be7 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSISINTERNATIONAL SERIES IN PURE AND ‘APPLIED MATHEMATICS ‘Wana Teo Marrin, Consulting Editor Autrogs . Complex Analysis BLLLMAN » Stability Theory of Differential Equations Book . Advaneed Caleulus (Coooisorox axb Lvixsox « Theory of Ordinary Differential Equations Dernvax . Mathematical Methods in Physles and Engineering, Ersvix “Partial Differential Equations Goosen ax Suawxs - Elements of Ordinary Differential Equations Gravis . The Theory of Functions of Real Variables Guzexseax - Introduction to Partial Differential Equations Guorix . Elementary Theory of Numbers Huson . Numerical Methods for Sefentists and Engineers Huneunasd « Introduction to Numerical Analysis, ovsrmtotnes - Principles of Numerical Analysis [Lass - Hlements of Pure and Applied Mathematics ‘Lass | Vector and Tensor Analysis Linieurow - An Introduction to the Theory of Differential Equations LxPace - Complex Variables and the Laplace Transform for Engineers Newant . Conformal Mapping Newnut » Vector Analysis Rossea - Logie for Mathematicians Rupiy « Principles of Mathematieal Analysis Staacoxs - Introduetion to Topology and Modern Analysis, ‘Swno0ox » Elements of Partial Differential Equations Skunoox . Fourier Transforms ‘Stout - Linear Algebra and Matrix Theory ‘Smucaux . Nonlinear Differential Equations ‘Werxsrock - Caleulus of Variations ‘Woiss - Introduction to Algebraic Theory VECTOR AND TE! ANALYSIS HARRY LASS Jer Prorurstox Tasomm Cali, Institute of Tech 4800 Oak Grove Drive Pasadena, California vn 689s New York Toronto London McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, 1950VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS NTERNATIONAL SERIES IN PURE AND APPLIED MATHEMATICS Wauu1an Te Marmix, Consulting Editor x Analysis HARRY LASS lty Theory of Ditterential Equations Jer Prorvision Taontiony Catealus Cali. Institute of Tech, 44900 Oak Grove Drive Pasadena, California mvixsox . Theory of Ordinary Differential ‘matleal Methods in Physies and Engineering Ditferential Equat xs . Hlements of Ordinary Differential Rauations ory of Functions of Real Variables duction to Partial Differential Eaustions tary Theory of Numbers real Methods for Scientists and Engineers ‘eduction to Numerieal Analysis ‘neiples of Numerical Analy: ot Pure and Applied Mathematics ‘Tensor Analysia troduction to the ‘Theory of Differential Fauations Varlables and the Laplace ‘Transform for Engineers val Mapping, Analysis + Mathematicians of Mathematical Analysis uction to Topology and Modern Analysis ts of Partial Difterential Baustions ‘Transforms zebra and Matrix Theory ‘ar Differential Equations ulus of Variations fon to Algebraic Theory New York Toronto London McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC. 1950VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS Copyright, 1950, by the MeCrav-Hill Book Company, Ine. Printed in the United States of America. Allright reserved. This book, or parts thereof, ‘ay not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publishers, xm 36520 ‘To My ‘Moruen an FarinVECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS; 3 by the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Tne. Printed in tho of America, All ights reserved. This book, or parta thereat reduced in any form without permission of the publisher xa 36520 {2%) To My Morne anp FarnerPREFACE ‘This text can be used in a variety of way totally unfamiliar with vector analysis ean pera and 4 to gain familiarity with the algebra and ca ‘These chapters cover the ordinary one-semester analysis, Numerous examples in the field: geometry, electricity, mechanics, hydrodynam! fean be found in Chapters 3, 5, 6, and 7, resy flready acquainted with vector analysis who fec Tike to become better acquainted with the appl can read the above-mentioned chapters witt only a most rudimentary knowledge of these fn order that the reader be eapable of follow ‘which aro fairly complete from an elementa Knowledge of these chapters should enable the digest the more comprehensive treatises dealie jects, some of which are listed in the referer hhoped that these chapters will give the matl introduction to elementary theoretical phys author feels that Chapters 8 and 9 deal suffi ‘analysis and Riemannian geometry to enable t {the theory of relativity with a minimum of e ‘mathematies involved is concerned. “in otder to cover such a wide range of topies necessarily been brief, It is hoped, however tbeen sacrificed in the way of clearness of ideas attempted to be as Figorous as is possible in av ‘Numerous examples have been worked out ‘The teacher who plans on using this book arrange the topies to suit his needs for a one semester course. ‘Tt the book is successful, itis due in no sn composite efforts of those men who have invePREFACE ‘This text can be used in a variety of ways. ‘The student. totally unfamiliar with vector analysis ean peruse Chapters 1, 2, and 4 to gain familiarity with the algebra and calculus of vectors, ‘These chapters cover the ordinary one-semester course in vector analysis. Numerous examples in the fields of differential geometry, electricity, mechanics, hydrodynamics, and elasticity can be found in Chapters 3, 5, 6, and 7, respectively. ‘Those already acquainted with vector analysis who feel that they would like to become better acquainted with the applications of vectors can read the above-mentioned chapters with little difficulty: only a most rudimentary knowledge of these fields is necessary in order that the reader be eapable of following their eontents, which are fairly complete from an clementary viewpoint. A Knowledge of theso chapters should enable the reader to further digest the more comprehensive treatises dealing with these sub- jects, some of which are listed in the reference section. It is hoped that these chapters will give the mathematician a brief introduction to elementary theoretical physics. Finally, the author feels that Chapters 8 and 9 deal sulliciently with tensor analysis and Riemannian geometry to enable the reader to study the theory of relativity with a minimum of effort as far as the mathematies involved is concerned. In order to cover such a wide range of topies the treatment has necessarily been brief. It is hoped, however, that nothing has been sacrificed in the way of elearness of ideas. ‘The author has attempted to be as rigorous as is possible in a work of this nature. ‘Numerous examples have been worked out fully in the text. ‘The teacher who plans on using this book as a text can surely arrange the topics to suit his needs for a one-, two-, or even three- semester course, If the book is successful, it is due in no small measure to the composite efforts of those men who have invented and who havePREFACE applied the vector and tensor analysis. The excellent works listed in the reference section have been of great aid. Finally, I wish to thank Profesor Charles de Prima of the California Institute of Technology for his kind interest in the developmen pated BY terest in the development Unoaxa, Tot ee February, 1950 CONTENTS PREFACE... s+ CHAPTER 1 ‘THE ALGEBRA OF VECTORS, 1. Definition of a vector 2. Kquality of vost ceation by a seslar 4. Addition of vectors. 2 vectors 6, Linear functions 7, Coordinate sy for dot, product. 9. Applications of the sealar geometry 10, Vector, or eross, product 11 law for the vector product 12.'Examples of 48. The triple salar product 14. Tho triple ve Applications to spherical trigonometry CHAPTER 2 DIFFERENTIAL VECTOR CALCULUS. 16, Differentiation of vectors 17. Differentiatc gradient 19, The vector operator del, ¥_ 20. T ector 21, The curl ofa vector 22.’ Reeapitul Tinear coordinates CHAPTER 3. DIFFERENTIAL GEOMETRY. . . . . 7 24, Frenet-Serret formulas 25, Fundamental trinsic equations of @ curve 27, Involutes Spherical indicatriees 30, Envelopes $1, Sur linear coordinstes 32. Langth of are on & su curves. 34, Normal to a surface 85, The set form 0, Goometrical. significance of the sec form 37, Principal directions 98, Conjugat Asymptotic Tines 40, Geodesios CHAPTER 4 INTEGRATION. oo 41. Point-set theory 42, Uniform continuity ties of continuous funetions 44, Cauchy erite 45. Regular area in the plane 40. Jordan eury of bounded varintion 48. Are length 49. ‘ThePREFACE ‘ector and tensor analysis. The excellent. works ference section have been of great aid. Finally, T k Professor Charles de Prima of the California cchnology for his kind interest in the development Hany Lass CONTENTS PREFACE... eee eee CHAPTER 1 ‘THE ALGEBRA OF VECTORS : 1. Definition of a vestor 2. Equality of vectors 3, Multipl cation by a scalar 4. Addition of veetors 5. Subtraction. of vectors 6. Linear functions 7. Coordinate aystems 8. Seal, cor dot, product 9. Applications of the scalar product to space geometry 10, Vector, or cross, product 11. The disteibutive Inw for the vector product 12.’ Examples of the vector product 13. Tho triple scalar product 14. The triple vector product 15, Applications to spherical trigonometry. CHAPTER 2 DIPPERENTTAL VECTOR CALCULUS. 5 e 16, Differentiation of veetors 17. Differentiation rules 18, The gradient 19. The vector operator del, ¥ 20, ‘The divergence of a ‘eotor 21. The curl of a veetor 22. Recapitulation 23, Curvé Tincar coordinates CHAPTER 3 DIFFERENTIAL GEOMETRY oe ‘2. Frenet-Serret formulas 25. Fundamental planes 26. In- ‘winsie equations of curve 27. Involutes 28, Bvolutes 29, Spherical indicatrices 0. Envelopes 31, Surfaces and curve linear coordinates 32, Langth of are on & surface 83. Surface curves 34, Normal to a surfaco 35. The second fundamental form 86. Geometrical significance of the second fundamental form 97. Principal directions 38. Conjugate directions 39, Asymptotic lines 40, Geodesies CHAPTER 4 INTEGRATION, . . Din Seer 41. Pointsot theory 42, Uniform continuity 43. Some proper- ties of continuous funetions 44, Cauchy eriterion for sequences 45. Regular ares in the plane 46. Jordan eurves 47. Functions of hounded variation 48, Are lengih 49, The Riemann integral 80x CONTENTS 50. Connected and simply connected regions 51. ‘The tine inte- gral 52. Line intogral (continua) §3. Stokes’s theorem 5 Examples of Stokes’s theorem 55. The divergence theorem (Gauss) ”56. Conjugate functions CHAPTER 5, STATIC AND DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY . 57, Electrostatic forces 58: Gauss law 59. Poisson's formula ©0. Dielectrics 61. Energy of tho clectrostatic field 62. Dis~ continuities of D and E63. Green's reciprocity theorem 64. “Method of images "65. Conjugate harmonie functions 66, Tate gration of Laplace's equation 67, Solution of Lapluce’s equation in spherical coordinates 68. Applications 69, Integration of Poisson’s equation 70. Decomposition of a vector into a sum of solenoidal and irrotational vectors 71. Dipoles 72. Electric Polarization 73. Magnotostatios 74. Solid angle 75. Moving. changes, or currents’ 76. Magnotio effect of eurrents (Ocrsted) ‘77, Mutual induction and action of two eireuits 78. Law of ine duction (Faraday) 79. Maxwell's equations $0, Solution of Maxwell's equations for electrically free space 81. Poynting’s ‘theorem 82. Lorenta’s electron theory 88. Retarded potentials CHAPTER 6 MECHANICS. eee . 84. Kinematics of a particle 85. Motion about a fixed axis 86. Relative motion 87. Dynamics of w particle 88. Equations of ‘motion for a particle 89. System of particles 90, Momentum ‘and angular momentum 91, Torque, or foree, moment 92. A ‘theorem relating angular momentum with torque 98. Moment of ‘momentum (continued) $4, Moment of relative momentum 95. Kinetic energy 96. Work 97. Rigid bodies 98. Kinematics of 4 rigid body "99, Relative time rato of change of vectors 100. Velocity 101. Acceleration 102. Motion of rigid body with ‘ono point fixed 108. Applientions 104. Euler's angular coordi nates 105. Motion of a free top sbout a fixed point 106, The top (continued) 107. Tnertia tensor CHAPTER 7 HYDRODYNAMICS AND ELASTICITY . 108, Pressure 109, The equation of continuity 110. Equations ‘of motion for a perfect fuid 111, Equations of motion for an incompressible lud under the action of a conservative field 112, ‘The general motion of a fuid 113, Vortex motion 114, Applic cations 115. Small displaccments. Strain tensor 116, The stress tensor. 117. Relationship hetwoen the strain and stress tensors 118, Navier-Stokes equation aT . Bt conrENTs CHAPTER §. ‘TENSOR ANALYSIS AND RIEMANNIAN GEC 119, Summation notation 120, The Keon Determinants 122, Arithmetic, or vector, na variant veotors 124, Covariant veetors "125 ‘two vectors 126. Tensor 127. The line ela ios in @ Riemannian spaco 129, Law of tra Christofel symbols 130, Covariant diferent sic coordinates 182. The curvature tens Christoffel tensor 184, Buclidean space CHAPTER 9 FURTHER APPLICATIONS OF TENSOR ANA: 185, Frenet-Serretformulas 136, Parallel disp 187, Parallelism in a subspace 188. Generalia mm 199, Riemannian curvature. Sch, Lagrango's equations 141. Einstein's law of ‘Two-point tensors REFERENCESconrENTs and simply connocted regions 51. The line inte- integral (continued) $8. Stokes's theorem 5 Stokes's theorem 55. The divergence theorem Yonjugate functions CHAPTER 5 NAMIC ELECTRICITY forces 58: Gauss law 59, Poisson's formula 61. Bnorgy of the clestrostatie field 62. Dis D and E 68, Green's reciprocity theorem 64, ges 65, Conjugnte harmonie functions 66. Tnte aco's equation 67. Solution of Laplace's equation ‘ordinates 68, Applications 69, Tntegration of jon 70. Decomposition of & vector into a sum of invotstional yeetors 71. Dipolee 72. Electro, 3, Magnetostaties 74. Solid angle 75. Moving rents 76. Magnetic effect of eurrente (Osrsted) uction and action of two eireuite 78. Lav of ine lay) 79, Maxwell's equations 80, Solution of ions for electrically free space 81. Poynting’s orenta’s electron theory 83. Retarded potentials (CHAPTER 6 of e particle 85. Motion about a fixed axis 86, 87. Dynamics of a particle 88. Equations of article 89. System of particles 00, Momentum, omentum 91. ‘Torque, or foree, moment 92. A angular momentum with torque 98. Moment of Bnued) 94. Moment of relative momentum | 95. 96, Work 97. Rigid bodios 98. Kinematics of 19, Relative time rate of change of vectors 100. Acceleration 102. Motion of a rigid body wit 108. Application 104. Euler's angular coordi- tion of a free top about's fixed point 106, ‘The 107, Inertia tensor CHAPTER 7 SAND MLASTICITY . 0.2. 100. The equation of continuity 110, Fquations perfect fluid 111. Equations of motion for an Iuid under the aetion of a conservative field 112. tion of @ fuid 113, Vortex motion 114. Applic nall displacements, Strain tensor 116, The 17, Relationship between the strain and. stress vier Stokes equation 17 - 184 230 CONTENTS CHAPTER 8 ‘TENSOR ANALYSIS AND RIEMANNIAN GEOMETRY. 119. Summation notation 120, The Kronecker deltas 121, Determinants “122. Arithmetic, or veotor, mepace 123, Contra: variant vectors 124, Covariant vootors "125. Sealar product of ‘ovo vectors 126. Tensors 127. The line clement 128, Geode ses in Riemannian space 120, Law of transformation for the Chiristofel symbols 130. Covariant diferentiation 181, Geode- sic coordinates 182, The curvature tensor 133. Riemann Christoffel tensor 184, Pucidean space CHAPTER 9 FURTHER APPLICATIONS OP TENSOR ANALYSIS 185, Frenot-Serrot formulas 136, Parallel displacement of vectors 187. Parallelism in a subspace 188. Generalized covariant difer- fntiation 139. Riemennian curvature, Sehut's theorem | 140 Lagrange’s equations 141, Einstein's law of gravitation 142, ‘Two-point tensors REFERENCES... INDEX, 250 siCHAPTER 1 THE ALGEBRA OF VECT magnitude has been multiplied by the factor =. + vector which is twice as long as the vector'a Ae 2 same direction as a (see Fig. 3). We define obtained from a by reversing its direction (seo (ya) = @y)a = aya @+ya=catya a=0 (zero vector) seen that two vectors are parallel if, and only 1 be written as a scalar multiple of the other. Tectors. Let us suppose we have two vectors >». We form a third veetor by constructing a b forming two sides of the triangle, b adjoined ‘The vector starting from the origin of a and W of b is defined as the vector sum a +b. a,andifa = bye = 4d, then atc=b+d Spe. 6] THE ALGEBRA OF VECTORS a From Buclidean geometry we note that atb=b+a a (a+b) te=at(o+0) @ x(a +b) = za ab @) (1) is called the commutative Inw of vector addition; (2) is called the associative law of vector addition; (8) is the distributive law for multiplication by a scalar. ‘The reader should have no trouble proving these three results geometrically. ~ / 5. Subtraction of Vectors. Given the two vectors a and b, wwe can ask ourselves the following question: What veetor ¢ must be added to b to give a? ‘The vector ¢ is defined to be the vector a—b. We can obtain the desired result by two methods. First, construct ~b and then add this vector to a, or second, Iet b and a have a common origin and construct the third side of the triangle. The two possible directions will give a — band b — a (see Fig. 6). ‘Thus a — b= a+ (=D). i ‘ a Linear Functions. Let us consider all vectors in the twro- dimensional Euclidean plane. We choose a basis for this system of vectors by considering any two nonparallel, nonzero vectors. Call them a arid'b, Any third vector ¢ can be written as a linear4 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS (snc. 6 combination or funetion of a and b, cm zat ub w ‘The proof of (4) is by construction (see Fig, 7). Let us now consider the following problem: Let and b have common origin, O,and let € be any veetor starting fom O whose end point lies on the line joining the ends of a and b (see Fig. 8). Fie. 7. Fie. 8. Let C divide BA in the ratio x:y where x+y = 1. In particu- lar, if is the mid-point of BA, then 2 = y = 4. Now © = 08 + BC b+ x(a —b) =mat (lab : so that camatyb © Now conversely, assume ¢ = za + ybyz+y = 1. Then c= zat (1—2)b = 2(a—b) +b We now note that ¢ is a vector that is obtained by adding to b the vector x(a — b), this latter vector being parallel to the veetor a—b. This immediately implies that the end point of € lies on the line joining A to B. We'can rewrite (5) as 0 c—ma—y 1 (6) See. 6] THE ALGEBRA OF VECT ‘We have proved our first important th and sufficient condition that the end pointe with common origin be on a straight line 1, m, n exist such that la-+ mb +n =0 l+m+n=0 with P+ m® + nt 260. ‘We shall, however, find (5) more useful f Example 1. “Let us-prove that the medis divides each median in ‘at a point Pw Let ABC be the given triangle and let A points. Choose O anywhero in space and ¢ from 0 to A, B, C, 4’, B’, C’, calling them Fig. 9). From (5) we have Now P (the intersection of two of the medi joining A and 4’ and on the line joining B an find it expedient to find a relationship betw a, b, a’, b’ associated with A, B, 4’, BY. Fr the veetor ¢ and obtain : 2a! +a = 2b +b fa + da = abi + tbMTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS: (Sno. 6 retion of a and by carat yb ® by construction (see Fig. 7). {der the following problem: Let a and b have ),and let e be any vector starting from O whose ae line joining the ends of a and b (see Fig. 8). Fro, 8 a the ratio 2:y where 2 + y= 1. In particu- -point of BA, then z = y= 4. Now ©=0B+ BC =b+2(-b) =rat(l—2b : c= zat yb © ssume ¢ = za + ybyx+y=1. Then za+(1—2)b=2(@—b) +d 2 is a vector that is obtained by adding to b the his latter vector being parallel to the vector ‘diately implies that the end point of ¢ lies Ato B, We'ean rewrite (5) as © Seo. 6] THE ALGEBRA OF VECTORS 8 We have proved our first important theorem. A necessary sand sufficient condition that the end points of any three vectors with common origin be on a straight line is that real constants 1, m, n exist such that lat mb+ne=0 itmtnoo ® with + mt nt 0. We shall, however, find (5) mote useful for solving problems. Example 1. “Let us-prove that’ the medians of a triangle meet ‘at a point P which divides each median in the ratio 1:2, Let ABC be the given triangle and let A’, BY, C” be the mid- points. Choose 0 anywhere in space and construct the vectors from 0 to 4, B, C, 4’, B,C’, calling them a, b, c, a’, be (sce Fig. 9). From (6) we have a= db+ie W=datic Now P (the intersection of two of the medians) lies on the line joining A and A’ and on the line joining Band B’. We shall thus find it expedient to find a relationship between the four vectors a b, a, b' associated with A, B, A’, B’. From (8) we eliminate the vector ¢ and obtain : Qa! ab +d fa + da = a4 gD @6 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS (Bee. 6 7 1 whose origin is at O But from (6), fa’ + $a represents a vector whose origin and whose end point lies on the line joining A to A’. Similarly, 4b" + 4b represents a vector whose origin is at O and whose end Point lies on the line joining B to B’. There can only be one ‘vector having both these properties, and this is the veetor p = OP. noe Malt dab) db. Note that P divides 4 an BBY in the ratios 2:1. Had wo considered the median CC’ in connection with 4’, we would have obtained that p = $e" + 40, and this completes the proof of the theorem, Brample 2. To prove that the diagonals of a parallelogram biseet each other. Let ABCD be the parallelogram and O any point in spaco (see Fig. 10). The equation d-a=e—b implies that ABCD is a parallelogram, Hence et de=db+idep so that P bisects AC and BD. Problems 4 L. Interpret Y i 2. Give a geometric proof of (3). Y 3. a,b, € are consecutive vectors forming a triangle. What is the vector sum a+b+¢? Generalize this result for any closed polygon. I"E Vectors are drawn from the center of a roglar polygon tot its vertices. From symmetry considerations show that the vee- tor sum is zero, Seo. 6) THE ALGEBRA OF VECTORS 7B. aand bare consecutive vectorsof a paralle the diagonal Vectors in torms of a and b, 6. % by ¢, d are consecutive vector sides c Show that a necessary and sufficient condition parallelogram is that a-Fe = 0 and show btd=o. 7. Show graphically that Jal + [bl show that ja ~ b| = [al —[b). 8. ay b, 6d are vectors from 0 to A, B, 1G, b %a — 0) show that the intersection point of the two lines and B and C triseets these lines. V9. aby 6 d are four vectors with a commor Necessary and sufficient condition that their ep plane. ¥/ 10. What is the vector condition that the e vectors of Prob. 9 form the vertices of a paralle 11. Show that the mid-points of the lines whi points of the opposite sides of a quadtilatera four sides of the quadrilateral are not nevessaril 12, Show that the line which joins one vertex o to the mid-point of an opposite side triseots the 13. A Tine from a vertex of a triangle triseots t It intersects a similar lino issuing from another v ratio do these lines intersect one another? 14. A line from a vertex of a triangle biseots th tis triseoted by a similar line issuing from anothe does this latter line intersect the opposite side? 15, Show that the bisectors of a triangle meet 16. Show that if two triangles in space are s0 s three points of intersection of corresponding sid then the lines joining the corresponding vertices common point, and conversely, ‘This is Desargu 17. b= (sin Oa is a variable vector whieh : Parallel to tho fixed vector &. What is Bx ab, rieally the meaning of ly the meaning‘ECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS Bee. 6 a! + a represents a veotor whose origin is at O point lies on the line joining A to A’. Similarly, ants a veotor whose origin is at O and whose end e line joining B to B’. There can only be one sth these properties, and this is the vector p = OP. Fda = gb’ + 4b. | Note that P divides AA’ and as 2:1, Had we considered the median CC’ in AAV, we would have obtained that p = §e’ + $e, tea the proof of the theorem. To prove that the diagonals of a parallelogram xx, Let ABCD be the parallelogram and 0 any Fie. 10, (see Fig. 10). The equation d-a=e-b ICD is a parallelogram. Hence jatle=ib+id=p s AC and BD. Problems: a J {al vometrie proof of (3). ‘e consecutive vectors forming a triangle. What um a+b-+e? Generalize this result for any ure drawn from the center of a regular polygon to rom symmetry considerations show that the vee- ee. 6] THE ALGEBRA OF VECTORS 7 + 2b. and bareconsecutive vectorsofa parallelogram. Express "9. a,b, & dare four vectors with a common origin, the diagonal-vectors in terms of a and b. 6. a, b, 6 d are consecutive vector sides of a quadrilateral. Show that's necessary and sufficient condition that the figure be ‘parallelogram is that: a+ = 0 and shovr that this implies btd= 7, Show graphically that [al + [bl & la-b|. From this show that |a — b| 2 [al — |b. 8. a,b, ¢,d are vectors from 0 to A, B,C, D. It —a=2d-6) show that the intersection point of the two lines joining A and D and B and C triseets these lines. Find a ‘necessary and sufficient condition that their end points Jie in a plane. 10. What is the vector condition that the end points of the vectors of Prob. 9 form the vertices of a parallelogram? LL, Show that the mid-points of the lines which join the mid points of the opposite sides of a quadrilateral eoincide. ‘The four sides of the quadrilateral are not necessarily coplanar. 12, Show that the line which joins one vertex of a parallelogram to the mid-point of an opposite side trisects the diagonal. 13, A line from a vertex of a triangle triseets the opposite side. It intersects a similar line issuing from another vertex. In what ratio do these lines. intersect one another? 14. A line from a vertex of a triangle biseots the opposite side. tis trisected by a similar line issuing from another vertex. How does this latter line interseet the opposite side? \\15. Show that the bisectors of a triangle meet in a point. « 16. Show that if two triangles in space are so situated that the three points of intersection of corresponding sides lie on a line, then the lines joining the corresponding vertices pass through a common point, and conversely. This is Desargues's theorem, /17. b,= (sin Da is a variable vector which always remains Perl fo the fed vector a. What is 2? Ralin gomet ab, ically the meaning of [>8 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS (See.7 118. Let v, be the velocity of A relative to B and let v: be the velocity of B relative to C. What is the velocity of A relative toC? equation Of C relative to A? 19. Let a, b be constant vectors and let ¢ be defined by the? Are these results obvious? (cos a + (sin )b When is ¢ parallel toa? Parallel to b? Can ¢ ever be parallel toa+b? Perpendicular toa tb? Find," apa ana ae ae are unit orthogonal veetors with common origin, deseribe the de Positions of ¢ and show that ¢ is perpendicular to 5+ 20. If a and b are not parallel, show that ma ++ nb = kal + jb implies m = k,n 21, Theorem of Ceva. A necessary and sufficient condition that the lines which join three points, one on each side of a triangle, to the opposite vertices be coneurrent is that the product of the algebraic ratios in which the three points di 22. Theorem of Menelaus. the sides be —1. ‘Three points, one on each side of a triangle ABC, are collinear if aind only if the product of the algebraic ratios in which they divide the sides BC, CA, AB is unity. AG For a considerable portion of the text Wwe shall deal with the Euclidean space of three dimensions, ‘This is the ordinary space encountered by students of analytic geometry and the calculus. We choose a right-handed coor nate sysi If we rotate the 2 axis into the y axis, a right-hand screw will advance along the positive 2 axis, We let i, j,k be the three unit vectors slong the positive 2, y, and 2 axes, respectively. ‘The vectors i,j, k fofm a very simple and elegant basis for our threodimensional Euclidean space. From Fig, 11 we observe that ‘The numbers 2, y, 2 are called the components of the vector Note that they represent the projections of the veetor x on recdtyite (ao) % y, and # axes. ris called the position vector of the point S10. 71 THE ALGEBRA OF VECTORS and will be used quite frequently in what follows. tral space-time vector that we shall encounter wi = ale, wy 2, OE + 8G 1 DF a ule, 4) 0 = alt, Us 8 OF Dh {tis of the utmost importance that tho student meaning of (11). To be more spesife, let us con ‘motion, At any time t the particle which happe i Pio. 1. point (2, v2) wil have a velocity which depet poten, yz and on tho time f, As time goes on arrive at P(2, y, 2) and have the velocities ule, ponents along the 2 y, # axes given by a(t tp Te Oe awe have a vector of the type (IY havea wetr field. An elementary example we tia}. This veetor field is imesndep talled sleady feld, At the point P(L, —2: ot —j. Another example would be w = tz We shall have more to say about this type; CTORS ° VECTOR AND TENSOR aNazysis Weer | gem THE ALanBRA oF VEX be the velocity of 4 relative to relative to C. What is the vel relative to 4? Feed let vs be the | and will bo used quite frequently in what fotos. The mot geo locity of A relative eral space-time vector that we shall encounter wil re Are these results obvious? fonds nedaee nad ‘eetors and let ¢ be defined by the? | r= ule, ¥, 2,1) = az, y, 2, E+ an | stand the is of utmost importance that the student underst tand th © = (cos ta + (sin )b | nee se. aa "To be more specific, let us consider a ssid ia motion. “At any tine the parte whch lage es a j 2 Waandd | describe the | ‘lle 04a? Parallel to 82 Con ¢ over be parallel ‘Pendle toa +9? Fina #, A necessary and sufcient condition that each side of a triangle, ratendlaus. Three points, one on ease, ofa b whicntat. if aiid only it the product ‘of oko "wich they divide the sides Be Ca, ape Fer considerable portion of the with the Euelidean space of Fro. 11, along the positive 2, y, I foFm a very simple for our three-dimensional Buelideat space. i ity which depends on the eoordi- int P(e, y, 2) will have a velocity 2 the oan tals 2, 92nd on the eet As time goes on, various particles arrive at P(z, y, 2) and have the velocities u(x, y, 2, t) with com- ary Set Ponents along the a y, 2 axes given by az, 9, 2, Dy Ble, v, 1), r-dtyde ihenber wo har a vector of tha typ (1D, we sy tha we Taaityjtee (20) have a vector fed. An elementary vamp sould bet he weer : fi i. is vect field is time-independent and so is a= yi — zj. This vector field is i he ae “con the pa SOONER oF. the veo, called a steady field. At the point P(1, —2, 3) it has “int he projections of tie vector ror: the is called the posi <3i —j, Another example would be w= Sreei — yet} ark, tion vector of the point 2 We shall have more to say about this type of vector in Inter10 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS [sue 8 ‘chapters and will, for the present, be interested only in constant vectors (uniform field). ‘A moment’s reflection shows that if a = ai + a,j + ak, b= bil + by + bols then a+ d= (td) (as + bd) + (+ bK a2) a+ yb = (east yb)i + (eas + vbdi + (eas + ybadle 8, Scalar, or Dot, Product. We define the scalar or dot prod- uct of two vectors by the identity [b] cos 0 13) where @ is the angle between the two vectors when drawn from a common origin, It makes no difference whether we choose @ or =0since cos @ = cos (—8). This definition of the sealar product arose in physics and will play a dominant role in the develop- ment of the text. From (18) we at once verify that a-b=b-a (4) aca (a5) If a is perpendicular to b, then a-b=0 * a6) However, if = 0, then either (1) a = 0, (2) b = 0, or (8) ais perpendicular to b. Now a b is equal to the projection of a onto b multiplied by the length of b (see Fig. 12). a+b = (proj aso = (proj b). | a7 ee. 8} THE ALGEBRA OF VBCTC ‘With this in mind we proceed to prove the d states that a+(b+e) “ba From Fig. 13 it is apparent that a+(b +6) = [proj (bt Olea Fro. 18 since the projection of the sum is the su Let the reader now prove that (@+d)-(¢+4) =a-cta-d4 Ezample 3. To prove that the median celes triangle is perpendicular to the base (6) we see that m=ja+db ‘so that, m:(b —a) = 36% — 84) Fro. 4. which proves that OM is perpendicular to Example 4. To prove that an angle in is a right angle (see Fig. 15).OR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS [Sne. 8 for the present, be interested only in constant ‘elds) ‘flection shows that if ds, then + bri + (as + ba)j + (as + bs) 12) + ybdi + (eas + ubs)i + Geas + yok t, Product. Wo define the sealar or dot prod- by the identity = ai bay + ack, ||| cos & (a3) > between the two vectors when drawn from a. t makes no difference whether we choose 9 or »8 (—6). This definition of the sealar product td will play a dominant role in the develop- Fic. 12, once verify that ababea ay ara [alt = at (5) toby then a-b=0 * Ge) D, then either (1) a = 9, (2) b = 0, or (3) ais to the projection of a onto b multiplied by iz. 12), = (roj a)s |b] = (proj b). [al a7 See. 8] THE ALGEBRA OF VECTORS u With this in mind we proceed to prove the distributive law, which states that ar(b+e) =arbtarc (as) From Fig. 13 it is apparent that a+ (b +6) = [proj (b + o)}. lal = (proj b). lal + (proj oa | sabtacc since the projection of the sum is the sum of the projections. Let the reader now prove that @+b)-( +4) =a-cta-d+b-e4bed Example 3, ‘To prove that the median to the base of an isos celes triangle is perpendicular to the base (see Fig.14), From (8) we see that. 0 that, _ mada+ap m- (ba) = 4(b*— at) = 0 B 3 Pio. 14, which proves that OM is perpendicular to AB. Example 4. is a right angle ‘To prove that an‘angle inscribed in a semicircle (see Fig. 15).12 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS [Sxe. 8 BC =ate AG =e- BC+ AG = (a +6)-(e~a) =C-a=0 2 eszacrude. 0 that BCA is a right angle, - 0 a A Pia. 15, Example 5. Cosine Law of Trigonometry. boa (b—a)-(-a) beta? 2a-b a THE ALGEBRA oF VE ‘Hence if a = asi + aaj + ask, b = bi + asd + abs + Fama 1 int he ingore Example 7. Cauchy's Inequality (a-b)(a-b) = aD (aibs + aabs + aabs)*'S (as? + a? + 1p fo os? J, abe SCY tC Bzample 8, Let’ be a unit vector ma tho 2, y, 2 axes. The projections of i” 08 a, £08 8, e08 7, x0 that 0s ai + cos 8 j++ = pitad + nk Notice that pi?-++ a? tri? = 1. ps, gy tion cosines of the vector i’, Similarly. veotors with direction edsines ps, gs, rs an ‘We also impose the condition that’, j/k’ 0 that the 2’, y’, 2’ axes form a coordinat yz coordinate system with common ori We have r=r’ so that ait yj +; where 2, y, 2 are the coordinates of a poin a-y-2 coordinate system and 2’, y/, 2! are same point P as measured in the 2-y/ ‘Making use of (21) and (22) and equatin that == pi + pa +: y= a2 + auf +4 gare! traf +r‘(OR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS [r0. 8 BO sate AC=c-a 3+AC = @+0)+(©— 8) mena 0 f ezacralie, ight angle. 0 a A Buc. 15, vé Lavo of Trigonometry. 3 ‘THE ALGEBRA OF VECTORS 1B ‘Hence if a = asi + axj + ask, b = bsi + baj + bak, then a+b = arb + asby + asbs (19) Foun 9 oft ltl inpranse Noten that =0, (a+ b)(a-b) = [a|4/b|? cos? @ s |al*|p|? wets om 60 (aibs + aabs + abs)? (aa? + a* + as") (bi? + bs? + bs?) In general § odes § anh So! 0 Beample 8. Let be a unit vector making angles a, 8, 7 with the 2, y, 2 axes. ‘The projections of i’ on the , ys # axes aro £08 a, €05 8, 008 7, 80 that if = cos ai + cos 8 j + cos 7k i + aj + rake (ty Notice that p+ 91" + rit = 1. py, gr, 71 are called the diree- tion cosines of the vector i’, Similarly, let j’ and k’ be unit ‘vectors with direction edsines po; gz, r2 and ps, qx, rs. ‘Thus J = pita + rk KW = pi + oj + rie ‘We also impose the condition that i’, j',k’ be mutually orthogonal, so that the 2’, y’, 2’ axes form a coordinate system similar to the x-y-2 coordinate system with common origin O (see Fig. 17), We have r=s' so that ait yj + 2k =o'f + y'f +2'k, where x, y, 2 are the coordinates of a point P as measured in the z-y-2 coordinate system and 2’, y’, 2 are the coordinates of the same point P as measured in the z'-y'-2" coordinate system. ‘Making use of (21) and (22) and equating components, we find ‘that (22) - == pa’ + pal + pet y= ar’ + ae +900 (23) gare! traf tre“ VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS xe. 8 We now find it more convenient to rename the 2-y-¢ coordinate system. Let 2 = 2}, y = 2%, 2 = 2%, where the superscripts do not designate powers but are just labels which enable us to differ cntiate between the various axes. Similarly, let.2’ = 2", y’ = 2%, / / / / t a f Fro, 17, Y= 2, Now let as* represent the cosine of the angle between the a and J axes. We ean write (23) as m= Yash, a=1,23 (24) oa By making use of the fact that jk =i = 0, we can prove that 3 Aes’, 1,23 5) where Ast = ay? We leave this as an exercise for the reader. Let us notice that differentiating (24) yields iy =1,2,8 (26) =a, Src. 9] THE ALGEBRA OF VEC Ezample 9. The vector @ = ai + a* sented by the number triple (a, a, a ing to geometry we could develop an alge Hib = (0, WB’), then a+b is definec (+ Bia? + O50 + 6°), andza = a(a! number triple (va, xa, za), From thi that (e!, @, a) = aX, 0, 0) + 240, 1, The triples (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1) for vector space, that is, the space of number the determinant formed from these triple 100 o10 oba does not vanish, Any three triples whos vanish can be used to form a basis. Le result. We can define the scalar prodi ‘wo triples by the law (a= b) = ab! + at 9. Applications of the Scalar Product t (a) We define a plane as the locus of fixed point perpendicular to a fixed di point be Po(ra Yo, 20) and let the fixed di vector N = Ai + Bj -+ Ck, Let x be the point P(e, y, 2) on the plane (Fig. 18). N pendicular to N so that (1) i+ Bj+0 = or (@ — ei + (y — wedi + @ — ae] «( and A@ ~ x) + BY — w) + C6 ‘This is the equation of the plane, ously Ties in the plane since its coordinate tion (27) is linear in x, y, © (®) Consider the surface Az + By + C Yo, Z0) be any point on the surface. Of r Az + Byo + Cz +D@ AND TENSOR ANALYSIS [See. 8 convenient to rename the 2-y-z coordinate 8,2 = 2°, where the superseripts do enable us to differ larly, let. 2” = 2!,y! = 2%, rious axes. Simi Fro, 17, represent the cosine of the angle between We ean write (23) as (24) 0, we Ba Sgt, a=1,33 (5) ft his as an exercise for the reader. oF ay, ao =1,2,3 (26) See. 9) THE ALGEBRA OF VECTORS 15 Example 9. The vector a = a'i + a4 + a'& may be repre- sented by the number triple (a', a’, a°). Hence, without appeal- ing to geometry we could develop an algebraic theory of vectors. If b = (UY, bb), then a+b is defined by the number triple (a! + dia + ba + b*), and za = 2(a', a, a®) is defined by the number triple (ra!, za’, za). From this the reader can prove that (@, a, a°) = a(t, 0,0) + 0°, 1, 0) + a%(0, 0, 1) ‘The triples (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (, 0, 1) form a basis for our linear vector space, that is, the space of number triples. We note that the determinant formed from these triples, namely, 100 oo on oes not vanish. “Any three triples whose determinant does not Vanish ean be used to form a basis. Let the reader prove this result. We can define the scalar product (inner product) of ‘two triples by the law (@-b) = a'b! + ab? + abs, 9. Applications of the Scalar Product to Space Geometry (@) We define a plane as the locus of lines passing through a fixed point perpendicular to a fixed direction, Let the fixed point be Pa(rs, ye, 29) and let the fixed direction be given by the vector N= Ai + Bj + Ck. Let r be the position veetor to any. point P(e, y, 2) on the plane (Fig. 18). Now PyP = x ~ tis per- Pendicular to NY so that (t= 1) + (Ai + Bj + Ck) 1 [@ = oi + Y ~ yi + @ — ak] - (Ai + Bi + CK) =0 and A@ — 2) + BY — we) + C@ - 2) =0 er ‘This is the equation of the plane. ‘The point Py(to, yo, 2) obvie sly Ties in the plane since its coordinates satisfy (27). Equa- tion (27) is linear in z, y, 2 () Consider the surface Ax + By + Cz+D =0. Let Plas, Yo, %0) be any point on the surface. Of necessity, Azy + Byy + Czy + D =0. e16 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS (Src. 9 Sec. 9] THE ALGEBRA oF Ve, Subtracting we have © to the plane, Choose any point Ps ly iGo 48y-w4déiw ce on apparent that the shortest dis (e— 30) + By —w) + Ce — 2) @) tance will be the projection of Now consider the two vectors Ai + Bj + Ck and PP on N, whore N is unit @— si + W— wi te — k vveetor normal to the plane (see —~ Fig. 19). Now p, PoP «8 _ Ag+ Bo + Cr + D h a+ Bar| where use has been made of the fact that 0 F Aae + By + Ceo + D | (@ Equation of a straight line through parallel to the vector T= Ui -+ mj + nk, Fie. 18, ‘Equation (28) shows that these two vectors are perpendicular. Hence the constant veetor Ai + Bj + Ck is normal to the sur- face at every point £0 that the surface is a plane. Punt Fie. 19, (©) Distance from a point to a plane. Let the equation of the plane be Az + By + Cz + D = 0, and let P(§, n, ¢) be any point in space. We wish to determine the shortest distanee from P Feo.9k AND TENSOR ANALYSIS (Sse. 9 )+ By — w) + C@ — #1) (28) © vectors Ai + Bj + Ck and aoi + (y — wi + @ — ake Fo. 18, s that these two veetors are perpendicular. veetor Ai + Bj + Ck is normal to the sur 10 that the surface is a plane. Pe me Fie. 10, 4@ point to a plane. Let the equation of the = C+D = 0, and let P(E, 9, $) be any point to determine the shortest distance from P 80.9] THE ALGEBRA OF VECTORS 7 to the plane. Choose any point Ps lying in the plane. It is apparent that the shortest dis- tance will be the projection of PoP on N, where N is a unit vector normal to the plane (see Fig. 19). Now d= |PP-N| _|AE+ Ba + Cr +) r+ BE oH | where use has been made of the fact that, Axe + By + C+D Fro. 20 (@) Equation of a straight line through the point Py(to, Yo, £0) parallel to the vector T = li-+ mj + nk. From Fig. 20 it is 218 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS (Bee. 0 apparent that r—ro is parallel to T so that r— 1 = XT, <2 13, The four vectors a, b; ¢, d are (a xb) x(¢ xd) =0. 14, By considering the expansion for ( a spherical trigonometrie identity (see Se 15, Show that (a xb) - (¢ x4) x (e xf) = (abd)( = (abe)( (eda)( 16, Find an expression for the shortes point of the veetor r; to the plane passing of the vectors ta ta ru All four vecto P(O,0, 0). 17. Consider the system of equations {a-4) a axb+ bxe aye + bay + et = ag + bay + eae as + bay + oe Leta = ai + a,j + ask, ete. Write (41) mn, and assuming (abe) + 0, solve for a 18, Find the shortest distance betwee space.‘OR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS (Bee. 18 Fis. 26, Problems methods that the vectors a = are parallel tor perpendicular to the vectors, i — 3) — ky j+k itj an angular speed of 2 radians per second, and asses through the points P(0, 1, 2), Q(t, 3, —2) the particle when it is located at the point ion of the plane passing through the end i+ aaj + agk, b= Dri + bef + Dake, all three vectors with origin at P(0, 0, 0). t ABI w= ale, 1201+ 859) fu Jam J aude suds , due that ay a+ acat + ayat + ae at # Fo. 31. 16. The transformation between reets spherical coordinates is given by 2 = rin 6 005 y= rein @sin g 2= cos 8 where 9s the colatitude, ¢ is the longituc and r is the magnitude of the position \ to the partielo in question. Find the eor ‘and acceleration of the particle along the a en ey (see Fig. 31).Spc.17] ‘DIFFERENTIAL VECTOR CALCULUS 35 AND TENSOR ANALYSIS (820.17 14. Let ry be the position vector to a fixed point P in space, and let r be the position vector to a variable point Q lying on a space a). 1a (a E curver = x(3). Show that ifthe distance PQ is a minimum, then -r A) ] Rta (« 2) P (5) 3 — my is perpendicular to the tangent at Q. Show also that Problems 62). 16. Hw = ale, uy 2,21 + BH 2,05 +400 456, Oly show du ou, aude, oudy . duds. that a: = ae + aca + aya * as at dr) 2) sanrapet oe axa) te) tt, at) ae ae ae a), anon evatot (48) > sin at; a,b, ware constants, Prove that Tar =o. ere cow that r has a constant direction. orin the direction r. Show that rxdr RxaR= xb, show that z Baa. 31. ‘The transformation between rectangular coordinates and ‘coordinates is given by (@ xb) =o x(a xd) “ Or ae show that [5 — a'r = 0. a,bareeon- y=rsin Osin g 2 = rcs 0 where @ is the colatitude, ¢ is the longitudinal or azimuthal angle, vhich satisfies MY = at +b, 9, bare con - and r is the magnitude of the position vector from the origin aique? to the particle in question. Find the components of the velocity j-1e_ de, and aceleration ofthe particle along the unit orthogonal veetors rdt rede” ry Cn @p (see Fig. 31).36 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS (Sno. 18 17. Consider the differential equation ea a ae du +247 + Bu=0 where A, B are constants, Assume a solution of the form u(t) = eC, where C is a constant veetor, and show that u(t) = Cre + Crem is a solution of (i), wi, we being roots of w!+2dw + B=0. Consider the eases for which A? — B <0, A? B= 0,4? —B>0. 18. Find the vector u which satisfies ea ae aa such that u = i, 7° = j, G2 = Kfor t= 0. ‘h that 7 Ge 7 K fort = 0. 19, If us is a solution of du ja, du tA gg tag te and if us is a solution of ou, ee, yt Gi) tA get BG tC FO show that u: + us is a solution of (ii) provided A, B, C are independent of u. Why is this necessary? 20. A particle moving in the plane of (r, @) has no transverse ; Ta( a sxc, tas 3, 12 (#8). Show tar he an vector from the origin to the particle sweeps out equal areas in aval intervals of time. 18, The Gradient. Let (2) bo any continuous diferent able space function. From the calculus = a0 4 ay 4 2 3" + ay Wt ae (56) See. 18] DIFFERENTIAL VECTOR ¢ Now let r be the position vector to the y sitvita If we move to the point Q(x + dz, y +. de = dit dyj4. ‘Now notico that (56) contains the terms ae de de. ae) ay’ a2 three partial derivatives, Letdel. ‘We define a new vector forn We immediately seo that de =dr+ve (58) ‘We shall now give a geomet- rieal interpretation of Ve. At the point P(e, yo, zi), ¢has the value (20, Yo, £0) 80 that ele, Y, 2) = e(0, Yo, 20) represents a surface which obviously contains the point PCa, Yo, 20) As long as we move along this surface, ¢ ‘eC, Yo, 20) and dg = 0. Consequently, dr+ve =0 Now Ve is a vector which is at once com ¢ has been differentiated, and Bq. (59) « dicular to dr as long as dr represents a ch @ remains on the surface ¢ = constant. all the possible tangents to the surface necessarily be normal to the surfaceAND TENSOR ANALYSIS (Sno. 18 srenial equation oa 24 Bu =o Fy ants, Assume a solution of the form’ is a constant vector, and show that ‘a solution of (i), w1, ws being roots of onsidler the eases for which A? — B <0, 0. which satisfies au ae du AGE t BG toun0 f eu | yt fey pts yar pt 4 cu= FO \ solution of (i) provided A, B, C are ¥ is this necesary? fin the plane of (r, 6) has no transverse a : 4 (22) <0, show that the radius ala) at the to the particle sweeps out equal areas in _et ¢(x, ¥, 2) be any continuous differenti- ‘rom the ealeulus 26 ae 4 2 ay 4 28 ag 4 Fay 4 (56) att at a” (66) Sro.18) DIFFERENTIAL VECTOR CALCULUS 37 ‘Now let r be the position vector to the point P(x, y, 2). aityj tek If we move to the point Q(x + dz, y + dy, 2 + de) (Fig. 82), 8 dr = deit dyj+dek Now notice that (56) contains the terms da, dy, dz and the terms 6, 89, 86, yy ; Be ay ae: We deine a new vector formed from g by taking is three partialderivatives. Letdel p= Vo = gra ‘We immediately see that de =dr-Ve (58) We shall now give a geomet tical interpretation “of Ve Ab the point P (ee to 2), eas the value eo, Yo, £9) 80 that ol@, 12) = ole 4 2) represents a surface which obviously contains the point P (zo, Yo, #0) Fre. 32. As long as we move along this surface, ¢ has the constant value ‘elt Yo 20) and dy = 0, Consequently, from (58), (69) Now Vy is a veetor which is at once completely determined after ¢ has been differentiated, and Eq. (59) states that Vy is perpen- dicular to de as long as de represents a change from P to Q, where @ remains on the surface ¢ = constant. ‘Thus Ve is normal to all the possible tangents to the surface at P so that Ve must, necessarily be normal to the surface o(z, y, 2) = constant (seo de-Ve =38 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS [sro 18 Fig. 33). Let us now return to dp = dr-Vp, ‘The.vector Vy is fixed at any point P(z, y, 2), so that dy (the change in ¢) will depend to a great extent on dr. Certainly dg will be a maximum when dr is parallel to Vg, since dr - Vp = [del cos 8, and cos . y@ #8 maximum for @= 0” ‘Thus V¢ is in the direction of ; maximum inereaseof o(¢,u,2)- Let [ds] = ds 20 that de L ds “Ve (60) Y where w is a unit vector in tho direction dr. Hence the change of ¢ in any direction is the projection of Ve on _ the unit vector having’ this 7a direction. Ezample 19. ‘To find a unit vector normal to the surface a*+y—2= Lat the point PQ, 1,1), Here eG, %2) = att ys 2ei + Oyj — 21 #25 — kat PU, 1,) Thus a 2+ 2K N==S Example 20, We find Vr ifr = (x? + y*-+ 29. The surface 7 = constant is a sphere. Hence Vr is normal to the sphere and 80 is parallel to the position vector t. ‘Thus Vr = kx. Now dr = de-Vr = deer rdr from (68) Therefore belo aise 6» Example 21 Vilu) = f(u) Vu, u(x, y, 2) Sto, 18) DIFFERENTIAL VECTOR c Proof: wi) = Li X54 he vay 4 ou sats 3 = su) vu Example 22 Vil, Uay ss + 4 thn) 24 Hye % af dus Gas te ue Example 28. Consider the ellipse gives (eco Fig. 34). Now V(ru-+ 72) is norm Fro, 4, ‘T be a unit tangent to the ellipse. Thue Weed = -vr But from Example 20, Uris a unit vest AP, and Vre is @ unit veetor parallel to thAND TENSOR ANALYSIS [See. 18 eturn to de = dr+Ve. ‘The.vector Ve is 1,2), $0 that dg (the change in ¢) will cons. Certainly dg will be a maximum ay since dr- Ve = |d||p| cos 8, and cos v8 8 maximum for = 07 ‘Thus Vo is in the direction of ‘maximum inerease of (; ¥,2)- 7 Let [ar] = ds 80 that de G=u-ve (60) 9 where w is a unit vector in the direction dr. Hence the change of ¢ in any direction is the projection of Ve on the unit vector having this direction. da unit vector normal to the surface point P(1,1, 1). Here ety = 2c + 29) — = 2 4,2) — kat PG, 1,0) Avrifr = (t+ ye +2) The surface >. Hence Vr is normal to the sphere and ition veetor x. ‘Thus Vr = kr. Now Wekdrer=-rdr from (63) and Wr= (en) We) = Fw) Va, w= ule, yz) Src. 18] DIFFERENTIAL VECTOR CALCULUS 39 Proofs =% 445,49 Ww) = Zit i+ i ray i pew) 5 pry 2 ' =f Rito gi tro ge =f'(w) vu Example 22 Pht ty eve yt) Lie i F af Af a5 4 Af By (ee seat a) 34 ~ ou, (62) Example 23. Consider the ellipse given by ri ++ rs = constant (sce Fig. 34). Now V(ri+ 72) is normal to the ellipse. Let Fo. 34, ‘T be a unit tangent to the ellipse, ‘Thus Viri + r:) «T = 0, and Wie T = —VreeT (63) But from Example 20, Vri is a unit veetor parallel to the vector AP, and Vrs is a unit veotor parallel to the veotor BP. Equation40 VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS (Src. 19 (63) shows that AP and BP make equal angles with the tangent to the ellipse, 19. The Vector Operator V. We define 2 4j2and vain tig tks 6) Nn havin oper, sta isan prt dio ential calculus. Thus ve Z+i2 ones de 4 8 4 ae ae ‘We call V (del), a veetor operator because of its components aaa 4 , 4 ‘ je. ay 3g, TE Wil elp us in tho fature'to keep in mind that V acts both as a differential operator and as a vector. Example 24 5 200) 5 0m) Cu) Vow) ATT HIG HES Vour) uve + ove (65) ‘This result is easily remembered if we keep in mind that V is a differential operator, s0 that we can apply the ordinary rules of cealeulis Problems 1. Find the equation of the tangent plane to the surfaco ay — 2 = 1 at the point (2, 1, 1). faiorgcn a: 1 BUELA SUPERIOR DE GAY Mateivaricns PLN! Sno. 19] “DIFFERENTIAL VECTOR c 2. Show that V(a+r) = a, where ais is the position vector. 3. TEr = (2 + y! + 29), find 9 by 4. Ife = @ xa) + (r xb), show that Ve = bx (txa) fax when a and b are constant vectors, + 5, Let y=2t+y%. Find [Vol ands mum dhafige of ¢. . GFind the cosine of the angle betwe ay $23 and 2 log ¢ — y= —4 at the point of ir 7. What is the value of Vel, y, 2) at ‘maximum? 8, The surfaces g(t, y, 2) = constan stant are normal along a curve of int value of Ve = V¥ along this curve? 9. What is the direotion for the maxir function g(e, v2) = 2 sin 2 — y cos 2 at 10. Expand V(u/s) where w = u(t, vs 11, Tet r and 2 be the distances from to any point on parabola. We know (R—i)-T = 0, where T is a unit tangen and interpret this equation. 12, Show that the ellipse ry 7 = 1 intersect at right angles w foci 13. If Ve is always parallel to the pos em ol) art eke MA, Find the change of ¢ = zye in the ‘surface yz? + xy? + 2¥y = 3 at the poin 15. TES = (2, 24, 2) (soe Example 8 war ne a = 1,2, 3, show that 2-335 oes