in
development of the communities and nation.

Irrespective of the jobs in which women and girls are engaged in, whether they are
involved in the management of household responsibilities, or are pursuing education or
are engaged in employment opportunities or assisting their parents in family business. It
is vital for them to obtain equal rights and opportunities. It is the responsibility of the
parents to ensure that they provide equal rights and opportunities to their girls. The girls
should be given equal rights and opportunities regarding acquisition of education, health
care facilities, medical facilities, diet and nutrition, property, wealth, resources and so
forth. Making provision of equal rights and opportunities to the girls would promote their
well-being and empowerment opportunities.

Occurrence of Criminal and Violent Acts

In rural as well as in urban communities, women and girls have experienced

criminal and violent acts to a major extent. These acts are, verbal abuse, physical abuse,
sexual harassment, discriminatory treatment, rape, acid attacks, female foeticide and
female infanticide, child trafficking, domestic violence and neglect. The experiencing of
these acts on the part of girls and women, have an effect upon their physical as well as
psychological health. The extent of suffering usually depends upon the extent to which
they have experienced these acts. For instance, in schools, when girls experience verbal
abuse from fellow students, then they usually do not drop out. But when they experience
sexual harassment, or other criminal act, then they may drop out of schools. Hence,
occurrence of criminal and violent acts are regarded as major barriers within the course
of acquisition of education.

The student and particularly girls have experienced criminal and violent acts in
schools as well. Research has indicated that teachers, staff members and fellow students
have been involved in such acts. Therefore, for not only leading to progression of
women, but also in the enhancement of the system of education, it is necessary to
formulate measures that would alleviate criminal and violent acts in schools, particularly
against women and girls, promote equal rights and opportunities among them and treat
them with respect and courtesy. It is the responsibility of the parents to ensure that
growth and development of their children, both boys and girls takes place in an effective
manner. For carrying out this responsibility, they need to ensure that they treat their girls
with kindness and courtesy.

Child Marriage

Child marriage is when marriage of the individuals takes place, when they are
below 18 years of age. Child marriage imposes negative effects upon the individuals,
particularly girls. When girls are married at a young age, then they are normally deprived
of acquisition of education, getting engaged in employment opportunities, and
participation in other childhood activities. They merely are required to remain within the
homes, implement household responsibilities and take care of the needs and requirements
of other family members. Research has indicated that girls usually depict unwillingness,
but they are required to obey their parents. Due to the possession of traditional
viewpoints and perspectives, individuals and groups primarily belonging to rural
communities get their girls married at an early age. They possess this viewpoint that if
girls are educated and get older, then it would be difficult to find suitable grooms for
them. For this purpose, they even train their girls in terms of implementation of
household chores from the initial stage.

Due to the prevalence of this practice, girls are forbidden from acquisition of
education. There have been implementation of programs and schemes that are meant to
curb child marriage. In 2006, the Government renewed its efforts and India passed the
prohibition of Child Marriage Act. This caused the increase in the penalties for
conducting a child marriage ritual and made child marriage voidable by the married party
up to two years after reaching the age of adulthood and provided the opportunities for the
courts to intervene in these cases. The legal age for marriage to take place within the
country for boys is 21 years and for girls is 18 years.

Education of the Parents

Education of the parents is a crucial factor for promoting education among

children, inculcating the traits of morality and ethics among them and leading to their
well-being. When the parents are well-educated and are engaged in reputed employment
opportunities, then it is apparent that they will make provision of good quality education
to their children. Educated parents will also be aware of the fact that it is necessary to
ensure that equal rights and opportunities should be provided to both boys and girls.
Hence, they get their children enrolled in reputed educational institutions and make
provision of opportunities to them to enhance their career prospects.

On the other hand, when the parents are not much educated nor possess the basic
literacy skills of reading, writing and numeracy, then in such cases, normally two factors
are experienced. First is, they recognize the significance of education and promote equal
rights and opportunities for both girls and boys towards acquisition of education. They
form this viewpoint that girls should not be regarded as liabilities and it is necessary to
provide them equal education opportunities. Another aspect is, they discriminate against
girls, particularly regarding acquisition of education and encourage their boys towards
getting enrolled in schools. The major causes are lack of financial resources and
unawareness. With the formulation of programs and schemes, these individuals too have
realized that it is vital to make provision of educational opportunities to both girls and
boys.

Occupation of the Parents

Research has indicated that the occupation of the parents is regarded as important
factor in promoting education among girls. The girls are deprived from acquisition of
education due to lack of wage earning opportunities of parents. The major objective of all
individuals is to get engaged in employment opportunities to sustain their living
conditions in an adequate manner. Through getting engaged in employment
opportunities, one earns income to sustain their living conditions. In the present
existence, finding good employment opportunities is not easy. The individuals are
required to struggle to find good employment opportunities or obtain recommendations.
The occupations and employment opportunities of the parents is regarded as an important
factor in facilitating the acquisition of education among children.

When boys and girls get enrolled in schools, then it is apparent that they need to
work effectively towards acquisition of education. They need to pay adequate attention
towards their studies and inculcate the traits of diligence, resourcefulness and
conscientiousness. Apart from these factors, there are other crucial factors as well. These
are, admission of the students, retention rate and academic performance. The occupation
of the parents matter to a major extent in influencing these factors. When the parents are
engaged in well-paid and reputed occupations, then there is an increase in the admission
and retention rate of the students. Furthermore, they are able to achieve good grades as
well in their assignments and tests. On the other hand, when parents are engaged in low
paid minority jobs or are unemployed, then there is a decline in the admission and
retention rate of the students and they also experience set-backs in their academic
performance. Therefore, it is vital for the individuals to get engaged in employment
opportunities and secure their financial position.

Management of Household Responsibilities

Research has indicated that individuals belonging to deprived, marginalized and

economically weaker sections of the society usually discourage their girls from the
acquisition of education, mainly because of their participation in the management of
household responsibilities. Within the households, there are number of aspects, which
need to be taken care of. These include, preparation of meals, cleaning, washing,
gardening and so forth. In rural households, the individuals are required to perform
certain additional tasks as well. These include, fetching water from the water bodies and
taking care of livestock. In urban communities, usually domestic helpers and cleaners are
hired. The hiring of domestic helpers usually enable the members of the household to get
engaged in other tasks and activities. But in rural communities, the individuals are
required to carry out the household responsibilities on their own. Individuals normally
encourage their children, especially girls to get engaged in the implementation of
household responsibilities. Due to management of household responsibilities, they are
discouraged from acquisition of education.

In rural communities, apart from the implementation of household responsibilities,

the other tasks and activities that usually girls and women get engaged in are taking care
of the needs and requirements of other family members. The individuals are normally
engaged in the agricultural sector and farming practices. Therefore, when parents go to
work, girls are vested with the responsibility of ensuring that all the household chores are
implemented in an appropriate manner and they are able to adequately look after the
health care and other needs of elderly family members and younger siblings. From the
stage of early childhood, they are trained in terms of implementation of household
responsibilities. Hence, are deprived from getting enrolled in schools and acquisition of
education.

Lack of Interest in Studies

In the present existence, individuals, belonging to all categories and backgrounds

have recognized the significance of education. The individuals have recognized that
through acquisition of education, there will be creation of a base, which would assist
them in the adequate sustenance of the living conditions. Generating awareness in terms
of these aspects would render an effective contribution in enabling the parents to get their
children enrolled in schools. Academic learning is not easy. The individuals need to pay
adequate attention, particularly when the teacher is teaching, depict regularity in their
studies and possess the educational resources that are essential for the achievement of
academic goals. When the students do not possess adequate resources, when they do not
acquire an efficient understanding of the academic concepts, then they are not able to
develop an interest in studies. Hence, lack of interest in studies is one of the crucial
factors that causes gender inequality in education.

To acquire education and to enable the individuals to achieve academic goals, it is

vital for the students to develop interest and enthusiasm. When they feel they are
experiencing setbacks in their academics and are not able to acquire an efficient
understanding of the concepts, then it is vital for them to obtain support and assistance
from others. When the individuals are financially strong, then they provide coaching
classes for their children regarding difficult subjects. When parents are educated, then too
they take out time for their children and teach them. Whereas, when the parents are not
educated or when they do not possess adequate financial resources, then the students
usually take help from teachers and fellow students. When they are unable to overcome
problems and challenges, then they usually drop out even before their educational skills
are honed. Therefore, lack of interest in studies on the part of the students is regarded as
an important factor in leading to gender inequality in education.

Factors Influencing Educational Attainment

When the individuals pursue their educational goals, then they need to take into
consideration certain factors. The major factors that influence the attainment of education
have been stated as follows:

Socio-Economic Factors

The social factors are primarily related to the socio-economic background and
social status of the individuals. Research has indicated that when individuals have their
own family business, then they normally prefer that their children should attain the
educational qualifications, so they can provide assistance and support to their parents in
augmenting their family business. Whereas, in most cases, children are provided with
rights and opportunities to make their own decisions regarding acquisition of education.
When they score good grades in class twelve exams, then they aspire to pursue
professional degrees, such as, law, medical or engineering and so forth. But when they
belong to deprived, marginalized and socio-economically backward sections of the
society, then they experience set-backs in getting enrolled in higher educational
institutions.

The socio-economic background and the social status of the individuals is

primarily characterized by occupations and financial status of the individuals. For
example, when well-educated, qualified and skilled individuals are engaged in medical
profession or are engineers or lawyers and are engaged in reputed employment
opportunities, then they possess sufficient financial resources and may even get their
children enrolled in higher educational institutions in international countries. On the
other hand, when individuals are engaged in minority jobs and their income is not
sufficient to provide higher education to their children, then they experience problems in
acquisition of education. In some cases, poverty stricken, deprived and socio-
economically backward sections of the society provide education to their sons and not
girls. Hence, girls are required to experience deprivation from acquisition of education
due to scarcity of financial resources.

Accessibility to Learning Materials and Resources

In order to acquire education and achieve educational goals and objectives, it is

essential to access good quality learning materials and resources. Educational resources
are the resources that enable the individuals to pursue their studies in an efficient and
manageable manner. These need to be adequately available in educational institutions as
well as homes. These are appropriate teaching-learning methods, teaching-learning
materials, infrastructure, technology, books, reading materials, stationary items and
assistance and support available from experts and professionals. When there are
availability of financial resources within educational institutions, then they make
provision of all kinds of facilities, materials, technologies, equipment and amenities that
are necessary to help students in acquisition of education and achievement of academic
goals. Due to the availability of adequate financial resources, parents also provide an
amiable and suitable learning environment for their children within home. They ensure
that their children have access to appropriate technologies, reading materials, private
tuitions and other facilities that are needed to achieve desired educational outcomes.

The individuals, belonging to poverty stricken, deprived and marginalized sections

of the society also aspire to give good quality education to their children. Within schools,
they are able to receive support from the teachers in pursuing educational goals. But at
home, in some cases, they are unable to make provision of technologies, materials,
equipment and other resources that are necessary to enhance learning. In such cases,
students are required to make visits to computer centres, obtain books from the libraries
or help from their seniors. These students as well as their families experience problems
and challenges within the course of acquisition of education. But they implement
measures to access educational resources from other places, as they are indispensable in
acquisition of education.

Time Devoted towards Formal Learning Activities

Usually, students in schools as well as in higher educational institutions are

engaged in other tasks and activities as well, apart from acquisition of education. The
other activities that normally school students are engaged in include, extra-curricular and
creative activities. These include, artworks, handicrafts, sports, physical activities,
singing, music, dance and so forth. Apart from these activities, it is vital for them to
devote adequate time towards their studies. When the individuals get enrolled in higher
educational institutions, then they normally migrate to other regions, cities or even
countries. When they are living away from homes, then they are required to take care of
other tasks and activities as well. These include, household chores, employment
opportunities, and other activities. When they are not financially strong, then they are
required to work to meet their expenses. Research has indicated that individuals get
engaged in either part-time or full-time jobs along with the pursuance of masters or
doctoral programs.

When the individuals are engaged in other tasks and activities, along with their
studies, then it is vital for them to put into practice proper time management skills. In the
implementation of time management skills, one has to assign priorities to the tasks. The
tasks, which are important need to be given priority. When students give importance to
their studies, they are able to enhance their academic problems. Studies and employment
opportunities are important for the individuals. Therefore, in educational institutions as
well as at home, they are instructed by their educators and parents to pay attention
towards their career goals. On the other hand, socializing with friends and relatives,
watching television shows, and getting engaged in other leisure and recreational activities
are also important for the students, but they should first devote their time towards
attainment of educational goals.

Cultural Viewpoints regarding the Education of Girls

The cultural viewpoints regarding the education of girls are embedded in the
cultural norms and values. In some rural communities, when individuals do not possess
adequate financial resources, which are necessary to meet the expenses that are involved
in the pursuance of education, then they primarily form this viewpoint that providing
education to the girls is the wastage of resources. Instead, they make use of resources in
providing education to the boys. Other viewpoints that discourage girls from the
acquisition of education are, they should be trained in terms of management of household
responsibilities. These include, preparation of meals, cleaning, fetching water, taking care
of the needs and requirements of younger siblings and elderly family members,
especially when their parents are at work, taking care of livestock, assisting their parents
in family business, which may include, production of food items, artworks, handicrafts,
and so forth.

The cultural viewpoints focus upon the belief that when girls would acquire
sufficient training regarding the implementation of household responsibilities, then they
would be able to enhance the reputation of their families in marital homes. The other
factors that promotes negative attitudes regarding the education of girls are, making
savings for dowry. Dowry is the wealth and possessions that the bride’s family has to pay
to the groom’s family at the time of marriage. It includes, monetary resources, jewellery,
and other items. When the marginalized and deprived families have to make savings for
the marriage of their daughters, then they do not intend to spend financial resources
towards pursuance of education. They possess the viewpoints that boys would acquire
good employment opportunities and contribute effectively towards promoting well-being
of their families and communities. But in the present existence, transformations are
taking place and individuals, belonging to all categories and backgrounds are
encouraging their girls towards acquisition of education.

Programs Promoting Women’s Education

India is one of the founding members of the United Nations, and although at that
time, still under the rule of the British, has been a member of the United Nations since
1945. At the summit in 2000, eight goals, such as, alleviation of poverty, halting the
spread of AIDS, providing Universal Primary Education and so forth, known as the
Millennium Development Goals were agreed upon with the deadline of 2015. In 2015,
the United Nations built upon these goals and formed 17 Sustainable Development Goals
within the time frame of 15 years. Among these 17 goals, two goals are primarily related
to promoting education among women. These are quality education, which is goal four
and gender equality, which is goal five. The quality education goal aims to ensure free
and equal quality education to both boys and girls in primary and secondary schools,
equal access to affordable quality higher education and to eliminate gender differences at
all levels of education. The gender equality goal aims to provide equal access to social
and professional systems within the society, such as, politics, decent work, health care
and education. It also endorses policies and regulations that are necessary to promote
gender equality, empowerment opportunities among women and end to discriminatory
practices against women (Nikkhoo, &Jonsson, 2017).

The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act says that all
children, between the ages of six to 14 years should have the right to free and compulsory
education. Another program that was initiated was SarvaShikshaAbhiyan (SSA) in 2000-
2001. The primary objective of this program was to eliminate gender gaps in education,
achieve educational objectives throughout the country, access and retention and bring
about improvements in the quality of education. The major aspects that were taken into
account were, initiation of new schools and accessibility to educational resources. SSA
works towards the implementation of number of goals and objectives. In the achievement
of these goals and objectives, equality and gender concerns are regarded as crucial factors
(Nikkhoo, &Jonsson, 2017).

A scheme known as RashtriyaMadhyamikShikshaAbhiyan (RMSA) was initiated

in 2009. The major objective of this scheme was to make secondary education available
to all individuals, within the age group of 15 to 16 years. The objectives of the scheme
are to bring about improvements in the quality of education by having prescribed norms
and standards. It aims to ensure the complete availability of secondary education by
2017. By 2020, it aims to achieve the retention rates of the students to a major extent and
to eliminate disability, socio-economic and gender impediments by providing support
and assistance to the individuals, belonging to marginalized and socio-economically
backward sections of the society and who experience disabilities (Nikkhoo, &Jonsson,
2017).

In 2004, a program was initiated, known as Kasturba Gandhi BalikaVidyalaya

(KGBV). The major objective of this program was to establish upper primary schools
with housing accommodation for the girls, belonging to deprived and marginalized
sections of the society. The program was implemented in many parts of the country,
where the literacy gender gap is above average and the literacy rate among girls is below
average. The majority of the places in schools are reserved for girls, belonging to
disadvantaged and minority communities and the rest are reserved for the girls, belonging
to families, below the poverty line. In the KGBV schools, girls are encouraged towards
acquisition of education by making provision of various items free of cost. These include,
free textbooks, free uniforms, stationary items, bags, medical and health care facilities,
housing accommodation, counselling and guidance facilities, financial assistance, mid-
day meals and so forth (Nikkhoo, &Jonsson, 2017).

Conclusion

The prevalence of gender inequality in education is regarded as the major barrier

within the course of progression of the system of education. The major factors that
promote gender inequality in education are, conditions of poverty, prevalence of
traditional viewpoints, school infrastructure, discriminatory treatment among girls,
occurrence of criminal and violent acts, child marriage, education of the parents,
occupation of the parents, management of household responsibilities and lack of interest
in studies. When the girls and women are experiencing one or more of these factors, then
usually it affects them physically as well as psychologically. There have been
formulation of programs and schemes, which have the major objective of generating
awareness among the individuals, belonging to all categories, backgrounds and
communities to treat girls and women with respect and make provision of equal rights
and opportunities to them. When the individuals and communities will provide equal
rights and opportunities to the girls, then it would not only promote their effective growth
and development, but also well-being of the communities and the entire nation.

The factors that influence the attainment of education are, socio-economic factors,
accessibility to learning materials and resources, time devoted towards formal learning
activities and cultural viewpoints regarding the education of girls. Furthermore, there
have been initiation of programs and schemes that promote education among women.
These are, The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act,
SarvaShikshaAbhiyan (SSA), RashtriyaMadhyamikShikshaAbhiyan (RMSA) and
Kasturba Gandhi BalikaVidyalaya (KGBV). When the girls are encouraged for getting
enrolled in schools and acquisition of education, it is vital for them to receive support and
encouragement from their family members. In other words, it is necessary for them to be
efficiently prepared for pursuing their academic goals. Apart from support and
encouragement, it is vital for the parents to ensure that they provide their children with
educational resources and take care of their well-being to enable them achieve academic
goals. Furthermore, in schools there should be formation of a suitable learning
environment, with infrastructure, resources and facilities, which would encourage the
enrolment and retention of students.
LEGAL & POLITICAL FACTORS

According to the Constitution of India, both men and women are equal in the
eyes of the laws and hence they have equal rights. But, unfortunately, legal
& political bias has prevented the law to attain the success of equality in
gender. This is another reason for inequality in gender.

A STUDY ON GENDER INEQULITY IN HIGHER EDUCATIONIN

IN INDIAN CONTEXT

Gender inequality in India refers to health, education, economic and

political inequalities between men and women in India. Various international
gender inequality indices rank India differently on each of these factors, as
well as on a composite basis, and these indices are controversial. Gender
inequalities, and its social causes, impact India's sex ratio, women's health
over their lifetimes, their educational attainment, and economic conditions.
Gender inequality in India is a multifaceted issue that concerns men and
women alike. Some argue that some gender equality measures, place men at
a disadvantage. However, when India's population is examined as a whole,
women are at a disadvantage in several important ways.

GENDER INEQUALITIES IN HIGHER EDUCATION

Probably the most important problem faced by the higher education system
in India is the persistence of inequalities in access to higher education.
Inequalities in access to higher education result in socio-economic
inequalities in the society which, in turn, accentuate inequalities in
education. In fact, it is a cyclic chain of Inequalities: inequalities in access to
higher education result in inequities in access to labor market information,
which result in inequalities in employment and participation in labor market,
resulting in inequalities in earnings contributing in turn to socio-economic
and political inequalities. The socioeconomic and political inequalities again
are translated into the education sector, resulting in inequalities in education.
Inequalities in access to education reflect loss in individual as well as social
welfare. That economic returns to investment in education of the weaker
sections are estimated to be higher than returns to their counterparts , implies
that inequalities in education would cause huge losses in national output; and
that inclusive strategies that contribute to equity should be viewed favorably
not only from the point of view of social justice but also even in terms of
economic well-being, as the total equity gains might surpass the losses in
efficiency, if any (Patnaik, 2012).One of the most important dimensions of
inequality is between men and women. Women are generally found to be
lagging behind men in every sector including higher education in India as in
many countries, though reverse trends could be observed of late in a good
number of countries. During the post-independence period, there is a
significant improvement in women’s participation in higher education.
Women constitute 43 per cent of the total enrolments in higher education in
2011–12, while there were only 14 women per 100 men in higher education
in 1950–51, according to the available UGC statistics (UGC, 2013). Thus,
compared to the earlier decades, this marks a significant improvement.
While this 43 per cent is an all-India average across all disciplines of study,
there are wide variations between different states and also across disciplines.
Women students constitute 11 per cent in engineering/technology, 4 per cent
in medicine and less than 5 per cent in education. Nevertheless, the overall
level of participation of women in higher education has improved
remarkably and the current overall level is quite impressive. Further,
research studies (for example, Basant and Sen 2012) have also shown that
‘after controlling for other factors, the chances of women participating in
higher education are higher than that of men’ meaning the generally
observed inequalities by gender in higher education need to be interpreted
with caution. The gross enrollment ratio among men increased from 10.9 per
cent in 1983–84 to 27 per cent in 2009–10 it increased by 2.5 times in about
two decades and a half. In contrast, only 19 per cent of the women in the
relevant age group were enrolled in higher education in 2009–10. But what
is strikingly clear is: there has a rapid progress in the enrollment ratio among
women compared to men. The gross enrollment ratio for women increased
by more than four times. As a result, gender inequalities in gross enrollment
ratio have come down very significantly during this period. The available
estimates on net enrollment ratios, however, indicate that between 1999–
2000 and 2004–05, the increase in enrollment ratios is very small in case of
both men and women; hardly it increased by 2 per cent points in either case,
and the level of inequality remained the same. The male–female differences
are much less in case of eligible enrollment ratios. While 49 per cent of
eligible girls join higher education institutions, the corresponding ratio is
marginally higher for men, 56 per cent, a difference of about 7 per cent
points.

INEQUALITIES BY SOCIAL GROUPS

It is widely recognized that inequalities across social groups are
multidimensional and difficult to capture empirically. Inequality by caste is a
major phenomenon in India, and is also subject to extensive rigorous
research, policy making and policy analysis. Caste is considered as one of
the most important determinants of perceived social status in India (Bros
2014), and is ‘too strong to be suppressed permanently’ (Deshpande, 2012).
SCs and STs are traditionally regarded as the most backward sections of the
Indian society. They were also subject to discrimination in social, political
and economic spheres for a long time and to correct some of these historical
disadvantages, reservations are provided to them in education and
employment. Some more castes are recognized as ‘other backward castes’.
Following the Mandal Commission Report (Government of India, 1980),
adopted by the Government of India, reservation policy was extended to a
few ‘other’ backward castes. Some of the minority religious groups, like the
Muslims, have been lagging far behind others in education development. The
report of the Sachar Committee (Government of India, 2006) has highlighted
this in the recent years. This has also become an important issue of research,
and also an important policy issue (Hasan, 2012). It is often quoted that SCs
constitute only 12 per cent of the total enrolments in higher education and
STs 4.5 per cent (2011–12); or Muslims constitute such a small proportion.
But a more meaningful analysis can be based on enrolment ratios and the
rates of higher education attainment.

INEQUALITIES BY CASTE

The enrolment ratios of SCs and STs have been consistently very much
below those of non-scheduled population or the total population on average.
But both SCs and STs have made significant advancement by increasing the
enrolment ratios of the respective population groups by four to five times in
about two decades and a half between 1983–84 and 2009–10. The growth
was relatively faster in case of ST, though in absolute terms their enrolment
ratio is less than that of the SC; and as a result, the differences between SC
and ST have come down; and also the differences between the scheduled
population and nonscheduled population declined. However, it must be
added that: (a) the enrolment ratios among both the SC and ST are low and
(b) still significant inequalities persist between scheduled and non-scheduled
population groups. The enrolment ratio in 2009–10 was nearly 12 per cent
among the ST and 15 per cent among the SC compared to 23 per cent for all
(Table 4).Quite interestingly, there is not much variation in the eligible
enrolment ratio between several caste groups. While it ranges between 50
per cent and 54 per cent for SC, for OBCs and others (non-backward
sections), the ratio is much higher, 62 per cent in case of STs. Between
various caste groups the transition rate ranges between 14 per cent (for ST)
and 22 per cent (SC). SCs are ahead of all others. As the rates of higher
education attainment are only a stock indicator of the progress made over the
years, these also show a high degree of inequality but rapid progress at the
same time. Less than 3 per cent of the STs and just 4 percent among the SCs
had completed levels of higher education in 2009–10. These figures in 2009–
10 mark five times and 6.5 times increase between 1983- 1984.

INEQUALITIES BETWEEN RELIGIOUS GROUPS

Inequalities in gross enrolment ratio between various religious groups are

much higher. Estimates on gross enrolment ratio are available for Hindus,
Muslims, Christians and ‘others’. Enrolment ratio among Muslims was only
14 per cent in 2009–10, while it was 24.2 per cent among Hindus and 37 per
cent among Christians. The enrolment ratio among ‘Others’ that includes
Jains, Sikhs, etc., is also high—28 per cent in 2009–10. The enrolment ratio
is the highest among the Christians and the least among the Muslims (Table
6). This is the same situation consistently throughout the period between
1983–84 and 2009–10. While there has been improvement in case of all the
four groups between 1983- 84 and 2009–10, the inter-group inequalities by
religion did not decline much. In fact, the gap seemed to have widened
(Figure 5).According to the estimates by Azam and Blom (2009), one does
not find much inequality between Hindus and Muslims, with the transition
ratio being around 70 per cent in 2004–05. Christians are, of course, far
ahead with a ratio of about 80 per cent. Among both Hindus and Muslims,
out of every 100 secondary school graduates, 71 per cent go for higher
education. The ratio was 80 per cent among Christians. But overall refined
estimates of transition rates in 2009–10 are very low—about 20per cent
among Hindus and Christians, 16 per cent among Muslims and 11 per cent
among others.

RURAL–URBAN DISPARITIES

Now, we will discuss spatial inequalities. There are wide inequalities

between different states in India in higher education in terms of number of
universities and colleges, infrastructure in those institutions, student
enrolment and even public expenditure. The gross enrolment ratio in higher
education varies among the major states between less than or around 10 per
cent in Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh on the one side and above or around 40
per cent in Chandigarh and Tamil Nadu on the other side (MHRD, 2014).

INEQUALITIES BY ECONOMIC CLASSES

Estimates of various indicators of higher education development (and other

indicators) based on the NSS data are available by household expenditure
quintiles/deciles. A few scholars have used alternative indicators like assets
(or asset index) to consider the economic levels of the households but the
monthly per capita expenditure, on which NSS provides rich data, is used
extensively.