Personal Relationships, 10 (2003), 475–493. Printed in the United States of America.

Copyright # 2003 IARR. 1350-4126/02

Attachment insecurity, depression, and the

transition to parenthood

JUDITH FEENEY,a RICHARD ALEXANDER,a PATRICIA NOLLER,a AND

LYDIA HOHAUSb
a
Family Centre, School of Psychology, University of Queensland; bSchool of Applied
Psychology, Griffith University

Abstract
In a longitudinal study of adult attachment and depression during the transition to parenthood, 76 couples
completed questionnaires on three occasions: during the second trimester of pregnancy, and six weeks and six
months postbirth. On the first and second occasions, the couples were also interviewed about their experiences of
pregnancy and parenthood, respectively. Measures were also completed at similar time intervals by a comparison
group of 74 childless couples. Attachment security was assessed in terms of the dimensions of discomfort with
closeness and relationship anxiety. Relationship anxiety was less stable for transition wives than for other
participants. Relationship anxiety also predicted increases in new mothers’ depressive symptoms, after control-
ling for a broad range of other risk factors. However, the association between relationship anxiety and maternal
depression was moderated by husbands’ caregiving style. Maternal depression was linked to increases in hus-
bands’ and wives’ attachment insecurity and marital dissatisfaction. Results are discussed in terms of the impact
of depression and negative working models of attachment on couple interaction.

The transition to parenthood is a develop-
mental phase marked by significant per-
sonal, familial, and social change (Levy-Shiff,
1994). Given the diverse demands asso-
ciated with new parenthood, it is not sur-
prising that studies have demonstrated
changes in couple relationships and individ-
ual well-being across the transition period.
In terms of couple relationships, research
indicates that parenthood often results in a
more traditional division of labor, together
with a lessening of shared leisure activities,
joint decision-making, and general compan-
ionship (e.g., Huston & Vangelisti, 1995;
Sanchez & Thomson, 1997). Further, there
is substantial evidence that, on average,
relationship satisfaction declines across the
transition period, although this decline does
Correspondence should be addressed to Judith Feeney,
School of Psychology, University of Queensland,
Queensland 4072, Australia; e-mail:j.feeney@psy.uq.
edu.au.
not apply to all couples (Belsky & Rovine,
1990; Terry, McHugh, & Noller, 1991).
In terms of individual well-being, mater-
nal depression has emerged as an important
issue for researchers and clinicians. Studies
suggest that 8% to 15% of new mothers are
affected by postnatal depression and many
others experience depressive symptoms that
are milder or less enduring in nature
(O’Hara, 1997). Further, depressed mood
is usually accompanied by other problems
such as extreme fatigue, feelings of guilt,
and disturbances of sleep and appetite. Col-
lectively, these problems have serious impli-
cations for women’s well-being, for couple
relationships, and for infant care (Murray
& Cooper, 1997).
Maternal depression
Researchers have examined a wide range of
risk factors for postpartum depression,
including early family-of-origin experiences,

475
476
personal adjustment difficulties (especially
prior depression), hormonal and obstetric
factors, infant health and temperament,
stressful life events, aspects of the couple
relationship, and social support (Beck,
1996). None of these variables has received
unambiguous support as a risk factor, but
some appear to be more important than
others. For example, there has been limited
support for the role of obstetric factors and
family-of-origin experiences, but consider-
able support for the role of personal adjust-
ment difficulties, infant temperament, and
stressful life events (Da Costa, Larouche,
Dritsa, & Brender, 2000; Gotlib, Whiffen,
Wallace, & Mount, 1991; O’Hara, 1997).
Even stronger evidence exists for the
importance of relationship factors, both
within and beyond the marriage. With
regard to relationships beyond the mar-
riage, postnatal depression is more likely
to occur when mothers receive, or perceive,
little support from friends and family mem-
bers (Beck, 1996; O’Hara, 1997). This find-
ing can be understood in terms of the effects
of social support on mothers’ emotions,
cognitions, and actual parenting inter-
actions (Rutter, 1997). In terms of factors
within the marriage, postnatal depression
has been linked to marital conflict and dis-
satisfaction (Beck, 1996; O’Hara, 1997). In
addition, longitudinal studies have reported
higher rates of postnatal depression when
husbands are perceived as uncaring or over-
controlling (Boyce, Hickie, & Parker, 1991;
Matthey, Barnett, Ungerer, & Waters,
2000). The link between marital quality
and maternal depression is likely to be com-
plex, however, and qualitative data suggest
reciprocal relations between maternal
depression and the state of the couple rela-
tionship (Mauthner, 1998). Given the role
of relationship factors in postnatal depres-
sion, it is important to consider the rele-
vance of attachment insecurity.
Attachment, caregiving, and depression
during the transition to parenthood
Since 1987, when Hazan and Shaver
reported their groundbreaking studies of
J. Feeney, R. Alexander, P. Noller, and L. Hohaus
romantic love as an attachment process,
research has demonstrated the effects of
attachment security on relationship quality
and stability (see Feeney, 1999, for a review).
Studies have also supported the relevance of
attachment to adults’ psychological well-
being. For example, attachment difficulties
have been linked with depression (Carnelley,
Pietromonaco, & Jaffe, 1994; Dozier,
Stovall, & Albus, 1999; Strahan, 1995). This
link seems to be quite robust, given that
attachment difficulties have been variously
defined in terms of attachment-related
experiences (e.g., early death of a parent),
adults’ state of mind regarding early parental
relationships, and discomfort with closeness
and anxiety over relationships (the key
dimensions of romantic attachment).
Despite abundant evidence that attach-
ment security predicts individual and couple
functioning, it is important to note that the
degree of security is not immutable. In fact,
researchers have noted that measures of
adult attachment show considerable
instability over time (Baldwin & Fehr,
1995). Stability rates increase when unreli-
ability of measures is taken into account
(Scharfe & Bartholomew, 1994), and when
items with optimal psychometric properties
are used (Fraley, Waller, & Brennan, 2000),
but some instability nevertheless remains.
Consistent with the concept of working
models of attachment, it seems that attach-
ment security can be influenced by important
relational events, such as the development
and the dissolution of couple bonds
(Feeney & Noller, 1992; Kirkpatrick &
Hazan, 1994).
Also consistent with attachment theory
(Bowlby, 1969, 1973, 1980), recent studies
suggest that the effects of adult attachment
style (or attachment dimensions) are more
pronounced under stressful conditions.
Much of this research has focused on con-
ditions that challenge the attachment bond,
such as major relationship conflict (Feeney,
1998; Rholes, Simpson, & Stevens, 1998).
Results of these studies support Mikulincer
and Florian’s (1998) claim that attachment
security is a resource that helps individuals
cope more effectively with challenging
Attachment insecurity, depression, and the transition to parenthood
situations. These researchers present addi-
tional evidence for this claim, including a
study of first-time mothers and a matched
sample of childless married women. In this
study, insecure attachment was associated
with psychological distress, but only among
the new mothers. This finding supports the
widely held view, noted earlier, that new
parenthood is a very challenging time.
Unfortunately, however, the cross-sectional
nature of Mikulincer and Florian’s data
limits their interpretability.
Other researchers have recently argued
that adult attachment theory is uniquely
suited to the study of the transition to par-
enthood. New parenthood is a time when
attachment issues should be particularly
salient, as the couple bond must accommo-
date the presence of a new and highly
dependent individual (Alexander, Feeney,
Hohaus, & Noller, 2001; Rholes, Simpson,
Campbell, & Grich, 2001). For some
spouses, attachment-related concerns (dis-
comfort with closeness, relationship anx-
iety) may be exacerbated by the demands
of parenthood; for others, the experience
of new parenthood (including the reactions
of the partner) may strengthen a sense of
security. Hence, like relationship develop-
ment and dissolution, the transition to par-
enthood may be a relatively powerful
influence on attachment security.
Further, initial levels of attachment
security may predict spouses’ adjustment
to the transition to parenthood. In a longi-
tudinal study of new parenthood, Rholes
et al. (2001) focused on the implications
of wives’ anxious-ambivalence. These
researchers found that highly ambivalent
women reported declines in marital satisfac-
tion across the transition period, particu-
larly if they perceived their husbands as
providing insufficient help and support pre-
natally. The moderating effect of husbands’
provision of help and support is consistent
with the argument that attachment and care-
giving are core, interrelated features of
couple bonds (Hazan & Shaver, 1994;
Shaver, Hazan, & Bradshaw, 1988). Further,
both attachment and spousal caregiving
are of prime importance during the transi-
477
tion to parenthood: Women still tend to be
the primary caregivers of young children,
but partners can play a key role in meeting
their needs for care and reassurance. Hence,
husbands who provide effective spousal
care may buffer the potentially negative
effects of wives’ insecurity.
As noted already, studies of adult attach-
ment have linked insecurity to depressive
symptoms, and to less constructive
responses to stressful situations. To our
knowledge, the only empirical data linking
attachment insecurity and postnatal depres-
sion are those of Meredith and Noller (in
press). In this study, mothers identified as
suffering from postnatal depression rated
themselves higher on preoccupied attach-
ment than other mothers. Although this
finding suggests that attachment insecurity
may be a risk factor for postnatal depres-
sion, the study had several limitations: Only
mothers (and not their partners) were stud-
ied, no comparison group of childless
women was included, and attachment and
adjustment (depression) were again meas-
ured concurrently. The concurrent meas-
urement is particularly problematic, as it
precludes establishing causal relations
among these variables.
The present study: Research questions and
hypotheses
The present study focuses on couple rela-
tionships across the transition to parent-
hood. Like Rholes et al. (2001), we were
interested in assessing the effects of adult
partners’ attachment security on adjust-
ment to parenthood. However, our focus
was on depressive symptoms, rather than
marital satisfaction. As well as drawing
together two significant research areas
(adult attachment and maternal depres-
sion), our study has other important
strengths. First, it uses a major, naturally
occurring event to assess attachment-
related issues. Second, it includes a sample
of childless couples; hence, we are able to
compare the stability of attachment and the
predictive relations between attachment
and depression in couples facing first-time
478
parenthood and those not facing a common
stressful event. Third, couples were assessed
on three occasions, allowing tests of causal
relations between attachment, depressive
symptoms, and later outcomes. Finally,
questionnaire and interview data were gath-
ered from both husbands and wives, provid-
ing a comprehensive assessment of risk
factors for the onset of depressive symp-
toms. Together, these features allow a
strong test of theory-based predictions rele-
vant to three research questions.
Stability of attachment. First, we were
interested in the stability of attachment. As
noted earlier, attachment-related concerns
may be either alleviated or exacerbated by
the demands of parenthood, depending on
specific experiences. Hence, attachment
security may be less stable among first-time
parents than among childless spouses.
Further, the personal and relational changes
that accompany parenthood are generally
more marked for women than for men. We
therefore made the following hypothesis.
H1: Attachment dimensions will be less
stable over the course of the study
for wives in the transition group
than for other spouses.
Note that we did not expect parenthood
to produce change in mean levels of secur-
ity: Relational events that are primarily
negative (e.g., breakups) increase insecur-
ity, but events such as the formation of
new relationships predict instability of
attachment, rather than change in a parti-
cular direction (Feeney & Noller, 1992;
Kirkpatrick & Hazan, 1994).
Predicting depression. Second, we were
interested in the role of attachment insecur-
ity in predicting depressive symptoms
among new mothers. Spouses who feel
unworthy of love and who lack confidence
in their partner’s commitment are likely to
find parenthood particularly stressful, and
to have difficulty renegotiating the couple
relationship. Hence, the relationship anx-
iety dimension of attachment may be an
J. Feeney, R. Alexander, P. Noller, and L. Hohaus
important predictor of adjustment during
this period. To examine this question, we
assessed a broad range of risk factors for the
onset of depressive symptoms. Specifically,
we included measures of marital satisfaction,
social support, psychological adjustment
(prenatal depression and general anxiety),
factors related to pregnancy and birth, and
infant temperament. Our aim was to examine
these variables as controls, to determine the
unique ability of attachment to predict
changes in maternal depression. Our expect-
ation is stated in the following hypothesis.
H2a: Relationship anxiety will predict
increased depressive symptoms
among new mothers, after control-
ling for other risk factors, such as
marital dissatisfaction.
However, husbands who provide effec-
tive spousal care may buffer the effects of
wives’ insecurity. Hence, we assessed theo-
retically important dimensions of spousal
caregiving (sensitivity, proximity, coopera-
tion, and compulsive caregiving), and
formed another hypothesis.
H2b: The link between relationship
anxiety and depressive symptoms
will be stronger for wives whose
husbands reported providing less
beneficial care.
Given previous research linking attach-
ment insecurity and depression in general
samples, no hypothesis was formulated
concerning the relative strength of this asso-
ciation among comparison and transition
groups; however, this research question
was addressed. Similarly, for completeness,
we assessed whether husbands’ beneficial
caregiving might buffer the effects of wives’
insecurity within comparison couples.
Implications of depression for later
functioning. Third, we examined the
implications of new mothers’ depression
for later individual and couple functioning.
Previous researchers have noted the high
levels of interdependence that characterize
Attachment insecurity, depression, and the transition to parenthood
marital bonds (Berscheid, 1998), and the
likelihood of reciprocal relations between
maternal depression and the state of the cou-
ple relationship (Mauthner, 1998). Further,
given that the transition to parenthood is a
complex and ongoing process, variables
such as attachment insecurity may be both
cause and consequence of adjustment
difficulties. Hence, it is crucial to examine
the impact of depression on the later attach-
ment security of both spouses, as well as on
overall evaluations of the marriage.
H3: Maternal depression will be asso-
ciated with increases in attachment
insecurity and relationship dissatis-
faction across the transition period
for both husbands and wives.
Again, no hypothesis was formulated
concerning the relative effects of depression
in the comparison and transition groups,
but for completeness this question was also
addressed.
Method
Participants
Two groups of married couples were recruited
for the study. Both groups were restricted to
couples who were in their first marriages and
Table 1. Demographic characteristics of transition and comparison wives and husbands
Transition
(n ¼ 76)
Age (in years) 29.0 (4.7)
Length of marriage 43.3 (36.8)
(in months)
Religiosity 1.8 (0.7)
(from 1 ¼ not at all, to 3 ¼ very)
Percentage with a 75.0%
postschooling qualification
Percentage holding 57.1%
professional/managerial positions
Note. The table shows mean scores and standard deviations (in parentheses) for continuous variables, and
percentages for categorical variables.
479
who had not had any children before; these
conditions were imposed to enhance the com-
parability of the groups and to ensure that
transition couples were new to the experiences
of pregnancy and parenthood.
Transition couples were recruited during
the second trimester of pregnancy (14th to
26th weeks). These couples were contacted
through radio interviews and media releases
in local newspapers and magazines, by
approaching relevant health services (e.g.,
women’s hospitals, antenatal clinics), and
through the psychology subject pool at the
University of Queensland. At the beginning
of the study, the transition group consisted
of 107 couples. The comparison group con-
sisted of couples who reported that they
were not planning to have children in the
near future. These couples were contacted
in similar ways to the transition couples,
except that health services were not used as
a recruitment source. This group contained
100 couples when the study began.
Both transition and comparison groups
varied widely in terms of age, length of mar-
riage, religiosity, education, and occupation
(see Table 1). Almost all couples were of
Anglo-European background, with English
as their first language. The comparability of
the transition and comparison groups,
together with issues concerning attrition,
are addressed in the Procedure section.
Wives Husbands
Comparison Transition Comparison
(n ¼ 74) (n ¼ 76) (n ¼ 74)
28.5 (5.1) 31.6 (6.1) 30.5 (5.9)
41.9 (35.2) 43.3 (36.8) 41.9 (35.2)
1.7 (0.7) 1.7 (0.7) 1.6 (0.7)
77.1% 68.8% 74.0%
60.0% 50.1% 62.4%
480
Questionnaire measures
Attachment security. This construct was
assessed using the Attachment Style Question-
naire (ASQ; Feeney, Noller, & Hanrahan,
1994). Although the ASQ can yield scores
on five attachment scales, the two major
factors are discomfort with closeness
and relationship anxiety (Alexander et al.,
2001). Discomfort with closeness (16 items)
measures the tendency to be uncomfortable
with high levels of intimacy, and to have
difficulty in depending on relationship
partners. A sample item is ‘‘I find it rela-
tively easy to get close to other people’’
(reverse scored). Relationship anxiety (13
items) measures concerns about whether
partners’ feelings of love and commitment
are deep and lasting, together with fears of
being rejected or abandoned (e.g., ‘‘I worry
that others won’t care about me as much as
I care about them’’). The response range
was from 1 ¼ totally disagree to 6 ¼ totally
agree. The mean scores, standard devi-
ations, and alpha coefficients for these
scales, broken down by group, gender,
and time, appear in Table 2 (this table pre-
sents descriptive statistics for focal vari-
ables assessed at all three times).
Spousal caregiving. Ways of responding
to the spouse’s needs for care and support
were assessed using four 8-item scales devel-
oped by Kunce and Shaver (1994): sensitiv-
ity, proximity, cooperation, and compulsive
caregiving. Sensitivity refers to the ability to
notice and interpret the partner’s needs and
feelings (e.g., ‘‘I am very attentive to my
partner’s nonverbal signals for help and
support’’). The proximity scale assesses
physical and psychological accessibility to
the partner in times of need (e.g., ‘‘When
my partner seems to want or need a hug,
I’m glad to provide it’’). Cooperation refers
to the ability to support the partner’s own
problem-solving efforts, rather than taking
control (e.g., ‘‘I always respect my partner’s
ability to make his/her own decisions
and solve his/her own problems’’). Finally,
the compulsive caregiving scale measures
a maladaptive approach to caregiving,
J. Feeney, R. Alexander, P. Noller, and L. Hohaus
involving the tendency to become over-
involved in the partner’s problems (e.g., ‘‘I
create problems by taking on my partner’s
troubles as if they were my own’’). Item
response format is from 1 ¼ not at all like
me to 6 ¼ completely like me. Although both
spouses completed these scales, the focus in
this paper is on the link between husbands’
caregiving style and wives’ depression.
Alpha coefficients for husbands’ data
ranged from .72 (compulsive care) to .88
(sensitivity).
Marital satisfaction. Satisfaction with
the marriage was assessed using items from
Snyder’s Marital Satisfaction Inventory
(1979). Given the length of the original
inventory (280 items), it was not feasible to
use all the items in the present multiple-
measure study. Hence, we used 35 items
from scales that have proved particularly
useful in distinguishing between happy and
unhappy spouses (Snyder, 1979): global dis-
tress (10 items; e.g., ‘‘My marriage has been
disappointing in several ways’’), affective
communication (8 items; e.g., ‘‘There is a
great deal of love and affection expressed in
our marriage’’), problem-solving communi-
cation (9 items; e.g., ‘‘Even when angry with
me, my spouse is able to appreciate my
viewpoints’’), and time together (8 items;
e.g., ‘‘My spouse seems to enjoy just being
with me’’). Items were selected on the basis
of their item-total correlations (Snyder,
1979) and were combined to give a reliable
overall measure of marital satisfaction (see
Table 2). Items employ a true-false format.
Psychological adjustment: Depression and
anxiety. Depression and anxiety were
assessed using 7-item scales from the
Short-Form Depression Anxiety Stress
scales (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995),
which are designed to tap core clinical
symptoms of these emotional states. (The
Stress scale was also used as part of a larger
study, but is not included in this report.)
The Depression scale taps symptoms of
depressed mood, feelings of hopelessness,
and difficulty in becoming involved in
 Attachment insecurity, depression, and the transition to parenthood
Table 2. Descriptive statistics for the focal variables at each measurement time

Wives Husbands
Transition Comparison Transition Comparison
T1 T2 T3 T1 T2 T3 T1 T2 T3 T1 T2 T3
Discomfort with 45.59 44.27 45.76 44.77 43.38 43.28 50.87 49.19 48.94 49.12 48.12 49.50
closeness 10.47 10.90 10.51 11.33 11.81 11.12 11.09 11.11 10.38 9.99 9.95 9.88
.85 .87 .86 .86 .88 .85 .86 .89 .89 .83 .81 .87
Relationship 37.42 36.99 38.10 37.12 36.58 36. 93 37.30 36.36 36.33 35.87 35.80 36.33
anxiety 10.01 9.35 10.80 11.88 12.01 11.64 10.53 11.01 10.73 9.36 9.78 10.73
.84 .82 .86 .85 .89 .86 .85 .88 .82 .83 .85 .85
Marital satisfaction 31.77 30.63 29.73 32.10 31.43 31.56 31.70 31.56 30.39 32.29 31.59 31. 61
4.21 4.21 5.54 4.19 4.56 5.21 4.20 3.99 4.63 3.98 4.60 4.99
.87 .92 .91 .87 .87 .86 .88 .91 .89 .89 .84 .90
Depression 2.41 2.43 2.99 2.54 2.29 2.77 2.25 2.20 2.10 2.24 2.11 2.71
2.73 3.02 3.71 3.38 2.69 3.99 2.94 3.01 3.11 2.99 3.10 3.21
.80 .86 .81 .81 .83 .79 .88 .83 .84 .85 .85 .88
General anxiety 2.23 1.48 1.48 1.88 1.20 1.75 1.36 1.32 1.24 1.19 1.01 1.42
2.59 2.61 1.75 2.99 2.18 3.03 2.45 2.19 2.55 2.33 1.80 2.81
.78 .80 .80 .81 .85 .79 .80 .82 .84 .80 .79 .87

Note. For each measure, the cell entries show the mean score (Row 1), standard deviation (Row 2), and alpha coefficient (Row 3).

481
482
everyday activities (e.g., ‘‘I felt that life was
meaningless’’). In contrast, the anxiety scale
focuses on physiological signs of anxiety,
such as rapid breathing, and on the general
subjective experience of being anxious and
panicky (e.g., ‘‘I was worried about situa-
tions in which I might panic and make a
fool of myself’’). Items focus on the indivi-
dual’s experiences over the past week; as a
result, they are useful for detecting changes
in adjustment that may be linked to recent
events. Items are answered on a 4-point
scale, from 0 ¼ did not apply to me at all to
4 ¼ applied to me very much or most of the
time. The scales showed high internal
consistency (again, see Table 2).
Social support. We assessed individuals’
perceptions of the level of support they
received from members of their social net-
work (spouse, friends, and family), using
Brown’s (1986) Support Behaviors Inven-
tory. This 33-item measure was originally
developed for a study of social support dur-
ing pregnancy, although it can be applied
more generally. Items include ‘‘Members of
my family help me out when I need it,’’ and
are answered on a 6-point scale, from
1 ¼ strongly disagree to 6 ¼ strongly agree.
The measure showed very high reliability
(a ¼ .92 for wives and .93 for husbands).
Infant temperament. Eight items from the
Infant Characteristics Questionnaire (Bates,
Freeland, & Lounsbury, 1979) were used to
assess perceptions of infant temperament.
The eight items form a scale that represents
the main dimension of infant temperament:
infant difficulty (Bates et al., 1979). Items are
answered on a 7-point Likert scale (the verbal
anchors vary from item to item), with higher
scores indicating greater infant difficulty
(a ¼ .89 for wives and .87 for husbands).
Interview measures
Couples were also interviewed on two occa-
sions (during the second trimester of preg-
nancy, and six weeks post-birth). The
interviews were used to build rapport, and
J. Feeney, R. Alexander, P. Noller, and L. Hohaus
to obtain more spontaneous and detailed
accounts of pregnancy and parenthood
than could be elicited by standardized
questionnaires. To control for the amount
of contact that couples had with members
of the research team, interviews were con-
ducted with both transition and comparison
couples (comparison couples were inter-
viewed about their relationship history and
recent relationship experiences). However,
for the purposes of this report, only
interview data from the transition group
will be considered. The interviews were
tape-recorded and two research assistants
(advanced graduate students in psychology)
coded the responses, as detailed below.
Experiences of pregnancy. At the begin-
ning of the study, transition couples were
interviewed about four issues: planning and
decision-making in relation to the preg-
nancy, reactions to the news of impending
parenthood, experiences of pregnancy itself,
and plans for paid and unpaid work. In
coding responses to the first two issues, the
coders derived two variables separately for
husbands and wives (both partners were
asked to comment on these issues). First,
perceptions of the pregnancy as planned or
unplanned were coded on a 3-point scale
(1 ¼ planned to become pregnant at this
time, 2 ¼ planned to become pregnant but
not right now, and 3 ¼ not planned at all).
Second, reactions to the pregnancy were
coded on a 4-point scale: 1 ¼ negative (e.g.,
‘‘I was distraught’’), 2 ¼ mixed (e.g., ‘‘I was
happy in one way but also worried’’),
3 ¼ positive (e.g., ‘‘I was pleased by the
news’’), and 4 ¼ highly positive (e.g., ‘‘I
was just ecstatic!’’). Questions concerning
experiences of pregnancy were directed at
wives only, and responses were coded as
1 ¼ no problems, 2 ¼ relatively minor pro-
blems such as nausea and moodiness, and
3 ¼ major problems, including severe anx-
iety or illness. The research assistants were
given a coding scheme developed by the
researchers, which provided guidelines for
all coding decisions. One assistant coded all
of the tapes, and the other coded a random
sample of 25%. Interrater reliability of the
Attachment insecurity, depression, and the transition to parenthood 483

codes was assessed using Kappa coeffi- the second trimester of pregnancy (Time
cients, which assess the extent of agreement 1), six weeks postbirth (Time 2), and six
above that occurring by chance. All coeffi- months postbirth (Time 3). Time 1 inter-
cients exceeded .79. views took place about one week before
completion of Time 1 questionnaires,
Finally, the questions concerning work-
whereas Time 2 interviews took place
related plans focused primarily on leave
about one week after the completion of
from paid work. Almost all wives
Time 2 questionnaires. This research report
(N ¼ 102) reported that they would take
focuses on attachment security, marital
time off from work after the birth, with
satisfaction, social support, depression,
the most common period of leave being
anxiety, and experiences of pregnancy
one year. In contrast, only 31 husbands
(assessed at Time 1), and infant tempera-
reported that they would seek leave from
ment and experiences of birth (assessed at
work, and none reported seeking more
Time 2), as predictors of wives’ depression
than 8 weeks leave. These responses indicate
(Time 2); the moderating effect of husbands’
that couples generally saw the wives as
caregiving style (Time 1) is also assessed.
adopting the role of primary caregiver, and
Finally, the report focuses on the effects of
support our decision to focus on wives’
maternal depression on final levels of attach-
postbirth depression and husbands’ provi-
ment security and marital satisfaction.
sion of spousal care.

Experiences of birth. Six weeks after the

babies were born, transition couples were
interviewed about their experiences of
labor and birth, and of new parenthood.
For the purposes of this report, only the
first section of this interview is relevant.
Questions in this section were designed to
assess the relative ease or difficulty of the
birth. In particular, we asked couples to
report on the length of labor (in hours),
the extent of pain relief required (from
1 ¼ only natural methods such as massage,
to 4 ¼ epidural), the extent of surgical inter-
vention (1 ¼ none, 2 ¼ minor intervention,
3 ¼ caesarean section), and the extent of pre-
maturity (in weeks). Because responses to
these questions were straightforward, the
research assistants worked together to
achieve consensus coding (independent cod-
ing was not used).
Procedure
As noted earlier, both questionnaires and
interviews were used to assess partners’
adjustment to parenthood. The variables
discussed in this report come from a larger
study (Feeney, Hohaus, Noller, & Alexander,
2001), in which most questionnaires
were administered on three occasions: in
Comparability of the groups. To assess
whether the two groups of couples were
comparable at the beginning of the study,
we first compared them on the background
variables of age, length of marriage, reli-
giosity, education (up to 10 years of school-
ing, 11–12 years of schooling, technical
college certificate or diploma, university
degree), and occupation (professional/man-
agerial, clerical/technical, unskilled, not in
paid employment). For wives, there were no
differences between the groups. For hus-
bands, there was a difference in occupational
status only, w2(3) ¼ 11.65, p < .01; profes-
sional and managerial positions were held
by more comparison than transition hus-
bands (see Table 1). This difference probably
reflects patterns of recruitment: Many transi-
tion couples heard about the study through
the public hospital system, whereas most
comparison couples were recruited through
media outlets or the psychology subject
pool. We also compared transition and com-
parison couples on questionnaire scores
obtained at Time 1 (attachment security, mar-
ital satisfaction, depression, anxiety, and
social support). Univariate and multivariate
analyses of variance showed that the groups
could not be differentiated on any of these
measures.
484
Attrition. To minimize attrition, we kept
in touch with couples in between the assess-
ment points, sending them greeting cards on
their wedding anniversaries and when their
babies were born. Where possible, we also
ensured that the same interviewer visited a
couple on each occasion, to build rapport
and maintain a sense of involvement. The
overall rate of attrition was similar for both
groups. Of the original 107 couples in the
transition group, 92 were interviewed at
Time 2, and 76 completed the final phase.
Similarly, of the 100 comparison couples, 85
were interviewed at Time 2, and 74 completed
the entire study. The main reason that couples
did not complete the study was that they
moved without providing a forwarding
address. A few couples reported being too
busy to continue their involvement, and
some were no longer appropriate for the
study (e.g., some comparison couples became
pregnant during the study).
To explore whether attrition was random
or systematic, we compared the couples
who withdrew and those who remained, on
all measures completed at Time 1. Of the
five background variables, only education
level predicted attrition: In both groups,
those with university education were some-
what less likely to withdraw (w2(3) ¼ 11.14
and 8.32 for transition and comparison
groups, respectively, p < .05 in each case).
None of the questionnaire measures pre-
dicted attrition, supporting the validity of
comparisons to be made between the two
groups of couples over time. Nevertheless,
data analyses were restricted to the 150
couples who completed all assessments.
Table 3. Test-retest correlations for the two attachment dimensions
Wives
Dimension Transition Comparison
Relationship anxiety .54a (.74, .63) .72b (.86, .78) .74b (.79, .77) .81b (.78, .80)
Discomfort with closeness .61a (.69, .68) .86b (.86, .89) .70a (.76, .67) .68a (.70, .76)
Note. In each cell, the main entry refers to the overall interval (Time 1–Time 3); entries in parentheses refer to the
Time 1–Time 2 and Time 2–Time 3 intervals. In each row, correlations with different subscripts (for the overall
interval) differ at least at p < .05 (one-tailed).
J. Feeney, R. Alexander, P. Noller, and L. Hohaus
Results
Stability of attachment
To assess the stability of attachment,
test-retest correlations were calculated for
relationship anxiety and discomfort with
closeness, across each time interval. These
correlations were calculated separately by
group and gender, and are shown in
Table 3. Fisher tests for the overall interval
of Time 1–Time 3 indicated that the test-
retest correlation for relationship anxiety
was lower for transition wives than for all
other spouses. Specifically, comparisons
with transition wives yielded the following
z values and one-tailed p values (adopted
because of the directional nature of
Hypothesis 1): for comparison wives,
z ¼ 1.87, p ¼ .03; for transition husbands,
z ¼ 2.11, p ¼ .02; and for comparison hus-
bands, z ¼ 3.22, p < .001. The test-retest
correlation for discomfort with closeness
was lower for transition wives than for
comparison wives (z ¼ 3.50, p < .001), but
transition wives did not differ from either
group of husbands. These results support
Hypothesis 1, although mainly with regard
to relationship anxiety. Further, for transi-
tion wives only, stability of relationship
anxiety was lower for the longer period
than for the two shorter segments, a finding
which suggests that this instability is unlikely
to stem purely from measurement error.
It was also considered important to
examine possible change in mean levels
of security, although as noted earlier, we
did not expect the transition to parenthood
to produce such change. A 2
2
3
Husbands
Transition Comparison
Attachment insecurity, depression, and the transition to parenthood
MANOVA (Group
Gender
Time) was
conducted on the attachment scales.
Group was varied between-couple, and gen-
der and time were varied within-couple. The
only significant effect was the main effect of
gender, which was restricted to discomfort
with closeness, F(1, 134) ¼ 20.20, p < .001;
husbands reported higher discomfort than
wives (see Table 2 for mean scores). There
were no main or interactive effects of group,
indicating that the transition to parenthood
was not associated with an overall increase
or decrease in levels of security.
Predicting maternal depression
Maternal depression was defined in terms of
transition wives’ questionnaire reports, com-
pleted six weeks postbirth. Although the
mean score on this variable was low (see
Table 2), it is important to note that this
measure of depression focuses on core clin-
ical symptoms, whereas most questionnaire
measures inflate the extent of depression in
new mothers by including items that tap
normal postnatal changes (e.g., tiredness,
sleep disturbance). Extensive normative
data on the current measure indicate that
scores higher than 4 lie beyond the normal
range (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995).
Predicting maternal depression: Main effects
of attachment. To predict mothers’
depression at Time 2, four hierarchical
regression analyses were conducted. In line
with Hypothesis 2a, these analyses assessed
the ability of attachment dimensions to pre-
dict changes in maternal depression, after
controlling for other risk factors. Hence, in
each case, wives’ initial depression was
entered at Step 1. Step 2 comprised risk
factors assessed by questionnaire and inter-
view, with the four subsets chosen to tap a
range of theoretical constructs while main-
taining an adequate ratio of cases to vari-
ables. Specifically, these predictors were
entered at Step 2: in Analysis 1, relationship
factors (husbands’ and wives’ initial scores
on marital satisfaction and social support);
in Analysis 2, measures of initial psycho-
logical adjustment (husbands’ depression,
485
husbands’ and wives’ general anxiety); in
Analysis 3, Time 1 interview reports of the
pregnancy (spouses’ emotional reactions,
planning for pregnancy, pregnancy-related
problems); and in Analysis 4, Time 2
interview reports of the birth (length of
labor, extent of pain relief and surgical
intervention, degree of prematurity) and
questionnaire reports of infant tempera-
ment. Finally, at Step 3, spouses’ initial
levels of discomfort with closeness and
relationship anxiety were entered. (These
analyses were restricted to transition
couples, as some predictor variables did
not apply to comparison couples—the next
section examines initial depression and
attachment security as predictors of later
depression, for both groups.) Correlations
among the questionnaire-based predictor
variables appear in Table 4.
At Step 1, wives’ initial depression did
not predict their Time 2 depression
(b ¼ .09, ns). At Step 2, none of the four
blocks of predictors added significantly to
the explained variance; however, regression
coefficients indicated that maternal depres-
sion was related to wives’ reports of infant
difficulty (r ¼ .23, b ¼ 26, p < .05), and
weakly related to wives’ reports of their
reactions to the pregnancy (r ¼  .18,
b ¼  .24, p < .08). At Step 3, spouses’
attachment dimensions added significantly
to the explained variance in all analyses
(F change values ranged from 3.78 to 4.46
across the analyses, p < .01 in each case).
More specifically, wives’ prenatal relation-
ship anxiety consistently predicted their
postbirth depression, after controlling for
the other risk factors; in the full models,
the beta weight for relationship anxiety
ranged from .41 to .45 (p < .01 in each case).
Note that in the regression analyses
reported above, depression was treated as
a continuous variable. Given that studies of
postnatal depression generally focus on
fairly severe symptoms of distress, it was
considered important to assess the conver-
gent validity of the results by distinguishing
between normal and high levels of depres-
sion. Hence, logistic regression analysis
was also used to assess the links between
486 J. Feeney, R. Alexander, P. Noller, and L. Hohaus

Table 4. Correlations among focal variables (questionnaire-based predictor variables and

wives’ Time 2 depression) for transition and comparison couples

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
1 w discomfort –
–
2 h discomfort .25 –
.09 –
3 w relat. anxiety .44 .16 –
.37 .03 –
4 h relat. anxiety .33 .39 .09 –
.08 .33 .10 –
5 w marital satisfaction .24 .02 .30 .03 –
.29 .06 .29 .11 –
6 h marital satisfaction .11 .29 .07 .31 .45 –
.15 .19 .16 .15 .64 –
7 w depression .10 .11 .26 .06 .42 .30 –
.30 .03 .38 .06 .16 .14 –
8 h depression .30 .17 .14 .42 .15 .26 .09 –
.13 .22 .09 .32 .13 .24 .18 –
9 w general anxiety .16 .09 .38 .06 .22 .17 .43 .26 –
.20 .02 .40 .07 .31 .22 .53 .16 –
10 h general anxiety .32 .08 .10 .42 .12 .26 .06 .49 .10 –
.13 .24 .05 .40 .01 .10 .02 .63 .01 –
11 w social support .39 .09 .42 .18 .26 .02 .12 .05 .17 .01 –
.40 .19 .41 .05 .47 .22 .19 .14 .23 .12 –
12 h social support .14 .32 .20 .39 .01 .25 .03 .34 .16 .21 .28 –
.02 .32 .08 .14 .11 .13 .04 .26 .08 .23 .31 –
13 w infant temperament .11 .05 .01 .08 .09 .11 .03 .03 .04 .24 .07 .16 –
– – – – – – – – – – – – –
14 h infant temperament .04 .01 .01 .15 .18 .01 .03 .06 .04 .03 .08 05 .67 –
– – – – – – – – – – – – – –
15 w Time 2 depression .10 .17 .35 .02 .06 .03 .09 .02 .14 .01 .02 .07 .24 .10
.15 .14 .32 .29 .30 .21 .50 .41 .39 .15 .22 .24 – –

Note. w ¼ wives; h ¼ husbands. Top and bottom cell entries are for transition and comparison couples, respec-
tively. Boldface entries are significant; critical values ¼ .23 (p < .05), .30 (p < .01), .37 (p < .001).

transition wives’ Time 2 depression and the
predictor variables. In these analyses, the
dependent variable was dichotomized;
based on extensive normative data (Lovibond
& Lovibond, 1995), scores of 5 and above
were taken as indicative of depression.
According to this criterion, 13 of the
mothers experienced serious depressive
symptoms.1 (Using the same criterion,
1. It should be noted that members of the research
team informed all participants of appropriate
sources of counseling and other support.
only one of these women reported serious
depression at Time 1.)
Four logistic regression analyses were
conducted, with the dichotomous measure
of depression being related to the same sets
of predictor variables. Findings from these
analyses generally supported those already
reported. The Wald statistic for wives’ initial
relationship anxiety was significant in three
of the four full models (all except the
model including interview reports of the preg-
nancy), ranging from 4.51 to 7.97 (p from .05
to .01). Mean initial scores on relationship
Attachment insecurity, depression, and the transition to parenthood
anxiety were higher for depressed mothers
(M ¼ 43.60, SD ¼ 12.59) than for other
mothers (M ¼ 36.43, SD ¼ 9.70).
The role of prior depression. Interestingly,
we found no link between prenatal and
postnatal depressive symptoms. To clarify
this null result, additional analyses were
conducted to assess the role of initial
depression and attachment security as pre-
dictors of later depression, for transition
and comparison wives and husbands.
Hence, four hierarchical regression analyses
were conducted, one for each combination
of group and gender: Husbands’ and wives’
initial scores on depression were entered at
Step 1, and the four attachment scales were
entered at Step 2. The results of these
analyses are summarized in Table 5.
At Step 1, spouses’ initial scores on
depression provided strong prediction of
Time 2 depression, except for transition
wives. The most robust finding was the effect
of own depression, although husbands’
initial depression also predicted Time 2
depression for comparison wives. At Step 2,
addition of the attachment scales provided a
strong increase in explained variance for
transition wives only, with own relationship
anxiety linked to Time 2 depression. Fisher
tests indicated that the bivariate correlation
between Time 1 and Time 2 depression was
significantly lower for transition wives
(r ¼ .09) than for all other combinations of
group and gender (rs ranging from .45 to
.62). In contrast, the correlation between
Time 1 relationship anxiety and Time 2
depression did not differ across the four
combinations (rs ranged from .32 to .35).
Interactive effect of wives’ relationship
anxiety and husbands’ caregiving. To test
2. For completeness, hierarchical regression analysis
was also used to test for possible interactive effects
of spouses’ attachment dimensions (Wives’
Relationship Anxiety
Husbands’ Relationship
Anxiety, Wives’ Relationship Anxiety
Husbands’
Discomfort, Wives’ Discomfort
Husbands’
Discomfort, and Wives’ Discomfort
Husbands’
Relationship Anxiety). However, all four
interactive effects were nonsignificant.
487
the hypothesized interactive effect of wives’
relationship anxiety and husbands’ caregiv-
ing (Hypothesis 2b), another hierarchical
regression analysis was conducted to pre-
dict transition wives’ postbirth depres-
sion.2 Six predictor variables were entered
at Step 1: wives’ initial depression (as a
control variable), wives’ initial relationship
anxiety, and husbands’ initial scores on the
four caregiving scales (sensitivity, proxi-
mity, cooperation, and compulsive care).
Product terms were formed by multiplying
wives’ scores on relationship anxiety by
husbands’ scores on each caregiving scale,
after mean-centering the scores to avoid
multicollinearity. These terms were entered
at Step 2.
Although the overall prediction was reli-
able at Step 1 (R2 ¼ .16, p < .01), only wives’
relationship anxiety was a significant pre-
dictor of depressive symptoms (b ¼ 36,
p < .001). At Step 2, the product terms pro-
vided a reliable increase in explained vari-
ance (R2 change ¼ .10, p < .05), with a
significant interaction between wives’ rela-
tionship anxiety and husbands’ compulsive
care (b ¼ 26, p < .02). This interaction was
further explored using procedures recom-
mended by Aiken and West (1991). Specifi-
cally, equations were derived for the
regression of wives’ depression on wives’
relationship anxiety, at high (þ1 SD) and
low (1 SD) levels of husbands’ compulsive
care. As Figure 1 shows, maternal depres-
sion was associated with wives’ relationship
anxiety, only when husbands were high in
compulsive care. In other words, wives who
were anxious about their relationships and
whose husbands became overinvolved with
their concerns reported higher maternal
depression than all other couples.
A similar analysis was conducted for com-
parison wives. Prediction was reliable at Step
1 (R2 ¼ .32, p < .001), with wives’ initial
depression predicting their later depressive
symptoms (b ¼ 40, p < .001). At Step 2, the
product terms did not add to the prediction
(R2 change ¼ .03, ns). Hence, the interactive
effect of wives’ relationship anxiety and hus-
bands’ compulsive care was restricted to
those wives experiencing new parenthood.
488 J. Feeney, R. Alexander, P. Noller, and L. Hohaus

Table 5. Summary of explained variance and significant effects in the prediction of Time 2
depression from Time 1 depression (Step 1) and Time 1 attachment (Step 2)

Wives Husbands
Transition Comparison Transition Comparison
Step 1 R2 ¼ .01, ns R2 ¼ .28*** R2 ¼ .21*** R2 ¼ .40***
F(2, 73) ¼ 0.30 F(2, 71) ¼ 15.25 F(2, 73) ¼ 11.48 F(2, 71) ¼ 27.06
No significant Ws’ depression Hs’ depression Hs’ depression
predictors b ¼ .43** b ¼ .45** b ¼ .62***
Hs’ depression
b ¼ .25**
Step 2 R2 change ¼ .14** R2 change ¼ .07, ns R2 change ¼ .04, ns R2 change ¼ .06y
F change ¼ 3.51 F change ¼ 2.45 F change ¼ 1.06 F change ¼ 2.54
Ws’ relationship Ws’ depression Hs’ depression Hs’ depression
anxiety b ¼ .36** b ¼ .37** b ¼ .55***
b ¼ .38** Hs’ depression
b ¼ .19y

Note. yp < .10. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Consequences of maternal depression esis, we conducted hierarchical regression

analyses predicting each outcome variable:
We expected that maternal depression would
transition husbands’ and wives’ Time 3
be associated with increased insecurity and
scores on discomfort with closeness, relation-
marital dissatisfaction across the transition
ship anxiety, and marital satisfaction. Time 1
period (Hypothesis 3). To test this hypoth-
scores on the corresponding variable were
entered at Step 1, and wives’ Time 2 depres-
High anxious wives sion scores were entered at Step 2. Hence,
Low anxious wives
these analyses assessed whether wives’
7 depressive symptoms were associated with
6
changes in attachment security and marital
satisfaction across the course of the study.
Wives’ depression, Time 2

5 In three of the six analyses, wives’ Time 2

depression added to the prediction of the
4
outcome measure. In predicting wives’ dis-
3 comfort with closeness, 37% of the variance
was explained at Step 1; at Step 2, wives’
2 depression explained an additional 5% of
the variance (F change ¼ 5.45, p < .05,
1
b ¼ .22). For the prediction of husbands’
0 relationship anxiety, 54% of the variance
Low High was explained at Step 1; at Step 2, wives’
Husbands’ compulsive care depression explained an additional 10%
(F change ¼ 18.11, p < .001, b ¼ .32). Finally,
Figure 1. Interaction of wives’ relationship for husbands’ marital satisfaction, 37% of
and husbands’ compulsive care in the the variance was explained at Step 1;
prediction of maternal depression. at Step 2, wives’ depression explained an
Attachment insecurity, depression, and the transition to parenthood
additional 4% (F change ¼ 2.91, p < .05,
b ¼  .18). For completeness, similar analyses
were conducted for the comparison group.
However, in this group, wives’ Time 2
depression did not predict changes in
either husbands’ or wives’ attachment
security or marital satisfaction.
Discussion
Before discussing the results of this study, it
is important to note its limitations and
strengths. Given that the first assessment
of transition couples occurred during the
second trimester of pregnancy, we have no
information about previous levels of individ-
ual and couple adjustment. For example,
we cannot be certain that women who
reported low levels of depression at Time 1
had not experienced any prior episodes of
depression. However, given the difficulties
associated with recruiting samples of
couples prior to pregnancy, the longitudinal
design employed in this study is typical of
‘‘prospective’’ studies of parenthood, and
allowed us to assess hypothesized patterns
of predictive relations. Because we con-
ducted several analyses, the possibility of
Type 1 errors should be kept in mind. At
the same time, the limited sample size would
have reduced the ability to detect significant
effects; hence, Type 2 errors may also have
occurred. Notwithstanding this issue, it is
important to note that the transition and
comparison couples were similar in terms
of their background experiences, relation-
ship length, and initial functioning both as
individuals and as couples. Further, attri-
tion rates were similar for the two groups,
and education level was the only variable
that predicted attrition (in both groups).
Hence, we can be relatively confident that
any differences between transition and
comparison couples later in the study are
due to the experience of first-time parenthood.
Stability of attachment
There was some support for Hypothesis 1,
which predicted lower stability of attach-
ment among transition wives. Specifically,
489
the relationship anxiety scale was less stable
for transition wives than for other partici-
pants. On the other hand, transition wives’
scores on discomfort with closeness were
less stable than those of comparison wives,
but did not differ from those of transition
or comparison husbands. As previous
researchers have noted, measures of adult
attachment show varying degrees of stabil-
ity. Single-item ratings show test-retest cor-
relations around .6, whereas multiple-item
and interview-based measures (which are
generally more reliable) are relatively stable
(e.g., Feeney & Noller, 1996; Scharfe &
Bartholomew, 1994). Further, both theory
and research suggest that attachment meas-
ures are more stable when the individuals
studied are in stable relationships (Feeney &
Noller, 1996). Given the high reliability of
the attachment scales used in the present
study, transition wives’ scores on relation-
ship anxiety showed more instability than is
typical in samples of intact couples.
Further, for transition wives only, relation-
ship anxiety was less stable over the longer
period than over the two shorter intervals.
This result suggests that the instability
observed among transition wives probably
reflects some change in the underlying
construct, in addition to measurement
error. This finding concerning the malle-
ability of attachment dimensions adds to
previous work that highlights the transition
to parenthood as a crucial time in couple
relationships (e.g., Cox, Paley, Burchinal, &
Payne, 1999).
As expected, however, the transition
to parenthood was not associated with
change in mean levels of attachment
security, for either husbands or wives.
Together, these results suggest that attach-
ment issues are salient during this transition
period, but that the experience of first-time
parenthood does not necessarily pose a
threat to individuals’ sense of security.
Rather, consistent with previous research, it
appears that working models of attachment
can be influenced for either better or worse,
depending on the specific nature of relation-
ship experiences (Hammond & Fletcher,
1991; Kirkpatrick & Hazan, 1994).
490
Predicting maternal depression
Wives’ prenatal relationship anxiety emerged
as a reliable predictor of increases in their
depressive symptoms. Of the wide range of
predictor variables assessed in this study, the
only other variables that predicted increases
in maternal depression were wives’ reports
that they reacted negatively to the preg-
nancy, and wives’ perceptions of infant diffi-
culty. Importantly, the link between prenatal
relationship anxiety and later depression was
significant even when controlling for these
variables, and for variables that correlate
with relationship anxiety and have emerged
as risk factors in some studies (e.g., marital
dissatisfaction, lack of social support).
Further, this link held, regardless of whether
depression was conceptualized as a continu-
ous or dichotomous variable. These findings
offer strong support for Hypothesis 2a.
Interestingly, wives who experienced post-
birth depression were not distinguished from
other transition wives by their prenatal depres-
sion levels (despite their prenatal anxiety about
relationships). Further, the predictive effects of
prior depression and relationship anxiety were
different for transition wives than for other
participants: For other participants, Time 2
depression was strongly predicted by prior
depression, with minimal additional variance
explained by attachment security.
At this stage, it is unclear why prenatal
depression failed to predict postbirth depres-
sion. Meta-analysis suggests a large effect
size for the relation between prenatal and
postnatal depression (Beck, 1996); however,
several studies fail to report the predictive
effect of prenatal depression, and others
report it to be nonsignificant (e.g., Kumar
& Robson, 1984). The strength of the link
between prenatal and postnatal depression
may depend on complex factors, including
the timing of the assessments and the focus
of the study. For example, some studies
assess prenatal depression quite late in preg-
nancy; this practice may inflate the link with
postnatal depression, as concerns related to
birth and child-rearing may be salient at
both times. Further, studies focusing expli-
citly on depressed mood may attract some
J. Feeney, R. Alexander, P. Noller, and L. Hohaus
participants for whom negative affect is an
ongoing problem, again inflating the link
between prenatal and postnatal depression.
(In contrast, the present study was described
in relatively broad terms.) More generally,
researchers have noted that no risk factor
for postpartum depression has received
unambiguous support, that some factors
may have complex effects because they fluc-
tuate over time, and that different factors
may predict depressive symptoms versus
clinical diagnosis of depression (Beck, 1996;
O’Hara, 1997).
Regardless of these issues, we found that
it was only in the context of new parent-
hood that attachment insecurity appeared
to trigger depression in women who showed
no initial signs of depression. (When Time 1
depression was controlled, Time 1 relation-
ship anxiety predicted later depression for
transition, but not comparison, wives.)
These findings suggest that anxiety over
relationships, when coupled with a major
transition such as first-time parenthood
(and the associated demands of primary
caregiving), predisposes some women to
become depressed. This result is consistent
with the proposition that the effects of
insecurity become more apparent when
people face stressful or challenging situations.
This proposition has already been supported
by studies of environmental stressors (e.g.,
Mikulincer, Florian, & Weller, 1993) and
by laboratory studies of relationship conflict
(Feeney, 1998; Rholes et al., 1998). However,
the present work is important in extending
these findings to a major, naturally occurring
event that affects most married couples, and
that impacts directly on the couple bond.
Critics might argue that the link between
initial relationship anxiety and maternal
depression is not causal in nature; rather, it
simply shows that some individuals are high
in a general factor that can be labeled ‘‘nega-
tive affectivity,’’ or neuroticism. In other
words, it could be argued that this link sim-
ply reflects substantial overlap among such
constructs as relationship anxiety, general
anxiety, and depression. It is true that these
three constructs, when assessed concur-
rently, show a degree of overlap. However,
Attachment insecurity, depression, and the transition to parenthood
in the present study, only about 15% to 20%
of the variance in any of these measures was
shared with either of the others. Moreover,
the link between relationship anxiety and
maternal depression remained highly signifi-
cant, even controlling for wives’ initial
depression and general anxiety, and percep-
tions of infant temperament. Collectively,
these findings suggest that relationship anx-
iety predicts maternal depression, not
because it signals general negativity or anx-
iety but because it raises basic issues about
the partner’s love and commitment and the
future of the couple relationship. Being
based on longitudinal data, this finding
strengthens the evidence from Meredith and
Noller’s (in press) study linking attachment
insecurity and postnatal depression.
At the same time, further analyses indi-
cated that the association between transi-
tion wives’ relationship anxiety and
postbirth depression was moderated by hus-
bands’ caregiving style. Consistent with
Hypothesis 2b, this finding suggests that
partners’ provision of appropriate care can
buffer, to a large extent, the potentially
negative effects of wives’ attachment
insecurity. This effect was restricted, however,
to the measure of compulsive care. Hence, it
appears that husbands can best support
their wives throughout this period by being
attentive to their needs and concerns, while
taking care not to become overinvolved and
burdened by them. Given that wives who
are anxious about their relationships crave
affection and reassurance, it is not surpris-
ing that husbands who tend to become
overwhelmed by their partners’ needs find
it difficult to help them deal with their dis-
tress. The moderating role of husbands’
spousal caregiving also provides indirect
support for the claim that attachment and
caregiving are interrelated systems of beha-
vior that are central to the development of
the pair bond (Hazan & Shaver, 1994).
Consequences of maternal depression
As hypothesized, maternal depression
was associated with an increase (albeit
modest) in husbands’ marital dissatisfaction.
491
Although this finding was gender specific,
it is congruent with Mauthner’s (1998)
qualitative data, which suggest reciprocal
relations between postnatal depression and
the state of the couple relationship. For
example, depression is usually associated with
emotional withdrawal and social isolation,
which in turn are likely to impact on the
quality of the marriage (Mauthner, 1998).
As expected, maternal depression was
also associated with increases in attachment
insecurity across the transition period.
However, the findings were again gender
specific: Maternal depression was linked to
increases in husbands’ relationship anxiety
and wives’ discomfort with closeness. At
this stage, it is not clear why these effects
should be gender specific. However, by defi-
nition, relationship anxiety is associated
with concerns about self-worth, about part-
ners’ love and commitment, and about the
stability of intimate relationships. Hence,
we can speculate that if wives’ relationship
anxiety is an important causal factor in their
postbirth depression, the concerns that
these wives experience are often communi-
cated, either directly or indirectly, to their
partners. Given the difficult emotional
climate associated with spousal depres-
sion and new parenthood, husbands may
eventually come to share these concerns. In
addition, as noted earlier, wives who are
depressed are likely to withdraw emotion-
ally from their partners; over time, this
emotional distancing may result in wives’
increasing discomfort with couple intimacy.
It is worth noting that the hierarchical
regression analyses used to test the third
hypothesis provide a very stringent test of
the effects of maternal depression. As pre-
vious studies indicate, measures of attach-
ment security and relationship quality are
relatively stable over time in established
couple relationships, leaving little additional
variance to be explained when earlier scores
are statistically controlled (Noller & Feeney,
2002; Scharfe & Bartholomew, 1994).
Although maternal depression was
associated with changes in wives’ discomfort
with closeness, husbands’ relationship anx-
iety, and husbands’ marital satisfaction, these
492
same variables were not reliable predictors of
wives’ postbirth depression. These results
suggest the importance of a process view of
the transition to parenthood (and, in particu-
lar, of maternal depression), which focuses
on both the predictors and outcomes of
adjustment difficulties. Clearly, difficulties
that affect one spouse have an impact on
the other and on the couple relationship. As
suggested earlier, even relatively happy cou-
ples may experience some erosion in marital
satisfaction, if issues concerning insecurity
and emotional withdrawal are not addressed.
Summary and Conclusions
The results of this study have important
implications for theory, research, and prac-
tice. The findings clearly support the rele-
vance of attachment theory to couple
relationships, and specifically, to the transi-
tion to parenthood. It seems that new par-
enthood is a time when working models of
attachment may be particularly malleable,
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