《PROCESS OF PLANTS/CROPS MAKING THEIR FOOD AND

THE IMPORTANCE TO STUDY THE MECHANISM FOR PLANT

PHYSIOLOGISTS 》课程论文

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PROCESS OF PLANTS/CROPS MAKING THEIR FOOD AND THE

 IMPORTANCE TO STUDY THE MECHANISM FOR PLANT

PHYSIOLOGISTS

Abstract：This work explains the processes involved in plant nutrition as well

as the importance for physiologists of knowing the functioning and
development of plants. The plant nutrition process is divided into several
stages: through the photosynthesis of plants, respiration and their ability
to absorb nutrients through the roots, they receive everything they need.
Plants obtain oxygen and carbon through the respiration process. Hydrogen is
obtained from the water that its roots absorb and the rest of the mineral
micronutrients are also obtained by absorption from the roots, that is to
say, from the soil or soil.
The raw sap: Plants take water and mineral salts from the soil at the roots
thanks to absorbent hairs. The mixture of water and mineral salts forms the
raw sap, which circulates through the root and stem through very fine tubes
called woody vessels, until it reaches the leaves.
Carbon dioxide: It is a gas from the atmosphere that penetrates the leaves
through very fine openings called stomata.
Photosynthesis: It is the process that plants carry out to make their food
and expel oxygen. It is done on the leaves and green parts of the plant.
The elaborated sap: The water and mineral salts in the raw sap combine with
carbon dioxide and, with the help of energy from sunlight, transform into the
processed sap, which is the food of the plant.
Chloroplasts: Plants capture energy from sunlight through a substance called
chlorophyll, which is green in color and is found inside organelles called
chloroplasts.

Key words: Photosynthesis, Process of Plants, Physiologists.

In recent times, the presence of plants has been reconsidered for their
ability to reduce the harmful gases that industries and automobiles release
into the atmosphere. That is why leafy forests are a kind of "lungs" for
Earth. Hence the importance of plant physiology and therefore professionals
who are dedicated to the study of plants, their structure and processes in
general, and to use such knowledge for the benefit of mankind.

Plants are autotrophic organisms, that is to say, they are able to make
their own food from very simple substances such as water, mineral salts,
carbon dioxide and sunlight. They do not need to feed on other living things.
During the development of this essay, it will be known, how exactly does the
plant nutrition process work? How do plants feed and what do they need to get
the energy to live?

1 NUTRITION PROCESSES IN PLANTS

Plants are sessile organisms. They cannot chase prey, nor migrate from
one place to another in search of food, that is why during the evolution of
plants, by separating from other multicellular eukaryotes, fungi and animals,
they acquired a unique way of obtaining the food they need to survive,
reproduce and disperse. Unlike fungi and animals, plants are autotrophic
organisms. This means that they are capable of synthesizing organic matter
from inorganic matter. The plant feeding process comprises several stages:
first they must take substances from the soil such as water and mineral
salts, and others from the air such as carbon dioxide and solar energy. These
substances must then be transformed into food through the photosynthesis
process. Once transformed into food, it must be distributed throughout the
plant, so the plant can use it both to grow and to obtain energy to continue
living. The last stage of this process is to remove the waste substances
generated during nutrition.

1.1 Stages of Nutrition in Plants

- Absorption and transport of water and mineral salts from the root to the
xylem
-Transport of water and mineral salts through the xylem
-Leaf Gas Exchange
-Photosynthesis
-Transport of organic matter through the phloem
-Cellular Respiration
1.1.1 Absorption and transport of water and mineral salts from the

root to the xylem

The soil is made up of small particles of rock and organic matter that
house spaces filled with air and water. Plants extract water and mineral
salts from the soil. These nutrients are absorbed through specialized cells,
called root hairs(also known as absorbent hairs), which are found at the
root.
Root hairs are specialized epidermal cells that undergo evagination
during the differentiation process, which aims to increase the absorption
surface.
Then the nutrients have to go through the different tissues of the root
until they reach the xylem that will then lead them to the photosynthetic
apparatus of the plant.

1.1.2 Transport of water and mineral salts through the xylem

Mineral salts and water are part of the raw sap, which has to travel long
distances along the xylem until it reaches the leaves, where photosynthesis
takes place.
 The movement of crude sap can be explained either because there is a
sucking force that, from above, "pulls" water and mineral salts (cohesion-
tension theory) or because a positive pressure is produced that pushes it to
ascend from below (root pressure theory).
The cohesion-tension theory explains that the force that raises the raw
sap by the xylem originates from the tension that originates the
transpiration of water and the cohesion that exists between its molecules.
Transpiration is the loss of water, in the form of steam, through the stomata
of the leaves, caused by the action of solar energy. The loss of water
molecules causes a water deficit that generates a suction force that raises
the raw sap. Furthermore, the maintenance of a continuous column of water
occurs because, due to hydrogen bridges, there is great cohesion between the
water molecules. And the mineral salts dissolved in the water are passively
transported upwards.
The root pressure theory holds that the accumulation of water in the
root tissues creates a pressure on the xylem that pushes the brute sage to
ascend vertically. Evidence of the existence of root pressure is the
accumulation of water droplets at the apex and leaf margins. Although this
theory would not apply to very tall trees, whose nutrients will have to be
raised several meters above the ground, and also it would not apply when soil
moisture drops.
1.1.3 Leaf Gas Exchange
Although plants do not have a respiratory system like animals, they do
have structures specialized in gas exchange, located on their surface:
stomata and lenticels.
Stomata are specialized structures of the epidermis formed by two cells,
the occlusive cells, which delimit a space between them, and the ostiolus.
They are located throughout the aerial part of the plant, but they abound on
the underside of the leaves and on the young stems. These cells contain
chloroplasts and their plant wall is thickened in the area surrounding the
ostiol, which is essential for their function.
After entering the ostiol, the carbon dioxide(necessary for
photosynthesis), diffuses through the intercellular spaces of the plant
tissues, enters the cells, and finally the chloroplasts. The oxygen that is
produced during photosynthesis exits through the ostiolus and performs the
reverse path. Not all of the carbon dioxide used in photosynthesis comes from
the atmosphere. One part is generated during cellular respiration. Likewise,
the oxygen used in respiration has a double origin: photosynthesis and the
atmosphere.
Lenticels are small protuberances found on the epidermis of stems and
branches of woody plants. Its cells have a rounded shape and are widely
separated from each other to facilitate gas exchange, leaving large
intercellular spaces.

1.1.4 Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is a chemical process used by plants through which they
produce chemical energy from solar light energy. By this energy from the sun,
plants convert water from the soil and carbon dioxide from the air into
glucose, an essential nutrient that provides them with energy and enables the
manufacture of cellulose.
Photosynthesis is the most important chemical process on Earth, through
which organic substances are synthesized from solar light energy.
All the plants, algae and cyanobacteria that carry out photosynthesis are
considered photoautotrophic organisms. The energy source of these is sunlight
and their main source of hydrogen is water, producing as a waste, in most
cases oxygen, vital for life on earth.
Photosynthesis is the basic form of nutrition of the Plantae kingdom, it
takes place in chloroplasts where specialized proteins called "Photosynthetic
Reaction Centers" are found, which absorb sunlight and have a pigment called
chlorophyll. This intervenes in the photosynthetic process and gives the
plants a characteristic green color.

The equation of the photosynthesis process is:

CARBON DIOXIDE + WATER + PHOTONS → GLUCOSE + OXYGEN

 6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C6 H 12 O6 + 6O₂

1.1.4.1 Photosynthesis Stages

The photosynthesis process is divided into two stages, light-dependent and
light-independent reactions.

Light-dependent reactions
It is carried out in the "granums of the chloroplasts"; the energy from
the sun is captured by the chlorophyll, causing the release of electrons from
this molecule. Some of these electrons act by dissociating the water
molecules absorbed by the plant through the corresponding organs. Water
molecules break down into their two components: one oxygen atom and two
hydrogen atoms: this process of breaking the water molecule is called
"hydrolysis".
The oxygen atom, which the plant does not use, pairs with another and
forms oxygen gas molecules that are released through the stomata of the
leaves into the atmosphere, allowing all living beings to breathe.
The hydrogen atoms resulting from this dissociation, which will be used
later in the dark stage, go on to integrate the molecule of a coenzyme
capable of "transferring hydrogens", called "NADP", transforming it into
"hydrogenated NADP" (NADPH).
The energy of the remaining electrons is stored in the adenosine
nucleotide, a highly energetic compound that has the property of storing
energy but also transferring it quickly, allowing another chemical reaction.
This compound is formed when an "ADP" molecule binds to a molecule called a
"phosphate group", forming ATP.
Light-independent reactions:
It is carried out in the chloroplast matrix. In that place and as a
product of previous chemical reactions, there is a compound of five carbon
atoms (pentose), called "ribulose diphosphate".
This molecule is joined by the carbon dioxide absorbed by the stomata,
transforming it into a highly unstable six-carbon compound, since it is then
split into two molecules of three carbon atoms, called "phosphoglyceric acid"
which is the first product organic of photosynthesis and whose importance
lies in the fact that, depending on the chemical recombinations it performs,
it can be transformed into: vegetable proteins, lipids, vitamins or replace
the ribulose diphosphate consumed so far.
But the most frequent recombination is the one that allows each molecule
of phosphoglyceric acid to unite with a hydrogen atom that is transferred to
it by NADPH. In this way two new trioses called phosphoglyceraldehyde
originate, which finally join together to form a stable hexose called
glucose. For this union to take place, it is necessary to provide chemical
energy that provides the ATP formed in the first stage.
Glucose is soluble in water, which is why it can be easily transported
to all the organs of the plant and it can store or form disaccharides such as
"sucrose" or monosaccharides such as "fructose" and even polymerize, causing
starch.

1.1.4.2 Parts of the plant cell involved in photosynthesis.

Chloroplasts
These organelles are unique to plants and algae. The main function of
chloroplasts is to carry out photosynthesis, since they contain chlorophyll
and other enzymes necessary to carry out the process.
Chlorophyll absorbs energy from sunlight and converts and stores it to NADPH
and ATP molecules releasing oxygen from the water.
They then use these energy-supplying molecules to make organic molecules,
starting with Carbon dioxide in a process known as the Calvin Cycle.
Cellular membrane
It allows water, gas and molecules to enter and exit the cell.
Vacuole
Plant cells contain a large central vacuole filled with water and
covered by a membrane called a tonoplast. Its function is to control the
movement of molecules between the cytosol and the sap.
Cell wall
It is made of cellulose that protects the contents of the cell and gives
it strength and rigidity. Additionally, it contains communication channels
with adjacent cells.
Cytoplasm
It contains the enzymes and proteins that the cell needs to carry out
photosynthesis.
Cell nucleus.
It is where the DNA of the enzymes and proteins used during
photosynthesis are housed.
1.1.5 Transport of organic matter through the phloem

The products that have been synthesized in the leaves during

photosynthesis are called processed sap, a mixture of sugars (mainly
sucrose), amino acids, salts and water.
The transportation of the elaborated sap from the production areas
(Leaves) to the consumption areas (stems, roots, fruits and seeds) is carried
out by the phloem.
The movement of the elaborated sap through the phloem (which circulates
at a much higher rate than would be expected if only the force of gravity
acted) is explained by the pressure flow hypothesis. This hypothesis is based
on the differences in water pressure between the production and consumption
areas.

1.1.6 Cellular Respiration

It consists of closing the stomata of the leaves as a preventive measure

against the possible loss of water, it occurs when the environment is warm
and dry. It is then when the oxygen generated in the photosynthetic process
begins to reach high concentrations.
When abundant carbon dioxide exists, the enzyme RuBisCO (through its
activity as carboxylase) introduces the chemical compound into the Calvin
cycle with great efficiency. But when the concentration of carbon dioxide in
the leaf is considerably lower compared to that of oxygen, the same enzyme is
in charge of catalyzing the reaction of RuBisCO with oxygen (through its
activity as oxygenase), instead of carbon dioxide. carbon. This reaction is
considered the first phase of the photorespiratory process, in which
carbohydrates are oxidized to carbon dioxide and water in the presence of
light. Furthermore, this process involves a significant loss of energy as
neither NADH nor ATP is generated (this is the main feature that
differentiates it from mitochondrial respiration).
When a RuBisCO molecule reacts with an oxygen molecule, one molecule of
phosphoglyceric acid and one of phosphoglycolic acid originate, which
promptly hydrolyzes to glycolic acid. The latter leaves the chloroplasts to
subsequently enter the peroxisomes (organelles that house oxidative enzymes),
where it reacts with oxygen again to produce glyoxylic acid and hydrogen
peroxide (the action of the catalase enzyme will catalyze the decomposition
of this compound chemical in oxygen and water). However, glyoxylic acid is
converted to glycine, an amino acid that is transferred to the mitochondria
to form one molecule of serine from two of glyoxylic acid (this process
involves the release of one molecule of carbon dioxide).
Hatch-Slack Pathway or C4 Carbon Fixation
In vegetables typical of tropical climate zones, where photo-respiration
could generate a problem of considerable severity, a different process is
carried out to capture carbon dioxide. In these plants two varieties of
chloroplasts are distinguished: there are some that are found in the internal
cells, contiguous to the conductive vessels of the leaves, and others that
are in the cells of the peripheral chlorophyll parenchyma, which is called
mesophyll. It is in the latter type of chloroplast that carbon dioxide
fixation occurs. The acceptor molecule of this chemical compound is
phosphoenolpyruvic acid (PEP), and the enzyme that acts is
phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, which is not affected by a high
concentration of oxygen.
From phosphoenolpyruvic acid and carbon dioxide, oxalacetic acid is
generated, consisting of four carbons (this is where the name C4 plants comes
from). The acid mentioned above is transformed into malic acid, and this
passes to the chloroplasts of the internal cells through plasmodesms. There,
carbon dioxide is released, which will be able to continue the Calvin cycle.
As a consequence, no alteration occurs in these plants as a result of
respiration.
CAM Plants
These acronyms mean, crassulacean acid metabolism. This name was
attributed to the plants belonging to this family, that is, to the
crassulaceae. However, several CAM plant species are currently known,
belonging to different families of succulent plants (Crassulaceae, Cactaceae,
Euphorbiaceae, and Aizoaceae are some examples).
Generally, CAM plants are vegetables originating from areas with desert
or sub-desert climatic conditions, which are subject to intense lighting,
high temperatures and permanent water deficit. Many peculiarities of these
plants can be enumerated, such as that the photosynthetic tissue is
homogeneous, and the absence of a differentiated pod and palisade
chlorénchyme is also noticeable.
CAM plants are adapted to extreme aridity conditions, so it is logical
that their stomata open at night, to avoid as much as possible the loss of
water through transpiration, fixing carbon dioxide in the dark by a reaction
of carboxylation of PEP (phosphoenolpyruvic acid) catalyzed by the enzyme
PEP-carboxylase in the cytosol. As a result, the formation of oxalacetate and
malate occurs, which is stored in the vacuole, resulting in nocturnal
acidification of the leaf. The malate stored in the vacuole is released
during the day while the stomata remain closed, being taken to the
chloroplast. Once in this organelle, the malate is decarboxylated by the
NADP-dependent malic enzyme and the carbon dioxide that is given off is fixed
in the Calvin cycle. Pyruvic acid is converted back to sugars, to finally
become starch. Carbon fixation and reduction in CAM plants have higher energy
requirements than in C3 and C4 plants in terms of ATP. Its photosynthetic
yield per unit of time is lower and its growth is slower. As a consequence of
the adaptation of these plants to their extreme habitats, the mechanisms that
regulate the balance between transpiration and photosynthesis are strongly
directed towards minimizing water losses, thus ensuring survival in the
desert environment, although at the cost of less productivity.

2 THE IMPORTANCE TO STUDY THE MECHANISM FOR PLANT

PHYSIOLOGISTS
The field of plant physiology includes the study of all internal plant
activities of those chemical and physical processes associated with life that
occur in plants.
The study of phytochemistry (plant chemistry) falls within the domain of
plant physiology. To function and survive, plants produce a wide range of
chemical compounds not found in other organisms. Photosynthesis requires a
wide variety of pigments, enzymes, and other compounds to function. Because
they cannot move, plants must also defend themselves chemically from
herbivores, pathogens, and competition from other plants. They do this by
producing toxins and bad taste, odor, or chemicals. Other compounds defend
plants against disease, allow survival during drought, and prepare plants for
dormancy, while other compounds are used to attract pollinators or herbivores
to spread mature seeds.
Physiologists must study the processes of Plants well, since knowledge
of plants and their operation is becoming increasingly important for
humanity. Green plants are not only the ultimate source of all food, but
supply raw materials to numerous industries. All this makes the human being
want to obtain more and better products, that is to say, agriculture is
increasingly in the hands of specialists, and they must have knowledge of the
processes that take place in plants and also of the effects of means on these
processes, that is to say, a practical application of the principles of Plant
Physiology is needed.
The application of fundamental investigations of Plant Physiology have
led to improve the methods of propagation, cultivation, collection, as well
as conservation of many plant products. The control of pests and diseases of
plants has had a great help in Plant Physiology. For all these reasons, any
advance that is achieved in this science, directly or indirectly contributes
to the advancement of agriculture.
The study of physiology consists of knowing better the processes of
growth and development of the plant. This is obtained through basic research
that is later transferred to agriculture to attend to one of the most
important aspects, the increase of human population.
References：

[1] MHEDUCATION. El proceso de Nutrición en las Plantas.

https://www.mheducation.es/bcv/guide/capitulo/8448180895.pdf

[2] ECOLOGIA VERDE (April 2020). Nutrición de las Plantas: Proceso.

https://www.ecologiaverde.com/nutricion-de-las-plantas-proceso-2667.html

[3] HIDDEN NATURE (February 2019). Fisiología Vegetal. https://www.hidden-

nature.com/dodociencia/universitario/grado-biologia/fisiologia-vegetal/

[4] SLIDESHARE. (July 2008) Cellular and Plant Transport.

https://www.slideshare.net/seasprite/presentation-07-cellular-and-plant-transport