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Introduction To Organisation Development: Unit 1 Dr. D. Joseph Anbarasu 1
Introduction To Organisation Development: Unit 1 Dr. D. Joseph Anbarasu 1
1. Introduction
Organizations are facing unrelenting pressure to adapt and evolve to provide better quality
services. Many need to undergo significant change to develop and deliver services in cost
effective ways that customers and citizens want. The introduction of a corporate governance
and capacity assessment presents a further challenge for Organisations in the ‘modernization’
process. This is partly because the introduction of new Organisations initiatives does not
always mean that others disappear or cease to be relevant.
Many change initiatives are limited in their strategic impact because organisations try to
implement a number of loosely connected activities too fast without proper co-ordination and
follow through. People management and development implications are often not fully
appreciated or addressed as part of the change process. The result is ‘initiative fatigue’ where
staff becomes disillusioned and more resistant when managers try to implement the next
major change.
OD has three significant benefits for managing sustained change; it enables better use (or
‘leverage’) of financial, human and technological resources, it fosters a greater sense of
organisational purpose and it is therefore more likely to deliver the required performance
improvement with less effort than would otherwise be necessary.
Although there is no fixed definition of the term, some current attempts to capture this
broader, more holistic view of ‘Organizational Development’ include:
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“A holistic process of planned change and improvement to assist organisations in responding
to their dynamic environment through the effective diagnosis and management of their
structure, systems and culture”
OD involves both ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ issues. The ‘hard’ issues for OD are strategies and
policies, structures and systems. The ‘softer’ issues in the main are developing appropriate
skills, behaviours and attitudes, culture and a style of leadership that will enable the
organisation to achieve optimum performance. Both the ‘harder’ and ‘softer’ issues of OD
need to be addressed to avoid conflict between goals and needs.
Organizational development efforts then, are planned, systematic approaches to change. They
involve changes to the total organization or to relatively large segments of it. The purpose of
OD efforts is to increase the effectiveness: of the system and also, to develop the potential of
all individual members. Finally, a series of planned behavioral science intervention activities
are carried out in collaboration with organization members to help find improved ways of
working together towards individual and organizational goals.
'OD is not a micro approach to change. Management development, for example, aims at
changing individual behavior. Whereas OD is used on the macro goal of developing an
organization-wide improvement in managerial system.’
OD is more than any single technique. Whereas OD consultants use many differing
techniques such as total quality management (TQM) or job enrichment. No single technique
represents the OD discipline.
OD does not include random or ad hoc changes. OD is based on incremental appraisal and
diagnosis of problems leading to specific types of change, efforts.
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Schools of Thought:
The system process school considers organization development in the context of both its
internal and external environment. Proponents of this approach view organization as a system
which can be changed and developed to best achieve its goals and objectives. Insights drawn
from recent developments in behavioral sciences have contributed to the system-process
school. An emerging role for OD is system based and focuses on total organization
effectiveness and hence goes beyond the traditional personnel programmers. The emphasis is
much more on work groups within and across departments rather than individuals as such.
While personnel programmers demand conformity for prescribed policies and procedures, the
system process school encourages openness, and collaborative ways of solving problems so
that the outcomes are advantageous to both the individual and the organization. It is likely
that the objectives of both the schools are contradictory to certain extent.
3. Definition of OD
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enhancing individual development and improving organizational performance, through the
alteration of organizational members on the job behavior (Porras and Robertson, 1992)
# OD can be defined as a planned and sustained effort to apply behavioral science for system
improvement using reflexive, self-analytical methods. (Schmuck and Miles, 1971)
These definitions clarify the distinctive features of OD and suggest why it is such a powerful
change strategy. The participative, collaborative, problem-focused nature of OD marshals the
experience and expertise of organization members as they work on their most important
problems and opportunity in ways designed to lead to successful outcomes
4. Objectives of OD
5. Characteristic Features of OD
To enlarge upon the definitions of OD, let us examine some of the basic characteristics of OD
programs.
Planned Change:
It is a planned strategy to bring about organizational change. This change effort aims at
specific objectives and is based on the diagnosis of problem areas.
Collaborative:
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Performance:
OD programs include an emphasis on ways to improve and enhance performance and quality
(TQM).
Humanistic:
OD relies on a set of humanistic values about people and organizations that aims at gaining
more effective organizations by opening up new opportunities for increased use of human
potential systems. OD represents a systems approach concerned with the interrelationship of
various divisions, departments, groups and individuals and interdependent subsystems of the
total organization.
6. Focal Area
There are many OD techniques, and any individual practitioner may rely on one or a
combination of approaches. Regardless of the method selected, the objectives are to work
from an overall organization perspective, through increasing the ability of the "whole" to
respond to a changing environment. Organizations have objectives such as making profit,
surviving, and growing; but individual members also have desires to achieve, unsatisfied
needs to fulfill, and career goals to accomplish within the organization. OD then, is a
"process for change which can benefit both the organization and the individual”. In today's
business environment managers must continuously monitor change and adapt their systems to
survive by staying competitive in a turbulent arena.
The roots of OD lie in the famous Hawthorne experiments carried out at the Western Electric
company by Elton Mayo and his associates. These experiments highlighted the importance of
employee attitudes and expectations, informal work groups, norms and values and
participation in decision making as influencing performance – all these still central concepts
in various techniques of OD. Though there are divergent opinions and attitudes about the
nature and practice of OD, among its practitioners, a general consensus may be noticed
among them as to what the basic characteristics of OD are.
In any OD effort the totality of the organization is to be taken into account. Organization
being an integrated system of sub-systems, changes in anyone sub-system tends to have
consequences for the other sub-systems. The approach should be holistic either for
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identifying the need for change within or for planning and implementing a change, until the
intended change is absorbed in the total system, optimal collaboration, synergism and
efficiency cannot be obtained.
The theoretical body of knowledge underlying the concept and practice of OD is eclectic.
Recent developments in the area of behavioral sciences, especially Psychology, Sociology,
Anthropology etc., have influenced the OD thought and practice.
The intended changes in OD programmers may be carried out at any of the sub-system levels
such as:
• Organization structure
• Task accomplishment
• Work climate ( interpersonal and intercrop relations, work values )
• Methods of decision making and problem solving
• Technology.
The benefits of the planned effort to the organization are measured in terms of improvements
noticed in the performance of the sub-system where the change has been implemented,
related sub-systems that have an interface with the changed sub-system, and the organization
as a whole.
Intended changes in the organizational structure should be initiated on the basis of a study of
the existing structure – especially the formal relationships, span of control and functions
performed by each individual in the context of the others. The planned change may be on the
basis of what an in ideal structure should be like. A better approach would be to take into
cognizance of the felt needs of the role incumbents. The employees may be involved in
Identifying problems in the existing structure and also in evolving a strategy for change. Such
a participative approach would yield results as the employees are tuned to the intended
change.
Another approach to OD is at the micro level i.e., at the job level, while the above was at the
macro level. What is of concern is the designing of jobs for better performance. Job related
aspects such as authority, responsibility, activities the attitudes, expectations of the role
incumbents.
Research studies have shown that job attitudes and job satisfaction influence performance.
Jobs may be redesigned to provide variety and opportunities for satisfying higher order needs.
Jobs enlargement and job enrichment are the job design methods employed as part of OD
techniques.
OD practitioners also aim at improving the interpersonal climate. The work climate of
openness, trust and collaboration has positive influence on performance, while the climate of
suspicion, distrust and hostility result in low or mediocre performance. The climate should be
supportive, proactive and allow for opportunities to be creative and original.
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communication network and improve the communication process. Communication network
may be analyzed in terms of the following methods.
2. Participant analysis: Data is collected about how communication is actually taking place
in the network by interviewing the individuals or through a questionnaire.
3. Duty Study: Like a cop observing the traffic on a high way, the analyst positions himself in
the communication network at any spot and studies the communication flow.
OD efforts to improve communication may deal with the elements of communication process
such as ‘surface’, ‘message’, ‘channel’, ‘receiver’, process of encoding and network, in
addition to communication overload.
Decision making is another important area for OD intervention. What is a decision? Decision
is ‘commitment to action’. Decisions are basic to management process and link up the
various activities of the organization. While some of the decisions are routine and
programmed, the other may be un-programmed and ad hoc. While some of them are
operating decisions that are routine, programmed and executed automatically, the others are
administrative decisions that are either coordinative and routine, or exceptional and ad hoc
while yield custom – made solution.
Strategic decisions are also exceptional and have an influence on the overall organization or a
greater segment of the organization. Necessity for strategic decision may arise due to forces
in the external or internal environment, new technological input or at the initiative of the
chief executive organizational settings. Its popularity arises out of its being a non-threatening,
practical and an enjoyable way of learning about self and people. T.A. is basically a
conceptual model for analyzing interpersonal behavior. Development of self-knowledge
comes through analysis of own behavior with the help of this model. The intervention
requires explanation of concepts through instructions, individual self-analysis and exercises
for group discussion. An innovative use of T.A. is its application to analysis of
“organizational scripts”, which make it an OD intervention for use tat the total organizational
level.
A common barrier to effective OD is a lack of understanding of what the term means and
how it can help Organisations deliver the cultural and organisational change needed for all
types of continuous improvement.
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In some cases it is assumed that OD sits within the Human Resources function or a particular
department rather than a corporate management responsibility that requires wide-ranging
organisational action. It may then be regarded as a territorial issue rather than a high level
strategic activity is therefore unlikely to be effective. The fact that OD is a cross-functional,
cross-role responsibility also means that it is not necessarily easy to identify, own or describe.
Some authorities may have capability gaps in some of the behaviours, skills and knowledge
required for successful OD. Vision and longer term planning are particularly critical in this
respect. If these are lacking, OD may not be properly thought through so that it becomes
unnecessarily complex, meets staff resistance and the council then fails to deliver its
objectives.
Many activities contribute to an appropriate ‘climate’ for sustained OD. For example:
Creating an Organisational Development Coordinator (or some similar post) and a steering
group are both critical drivers to the process since they provide a focal point and an overview
to help ‘map’ all OD activities and to ensure ownership across the organisation.
Organizational Development is a high level, strategic activity requiring strong leadership and
influence. Therefore, by definition, the chief executive and corporate management team’s
commitment to the concept of OD are critical if it is to be successful.
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In practical terms this means:
However, care must also be taken to ensure that OD is widely accepted and integrated within
the culture of the organisation as a whole to ensure maximum strategic benefit. This requires
authorities to identify the skills it needs to build organisational capacity and plan how these
will be developed or acquired.
“Hard” activities
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“Softer” activities
a) Provide an overview of the projects being undertaken that make a contribution to the
development of the authority
b) Identify activities/projects that need to be undertaken to ensure that the authority is
developing as an organisation to meet its key objectives.
c) Provide advice on how organisational frameworks should/could be developed e.g.
Performance Management
d) Establish clear outcomes and measures to track and evaluate progress with regular reports
on OD to elected members, senior management, and departmental representatives
e) Identify and share good practice within the organisation
f) Identify what others are doing to develop their organisations and learn from their
experience
OD function can be found in a wide range of locations, both corporately and departmentally
and many authorities may not have staff designated specifically to this role by name. Tasks
associated with OD may well be being carried out without full awareness, and piecemeal,
although the attempts at “cross silo working” may be raising awareness of the importance of
OD.
HR (strategic) consultants
Most of these posts tend to be located in the Chief Executive’s Department. In some
authorities these post holders are members of various teams, including strategic development
and change management groups. Other posts are held within HR support services or
corporate divisions. Some post holders report directly to the chief executive or senior
management team. Most OD Managers/Officers tend to report directly to heads of service
within their particular divisions
It is not appropriate to specify exactly where the Organisation Development 'function' should
be located, as authorities will vary in both their structures and contexts. In principle it could
be anywhere in the authority structure, but the high level nature of OD activities requires
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clear links to the chief executive and the senior management team, with sufficient authority to
influence the whole organisation.
However, recent research indicates that authorities which have located their OD posts within
the Chief Executives’ Department has resulted in closer liaison with chief officers and chief
executives. This has helped form an overall vision of council activities and resulted in a
more flexible organisational response to wide ranging demands.
Those taking responsibility for driving the process of OD role will draw on a range of
behaviours, skills and knowledge such as:
Behaviours
a) Strategic focus
b) Visionary/anticipates future direction
c) Identifies push and pull factors in organisation
d) Communicates appropriately at all levels of organisation
e) Establishes rapport with a wide range of people
f) Identifies creative and innovative solutions
g) Leads from within and from behind
h) Challenges existing practice
i) Flexible in approach
j) Reflects on and learns from experiences of self and others
k) Patient and persevering
l) Inspires trust and confidence
Skills
a) Change management
b) Influencing
c) Negotiation
d) Relationship management
e) Knowledge management
f) Political and personal sensitivity
g) Performance and project management
h) Risk management
i) Analytical skills
j) Research techniques – surveys, focus groups
k) Team/partnership working
Knowledge
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Good OD and change management practice, business/scenario planning, organisational
re-modeling, the Balanced Scorecard, strategic applications of ICT, Business Process
Reengineering, partnerships, outsourcing, Knowledge Management, job/task re-design
The diverse range of behaviours, skills and knowledge required to carry out Organisation
Development activities effectively mean that it is most unlikely that these would be drawn
from a single source.
National organisations
Regional Organisations
External training providers/organisations and consultants
Internet and computer based development tools
national networks
Internal groups brought together with OD as focus
Appointment of OD staff member at high level with expertise in key areas to help
develop others from within
10. Summary
Organizational Development is not a new concept; however until recently it has tended to be
implicit. The critical role of effective people management and development in successful OD
is often not fully recognized.
Many authorities are already carrying out a wide range of OD activities, but these are not
always explicit or centrally coordinated. Therefore moving towards a more holistic OD
approach may not require significant effort compared to the benefits this yields, even in the
short term. However, in other authorities a more radical approach to establish an OD focus
and greater appreciation of the ‘people’ dimension may well be required.
For the foreseeable future, Organisations will need to justify their position with the
community. The significant contribution of Organisation Development in this context should
be recognized and acted upon.
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10. What do you understand by Hard and Soft activities?
Unit 2
HISTORICAL FOUNDATION OF ORGANISATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Dr. D. Joseph Anbarasu
1. Introduction
a. The need for new organizational forms. Organizations tend to adopt a form that is more
appropriate to a particular time, and the current rate of change requires more adaptive
forms.
b. The focus on cultural change. Because each organization forms a cultural system of
beliefs and values the only way to change is to alter this organizational culture.
c. The increase in social awareness. Because of the changing social climate, tomorrow's
employee will no longer accept autocratic styles of management; therefore, greater social
awareness is required in the organization. Today’s managers exist in shifting
organizational structures and can be the central force in initiating change and establishing
the means for adoption. Most organizations strive to be creative, efficient, and highly
competitive, maintaining a leading edge in their respective fields rather than following
trends set by others. Effective managers are vital to the continuing self-renewal and
ultimate survival of the organization. The Consultant manager must recognize when
changes are occurring in the external environment and possess the necessary competence
to bring about change when it is needed. The manager must also be aware of the internal
system and recognize that the major element in planned change is the organizational
culture: the feelings, norms, and behaviors of its members.
With the Knowledge Explosion and Technological Revolution, a lot of changes in our
environment, in our personal as well as organizational lives have become so inevitable. If one
is not ready to adapt to these changes, one has to be stagnant and become stinky and dissolve.
It is more true in the case of organizations. To be alive and growing, manager of any
organization has to keep pace with the changing environment. In other words, the
environmental forces require managers to implement comprehensive change programs. OD is
a system wide approach to change.
The phrase ‘Organizational Development’ was coined by Richard Beckhard in the middle of
1950s in his efforts to find a way to integrate the needs of the organization and those of the
individuals within the organization. Roben Blake and Jare Mouton (the originators of the
managerial grid), Harren Shepard (a leading OD consultant) may also claim such distinction.
It is generally conceded that the term OD has evolved from two basic resources: the
application of laboratory methods by National Training Laboratory (NTL) and the survey
research methods by the Survey Research Center, both methods pioneered by Kurt Lewin in
about 1945.
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However, the basic concept underlining Organizational Development is to improve
organizational improvement by modifying human behavior rather than technological
innovation, because without the committed involvement of human element all technology has
very little scope.
a) The need for new organizational development forms. Organizations tend to adopt a form
that is more appropriate to a particular time, and the current rate of change requires more
adaptive forms.
b) The focus on cultural change. Because each organization forms a cultural system of beliefs
and values the only way to change is to change is to alter this organizational culture.
c) The increase in social awareness. Because of the changing social climate, tomorrow’s
employee will not accept autocratic styles of management. Therefore, greater social
awareness is required in the organization. Today’s managers exist in shifting
organizational structures and can be the central force in initiating change and establishing
the means for adoption. Most organizations strive to be creative, efficient, and highly
competitive, maintaining a leading edge in their respective fields rather than following
trends set by others.
Effective managers are vital to the continuing self-renewal and ultimate survival of the
organization. The consultant manager must recognize when changes are occurring in the
external environment and possess the necessary competence to bring about change when it
is needed. The manager must also be aware of the internal system and recognize that the
major element in planned change is the organizational culture, the feelings, norms and
behaviour of the members.
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efforts by Richard Beckhard and Herb Shepard at Esso Research and Engineering, laid the
foundation for later developments in the field. Others at the time began calling their
consultation work “Organizational Development”; most notably, Robert Blake and Jane
Mouton. By the early 1960s, OD group had emerged at major corporations such as Union
Carbide, Bankers Trust Company, TRW and Esso.
These literatures are of two streams, both of them tracing their origin to the Concept phase of
1950s. While one stream focused on interpersonal relationship and humanistic psychology,
the second stream emphasized organizations as systems. In a sense this stream stressed
dynamics of the change process, work processes and structural changes.
A study in this regard revealed that OD would be further marginalized. The need for
revitalizing OD into the mainstream of Organizational Effectiveness was felt. It was the US
Army, which realized the need very much. They established a Department of Organizational
Effectiveness to train its officers before they were actually assigned important responsibility.
It had a very good impact. The trained officers were able to integrate OD practices into their
operating roles. On the contrary, the corporate sector gradually eliminated OD practices.
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How did it happen?
1. Action Learning Program at GE Crotonville Development Institute
On his attempt to reinvent the OD process, Welch invited Noel M.Tichy to head GE at
Crotonville. Noel’s effort here was a shift towards action learning program at the
Development Institute that took GE’s developmental efforts away from traditional study and
case research. The movement towards action learning was that a meaningful cultural change
would occur only when people brought new work approach into their daily routine. This was
what Welch wanted to take place.
Depth of Change
Deep Superficial
High Risk Low Risk
Long Time Little Time
Organisation Required
Approach: Action-Learning
Team
Pair Traditional
Approach
Individual
Target of change
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2. Work-out concept
However, Welch was not satisfied with the speed at which the cultural change was taking
place in the organizations. He wanted people to be liberated from bureaucracy and empower
them to work in an open and collaborative spirit.
Work-out is a fluid and adoptable concept and not a program. It started as regular meeting of
the cross section of the employees of different departments of the same organization. The
basic idea is to remove any barrier like bureaucracy, monotonous paper work, etc which
hamper the fast moving of things in an organization. The result was so admirable that things
moved fast and people were convinced of its effectiveness.
Progressively the Work-out session started taking up more challenging tasks of identifying
the crucial issues of the organization, discarding the lesser important ones, and finding a
faster, simpler and better way. Work-out was not designed to increase productivity but to
create a positive, high-energy process that made the managers to collaborate with employees
to constructively change work routines. Initially, Work-out was run by a team of external
consultants. Though GE did not call this as OD, it advocated large-scale adoption of OD
principles and methodology at a crucial time.
3. Change Acceleration:
At this point of time, Welch shifted the work-out process from the external consultants to the
line managers of GE itself. The line managers had acquired the necessary skills to sustain the
work-out process on a daily basis. Further he went on to create a team of change agents and
launched Change Acceleration Program (CAP) to give GE leaders, the change agents’ skills,
organizational diagnostic capabilities, skill in designing workshop interventions and basic
team building.
The Action Learning projects had launched an awareness of the need for line managers to use
OD skills. Work-out and CAP developed these skills in leaders, eventually this replaced the
consultants with experienced in-house leaders as teachers. Embedding leaders as teachers at
Crotonville was a natural next step for ensuring that the line leadership was able to develop
the people capabilities requires for the success of GE.
Their final phase was the launch of six sigma, a quality program aimed at producing fewer
than three defects per million. Welch took the six sigma process, teaching organizational
statistical tools, process mapping and problem solving tools to a new level by building the
world’s largest team of teachers (12,000).
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5. Dissemination of GE Model:
Welch retired in 2001. However he left a mark in GE. The total absorption of OD in to the
line leadership’s daily responsibilities is certainly a key element that it brought culture
change in the organization and an internal army of change agents-leaders.
OD’s rebirth is in the mainstream of how good leaders can develop other leaders within and
the organization itself. Welch’s conviction is that ‘leaders must be teachers’ and they must
have a teachable point of view regarding how to develop a successful organization and how
to energize its employees. Thus, Jack Welch was very rightly considered as the father of the
rebirth of OD.
Case study
Upon graduation, you take on what you quickly realize is the job challenge of a lifetime –
you go to work for the city school board of a large metropolitan area that is noted for
problems with its school system. You are in a staff position. Officially, your title is Staff
Analyst, Special Project. You ask your boss what some of the special projects are expected
to be.
What you need to understand is that our staff is new and that we’re in a place to make some
real changes. The mayor is really alarmed. You know, of course, that businesses in the city
just lost a major contract for some work for the federal government. I’m sure that you’ve
heard the “official” position as well – that the low bid by Amalgamated Industries was the
main reason. Well, the mayor’s inside information is that the bid wasn’t the main factor. The
main factor is the state of education in this city. It’s so bad that we aren’t considered to have
an educated workforce. The mayor, the governor-everybody is determined that we must
make an all-out effort to radically and totally revamp the entire public school system in this
city to ensure that this never happens again. Your job will be to do the research that is
needed to get things going.
You go home with a terrible headache and are worried that you’re in way over your head – or
anyone’s head, for that matter. But the next morning you’re feeling somewhat refreshed and
decide to give it a try.
When you get to work the next day, the boss pulls you aside.
Now I’ve really got a tough assignment for you. I want you to try to persuade one of the
district administrators to turn over control of one of the elementary schools to us so that we
can run a study of a new experiential reading curriculum. You’ve got to do it – the guy won’t
even speak to me. The problem is that this particular administrator, John Harold, is strictly
from the Stone Age. He’s one year away from retirement and hasn’t entertained a new idea
in at least twenty years. Anyhow, give it a go. You’re our last hope.
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Case Questions
In the late I940s and early 1950s laboratory-training methods were developed and applied by
a group of behavioral scientists at Bethel, Maine. Douglas McGregor (Theory X and Theory
Y with Richard Beckhard, began applying laboratory-training methods to industry, at General
Iills in 1956 and at Union Carbide in 1957. At union Carbide, McGregor and John Paul Jones
(an internal consultant) formed the first internal OD consulting group. About the same time
Herbert Shepard and Robert Blake were initiating a series of applied behavioral Science
interventions at Esso, using mainly laboratory-training technique to improve work team
processes. These early railing sessions provided the basis for what Blake and Mouton later
developed as an instrumented training system they called the Managerial Grid. The success of
these programs led to a dissemination of such efforts to her corporations.
At the same time, a group at the Survey Research Center at the University of Michigan began
to apply to Organizations the action research model of Kurt Lewin. Rensis Likert and Floyd
Mann administered an organization-wide survey to “Detroit Edison Co" involving the
systematic feedback of data to participating departments. They used what is termed an
"interlocking series of conferences" feeding data back to the top management group and then
down to work teams throughout the organization. Since that time, many organizations have
used the survey feedback approach. General Motors, for example, has reported success in
applying Likert's survey feedback approach to organizational improvement.
In summary, the major sources of current OD practice were the pioneering work at NTL
(laboratory-training techniques) and the Survey Research Center (survey feedback methods).
This brief look at the past is important because OD is a new and still developing field, and
you as a future OD practitioner may build upon these earlier foundations in pioneering other
new approaches.
From these early beginnings OD has experienced a rapid growth. A growing number of
organizations worldwide applying OD techniques, including most major corporations, have
formed internal OD consulting groups. The OD network, an organization of OD practitioners,
has been in existence for only a little over two decades and has grown to a membership of
more than 2,000 members. The National Training Laboratories, American Psychological
Association, American Society for Training and Development, and Academy of Management
all have professional divisions relating to organization development. The first doctoral
program for training OD specialists, called the Organizational Behavior Group, was started
by Shepard in 1960 at what is now the Department of Organization and Administration at
Case Western Reserve University. Shepard applied these OD techniques, in an educational
setting, to the development of OD practitioners. The Organizational Behavior group has since
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graduated over 100 specialists who are involved in teaching and consulting throughout. Other
universities with graduate programs bearing on OD include Brigham Young, Harvard, MIT,
Southern, Methodist, UCLA, University of Washington, Gonzaga, Pepperdine, and Yale,
with many others beginning to include OD in the curriculum. Organization development is an
exciting rapidly growing field. OD efforts have grown into a multitude of differing
approaches and are now applied in a number of organizations around the world by expanding
number of OD practitioners.
6. OD and TQM
As change is occurring so rapidly, there is a need for new way to manage focusing on product
quality and individual involvement. Total Quality Management is an approach to managing
work focusing on the evaluation work processes; the development of a quality energized
culture; and the empowerment of employees, for the purpose of continuous improvement of
products and services. Since TQM is a powerful new management technique requiring
increased employee participation, the first step is a dramatic change in corporate culture. Any
successful change in corporate culture will depend upon the active consultation and
involvement of the management team.
As B. F. Skinner has commented, "A culture is not the behavior of the people 'living in it'; it
is the 'it' in which they live-contingencies of social reinforcement which generate and sustain
their behavior.”
The organization culture refers to a system of shared meanings, including the language, dress,
patterns of behavior, value system, feelings, attitudes, interactions, and group norms of the
members. You may examine the patterns of behavior on your campus or in your company.
How do people dress or wear their hair? What jargon or unique terms are used these are the
elements that make up a culture: the accepted patterns of behavior. One example is the
culture at Federal Express, carefully crafted by Frederick Smith, the chairman, to reflect a
combat situation. Flights are called “missions" and competitors are "enemies."
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Chart 1
To learn OD techniques, a manager or student needs both the knowledge of content material
and the Experience of putting theory into practice. Consequently, to create a learning
environment for the field of Organization development at either the undergraduate or
graduate level, the emphasis should be on experience.
You will perhaps discover a different approach to the study of organizational change. Many
courses in OD approach change in a structured and traditional manner. By means of lectures
and readings, useful concepts and theories are presented to the student, whose role is largely
passive. This book utilizes an innovative and significantly different approach to teaching OD:
the experiential approach. It is used on learning OD techniques experiencing simulated
organizational situations. You will experience situations in which you are developing
relationship with a client or diagnosing a problem rather than simply reading about them.
You learn best when you are involved in the learning experience. Concepts have to be
experienced or discovered by you. They are to change your behavior. Your commitment to
learning will be greatest when you are responsible for setting your own learning objectives.
In the experimental approach, the major responsibility for learning is placed upon you, the
learner. You will determine your own learning objectives and influence how the class goes
about achieving these objectives. You attain your own goals, decide which theories you want
to learn, practice the skills or techniques you want to improve. You develop the behavioral
style you want to develop experiential learning also involves an active, rather than a passive
role. Often you may sit in a class, listen, take notes, or perhaps daydream while the instructor
"does his or her thing" for an hour. As in a job situation, you are dependent on others and
they upon your ideas, factions, and feedback about behavior: The same will be true in this
class. Experiential learning is also the method most corporations use to teach OD concepts to
their employees. So, you will be experiencing the same kind of activities that occur in most
real world OD programs.
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What is different about the experiential learning process? First, you will generate from your
own experience in this a set of concepts that will guide your behavior. These concepts will be
continually modified over time and in various managerial situations to improve your
effectiveness. The experiential learning program can be presented in a four-stage cycle
1. Gaining conceptual Knowledge and Theories: You will be reading about OD concept;
and theories and doing pre class preparation.
3. Analysis of Activity: You will be analyzing, critiquing the way you solved problems,
and comparing the results of different approaches.
4. Connecting the theory and activity with prior on-the-job or life situations-You will be
connecting your learning past experiences reflecting upon the results, and
generalizing into the future. The end result should be proved skill and performance in
applying; these learning are to 1ife and job situations. “Student centered" learning
places a learning responsibility upon you. There will be an opportunity in the class for
a high level of participation and for a challenging learning experience. Small-group
learning environments will be formed wherein you may share learning with others,
thus encountering feedback. Each of the learning-units presents a conceptual
background and a framework for a behavioral simulation. The focal point for each
chapter is the action-oriented behavioral simulation. As part of the experiential
learning model in OD, feelings, and emotions represent important data for learning.
open and authentic relationships in which you share your feelings with others and
provide honest feedback are necessary part of the learning situation. Each chapter is
organized to help you learn concepts and skills, and each provides cases, simulations,
and diagnostic instruments to help you learn more about OD. Although experimental
learning can be stimulating and often fun, it is important to remember that you learn
from the combination of theory and experience.
10. Conclusion
Organization development emerged largely from applied behavioural sciences and has four
major stems:
a. the invention of the T-group and innovations in the application of laboratory training
insights to complex organisations;
b. the invention of survey feedback technology,
c. the emergence of action research and
d. the evolution of the socio-clinical approaches.
Key figures in this early history interacted with each other across these stems and were
influenced by concepts and experiences from a wide variety of disciplines and settings. These
disciplines included social psychology, clinical psychology, family group therapy,
ethnography, military psychology and psychiatry, the theater, general semantics, social work,
systems theory, mathematics and physics, philosophy, psychodrama, client-centered therapy,
survey methodology, experimental and action research, human resources management,
organisational behaviour, general management theory, and large conference management.
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Self Study Questions:
1. Discuss the emergence OD in the context of the three factors suggested by Warren
Bennis.
2. What are the different phases of the historical evolution of O.D?
3. Describe the growth of OD Process during the Pioneering phase.
4. Explain why the period from 1973 to 1980s was called Self-Doubt phase.
5. What is contribution of Jack Welch for the rebirth of OD process?
6. Explain the change process that took place in GE.
7. What is Tichy’s Development Matrix?
8. Explain the “Work-Out” concept.
9. What do you understand by ‘CAP’?
10. “A Leader must be a Teacher” – Discuss.
11. Briefly analyse the laboratory techniques that were adopted at NTL.
12. Explain what Organizational Culture is.
13. What do you understand by Experiential Learning?
14. The concept OD has emerged from behavioural sciences – Explain.
Suggested References:
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