838 2

Course: Curriculum Development and Instruction (838)
Semester: Autumn, 2020

ASSIGNMENT No. 2
Q.1 Critically examine the hidden curriculum planning.
Organizations around the globe develop strategic plans. They carefully create a vision of their future and the
strategies needed to get there. But many fail to realize their vision and fail to deliver the expected strategic
results. Unfortunately, executive teams cannot pinpoint the reasons for this dilemma so they repeat the strategic
planning cycle over and over, always hoping that the next strategic planning session will bring better results.
And of course it doesn’t. In our experience, there are 5 critical factors that will ensure your strategic plans are
successfully implemented.
1. Engagement
“Only 23% of companies use a formal strategic planning process to make important strategic decisions. In 52%
of companies, these decisions are made by a small senior group.”
McKinsey & Co.
Strategic Planning is a process not an event. A key element in the process is the engagement of all levels of staff
throughout the organization. Staff engagement generates additional input and helps build their commitment to
the end plan. It is essential to involve employees in the planning of strategy and direction for the organization.
Employee’s input will:
 Provide insight into issues, challenges, concerns, and opportunities which may not have been known or
fully understood.
 Ensure their “buy-in” to help execute the strategies.
The senior management team will not execute the strategies – staff will. Engage them and your strategy
execution success rate will increase dramatically.
2. Communication
“2 out of 3 HR and IT departments develop plans that are not linked to the company’s overall strategy”.
Harvard Business School
Strategic Planning processes are successful when a bottom up and top down communication approach is taken.
It starts off with a communication to all levels of employees informing them that a Strategic Planning process
will be undertaken. It includes how they will be involved in this process. This is the bottom up communication.
Employees will provide input to the strategic planning process through feedback surveys, focus groups,
meetings, etc. regarding their ideas for organizational direction, etc.
It is followed by the top down communication. Senior management will share the strategic plan with
employees. They will communicate to all employees how their engagement will help ensure success in the
execution of these strategies.
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3. Innovation
“Organizations need the courage to try something risky that they don’t know will work. Why? Because if they
know it will work, they’ll only get an improvement to what they already have. Yet if they try something that is a
little dangerous and new, they will realize true innovation.”
Michael Stanleigh
Some strategic plans include strategies to develop a new product or deliver a new service or re-structure a
department, etc. They put teams of individuals together to work on these major initiatives and give them
investment money to ensure success. Yet over time it becomes apparent that this team won’t realize the strategic
goal given to them and the strategy itself will be deemed a failure. This is wrong!!
This is not a failure of execution. It is the lack of an Innovation Process to manage the strategy that led to the
failure. The senior management created strategies that required innovation to achieve them. This is
unfortunately, very common.
Many organizations tell their employees to be more innovative. They create strategies for new products and
services. But they fail to develop a strategy for Innovation which includes reshaping the organizational culture
to be innovative, implementing a process for managing innovations, etc. Research in Motion is a classic case.
They’ll tell you that they’re very innovative. They market it and promote it. But look at their Strategic Plan.
They lack a clear strategy for innovation – but they do have strategies for new product development. Yet since
the development of the Blackberry, they haven’t released a single innovative product. They will of course
disagree. The Playbook is an Ipad with less functionality. It’s not an innovation.
However, there are many examples of organizations that have a strategy for innovation and this helps drive their
new product and service delivery strategies. These include Apple, Google, Zodiac and BMW.
4. Project Management
“Most devastatingly, 95% of employees do not understand their company’s strategy. (How are they supposed to
execute a plan if they don’t understand it?)”
Harvard Business School
Once the strategic plan is together, there are two critical elements related to project management. One is to
identify the projects that are required to ensure success in the execution of each strategy. Another is to develop a
prioritization of all these projects to ensure the high priority ones have the proper resourcing to ensure success.
This requires a high involvement and commitment on the part of employees to spend the time required on the
projects.
The high level of involvement of employees ensures that they understand the strategic plan. It increases their
level of commitment to ensure the strategy is successfully executed because they understand how their work
and the work they’re completing on the project helps the organization to realize some or all of one of their key
strategies.
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5. Culture
“There is a failure to understand the culture of the organization as well as a failure to develop values and culture
to support the plans.” Strategic Planning Failure – Mark Mendenhall, Encyclopedia of Business
Organizational Culture is the commonly held attitudes, values, beliefs and behaviours of its employees. The
culture of an organization is as unique and diverse as an individual’s personality. If the employees of an
organization believe that change is something to be feared and avoided, then change implementation is often
reactive and haphazard. If the employees believe that all change should be aggressively implemented “from
above”, then change is seldom supported. However, if the employees of an organization believe that change is
worthwhile and everyone’s responsibility; then change and growth occur with relative ease. These are the few
“excellent” organizations that continue to excel in their industry.
It is followed by the top down communication. Senior management will share the strategic plan with
employees. They will communicate to all employees how their engagement will help ensure success in the
execution of these strategies.
Q.2 How you can select and organize the learning experiences according to content.
Curriculum content simply means the totality of what is to be taught in a school system. The content component
of teaching learning situation refers to the important facts, principles and concepts to be taught. These contents
must be in line with the learning experiences and there must be clear cut objective to be achieved by the end of
each respective lesson. It can be in form of knowledge, skills, attitude and values that learners are exposed to.
Content involves subject matter drawn on the basis of problems, themes or topics cutting across traditional
subjects.
Learning experience refers to any interaction course, programme or other experience in which learning takes
place, whether it occurs in traditional academic setting (schools classrooms) or non-traditional academic setting
(outside of school locations, outdoor environment or whether it include traditional educational interactions
(students learning from teachers and professors)or nontraditional interactions (student learning through games
and interactive software applications). According to Tyler learning experiences are the interactions between the
learner and the external conditions in the environment to which he can react. It is an activity which may be
planned by the class or teacher but perform by the learner for the purpose of achieving some important learning
objectives
There are various types of activities that can be performed by the learners in the study of various school subjects
to enhance learning. There are also various activities which teachers perform as they teach learners, but then,
learning experiences are not what the teachers do, it is not the teacher methodology, but those activities
performed by the learners themselves.
CRITERIA FOR SELECTING CURRICULUM CONTENT
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1. Validity: The content of the curriculum is valid if it promotes the outcome that it is intended to promote.
It is also the authenticity of the subject matter or content selected, to make sure the topics are not obsolete,
for this to be achieve, there should be a regular check on the curriculum content and replace it if necessary.
2. Self sufficiency: This criterion helps learners attain maximum self sufficiency at the most economical
manner or content selection. This is done when the students or learners are given the chance to experiment,
observe and carryout field study.
 Significance: The content is significant if it is selected and organized for the developed of learning
activities, skills, processes and attitude that will help in solving the problem of the country. It also develops
the three domain of learning namely cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills and considers the cultural
aspect of the learners particularly, if your learners come from different cultural background and races then
the content must be cultural sensitive.
1. Interest: This criterion is true to be learned centred curriculum. The interest of the students should be
considered in selecting content because students learn best if the subject matter is meaningful to them. It
becomes meaningful if they are interested in it. But if the curriculum is subject centred, teachers have no
choice but to finish the facing schedule religiously and teach only what is in the book, this may explain why
many fail in subject sometimes.
2. Learnability: The content should be what the students can learn and should be within their experience.
Teachers should apply theories on psychology of learning in order to know their subject are presented,
sequenced an organized to maximize the learning capacity of the students
3. Utility: This is the usefulness of the content in solving problems now and in future. It is more important
in skill or procedural. Knowledge, whereby learners can put what they have learnt into practice life activities
 Consistency with Social Realities: This means that content should be chosen based on the facy that
they relates to our present social needs economic and political situation. Content must be acceptable to the
culture and belief system of the people.
CRITERIA FOR SELECTING LEARNING EXPERIENCE
The condition for selecting learning experiences by the experts must base on the recent or modern principles of
learning. These criteria are:
1. Validity: Learning experience is valid when it related objectives are in any of the three domains;
cognitive, affective and psychomotor, the learning experience must be holistic to involve all the domains.
2. Variety: Learners are different and learn, in different ways base on their interest and ability therefore
varied learning experience must be provided to help them comprehend
 Interest: So that the desired objectives can be achieve and also for learners to demand pleasure learning
experiences from tem must be of great interest to the learner.
1. Relevance to Life: Learning experience must be relevant to real-life situations in school and in the
society to help learners understand their society and proffer solutions to some problems of the society. This
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is where community based resources comes to play. Experience in real content and situation bring realism to
teaching and learning.
2. Suitability: Learning experience must not be too simple nor complex but rather be suitable for the age
or level of the learners and for the content which it is meant for.
3. Comprehensive: Learning experience must cover all the stated objectives in a lesson; it must range
from the simplest learning experiences to the most complex, covering all the domains of learning.
Potential for multiple Learning: This means that learning experiences are not fashioned for different distinct
domains of instructional objectives. Therefore, it is necessary to plan for learning experiences that will provide
for the three domains as strategy for multiple learning. A single learning experience should involve cognitive,
affective and psychomotor domains of learning, hence it is said to be comprehensive.
ORGANIZATIONAL AND INTEGRATION OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES AND CONTENT
After learning experience and content have been selected, the next step to take is to organize them. These
organization of learning experience and content is based on the cumulative development behavior the learners
gradually experience during the educational process.
Content and learning experience are organized in two relationship bases; vertical and horizontal relationship;
Vertical organization is the arrangement of learning experiences and content over a time sequence access
classes in the same subject. For instance, for a four year programme in English, language, contents are arranged
in hierarchical order, from the lowest level to the highest level. This arrangement learning of English language
becomes cumulative as knowledge continues to build up over time. This knowledge building starts from simple
to complex in the subject progressively.
The horizontal organization occurs when the learning in one subject enhances the knowledge, skill and attitude
in another subject within the same class. For instance, there should be a relationship between the knowledge
acquired in biology and that of agricultural science, the knowledge and skills acquired in economics lessons can
enhance that of political science within the same class.
There are certain criteria that must be met in organizing learning experience and content. These include:
1. Continuity: It is the recurring emphasis on the learners experience on a particular element or kind of
activities, until mastery is achieved. With mastery, learners develop progressively, systematically and
naturally, with new knowledge building on earlier acquired knowledge and thus learners can gain
competence.
2. Sequence: It is also related to continuity as well as progressively moving from the lower to the higher
level of knowledge and from simple to complex. In sequence, each successive experience goes more deeply
and broadly into the subjects. Each experience reinforces and extends the previous one. Curriculum
practices in the arrangement of sequence of learning experiences usually based according to one of the
following; chronological order, logical order and difficulty.
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3. Integration: It refers to the relationship among learning experiences which brings about a unified view,
and behavior is a horizontal relationship which cut across several subjects and the areas of student’s life.
One subject should buttress the other. For instance, what is learnt in mathematics to solve problems can be
used for solving problems in other subjects, as this enhances the transfer of knowledge.
Q.3 Using core ideas as focusing centers saves seveal important functions in curriculum development.
Explain how?
Bottom-up investing is an investment approach that focuses on the analysis of individual stocks and de-
emphasizes the significance of macroeconomic cycles and market cycles. In bottom-up investing, the investor
focuses his attention on a specific company and its fundamentals, rather than on the industry in which that
company operates or on the greater economy as a whole. This approach assumes individual companies can do
well even in an industry that is not performing, at least on a relative basis.
Bottom-up investing forces investors to consider microeconomic factors first and foremost. These factors
include a company's overall financial health, analysis of financial statements, the products and services offered,
supply and demand, and other individual indicators of corporate performance over time. For example, a
company's unique marketing strategy or organizational structure may be a leading indicator that causes a
bottom-up investor to invest. Alternatively, accounting irregularities on a particular company's financial
statements may indicate problems for a firm in an otherwise booming industry sector.
 Bottom-up investing is an investment approach that focuses on the analysis of individual stocks and de-
emphasizes the significance of macroeconomic cycles and market cycles.
 In bottom-up investing, the investor focuses his attention on a specific company and its fundamentals,
rather than top-down investing that looks at industry groups or on the greater economy first.
 The bottom-up approach assumes individual companies can do well even in an industry that is not
performing, at least on a relative basis.
The bottom-up approach is the opposite of top-down investing, which is a strategy that first
considers macroeconomic factors when making an investment decision. Top-down investors instead look at the
broad performance of the economy, and then seek industries that are performing well, investing in the best
opportunities within that industry. Conversely, making sound decisions based on a bottom-up investing strategy
entails picking a company and giving it a thorough review prior to investing. This includes becoming familiar
with the company's public research reports.
Most of the time, bottom-up investing does not stop at the individual firm level, although that is the dimension
where analysis begins and where the most weight is given. Industry group, economic sector, market and
macroeconomic factors are brought into the overall analysis in turn, but starting from the bottom and working
your way up in scale.
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Bottom-up investors are usually those who employ long-term, buy-and-hold strategies that rely strongly on
fundamental analysis. This is due to the fact that a bottom-up approach to investing gives an investor a deep
understanding of a single company and its stock, providing insight into an investment's long-term growth
potential. Top-down investors, on the other hand, can be more opportunistic in their investment strategy, and
may seek to enter and exit positions quickly to make profits off short-term market movements.
Bottom-up investors can be most successful when they invest in a company they actively use and know about
from the ground level. Companies such as Facebook, Google and Tesla are all good examples of this idea,
because each has a well-known consumer product that can be used every day. When an investor looks at a
company from a bottom-up perspective, he first inherently understands its value from the perspective of
relevance to consumers in the real world.
Example of a Bottom-Up Approach
Facebook (NYSE: FB) is a good potential candidate for a bottom-up approach because investors intuitively
understand its products and services well. Once a candidate such as Facebook is identified as a
"good" company, an investor conducts a deep dive into its management and organizational structure, financial
statements, marketing efforts and price per share. This would include calculating financial ratios for the
company, analyzing how those figures have changed over time, and project future growth.
Next, the analyst takes a step up from the individual firm and would compare Facebook's financials with that of
its competitors and industry peers in the social media and internet industry. Doing so can show if Facebook
stands apart from its peers or if it shows anomalies that others do not have. The next step up is to compare
Facebook with the larger scope of technology companies on a relative basis. After that, general market
conditions are taken into consideration, such as whether Facebook's P/E ratio is in line with the S&P 500, or
whether the stock market is in a general bull market. Finally, macroeconomic data is included in the decision
making, looking at trends in unemployment, inflation, interest rates, GDP growth and so on.
As we've seen, bottom-up investing starts with an individual company's financials and then adds increasingly
more macro layers of analysis. By contrast, a top-down investor will first examine various macro-economic
factors to see how these factors may affect the overall market, and therefore the stock they are interested in
investing in. They will analyze gross domestic product (GDP), the lowering or raising of interest
rates, inflation and the price of commodities to see where the stock market may be headed. They will also look
at the performance of the overall sector or industry that a stock is in. These investors believe that if the sector is
doing well, chances are, the stocks they are examining will also do well and bring in returns. These investors
may look at how outside factors such as rising oil or commodity prices or changes in interest rates will affect
certain sectors over others, and therefore the companies in these sectors.
Most people recognize that technology has changed the world, but few people understand the various aspects of
technology and how pervasive technology is in U.S. society. Technology is commonly defined as a discipline or
body of knowledge and the application of this knowledge combined with resources to produce outcomes in
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response to human desires and needs. Technology education draws its content from four universal domains: (1)
sciences, (2) humanities, (3) technologies, and (4) formal knowledge. The sciences and humanities domains
contain all recorded knowledge of the sciences and humanities. The technologies domain likewise contains all
recorded knowledge related to the types of technology. The formal knowledge domain consists of language,
linguistics, mathematics, and logic.
Technology education programs are available at the elementary, middle/junior high school, and secondary
levels. At the elementary school level, the focus is on technological awareness with classroom activities
oriented around the development of motor skills and informed attitudes about technology's influence on society.
At the middle school level, the focus of technology education programs is on exploring the applications of
technology to solve problems and exploring the various technological careers. A wide variety of problem-
solving situations are used, giving students opportunities to create and design. Activities are designed to further
promote technological awareness and to promote psychomotor development through processes associated with
technology. Secondary technology education programs are designed to give students experience related to
scientific principles, engineering concepts, and technological systems.
The New Vocationalism
Vocationalism is defined as the method used by schools, particularly high schools, to organize their curricula so
the students may develop skills, both vocational and academic, that will give them the strategic labor market
advantages needed to compete for good jobs. Overall enrollment in vocational courses has fallen. However, an
incoming current has brought a growing number of participants into new programs and curricula. While
traditional vocational offerings have been geared toward immediate entry into specific occupations, new
programs and course sequences are intended to prepare students for both colleges and careers, by combining a
challenging academic curriculum with development of work-related knowledge skill. The new combination
aims to keep students' options open after high school. They can go to a two-year or four-year college and then
work, go to work full-time and then back to college, or engage in paid employment and further education
simultaneously.
The overall decline in high school vocational enrollment is evident from student transcript data. Between 1982
and 1994 the average number of vocational credits completed by high school graduates declined form 4.7 to 4.0,
or from 22 percent to 16 percent of total credits earned in all subjects. The number of students who completed
three or more courses in a single vocational program area slipped from 34 percent to 25 percent. Furthermore,
students with disabilities, or with low grades, accounted for a growing proportion of vocational course-taking in
high schools during this period. Combining a vocational sequence with college-prep academic courses seems to
yield positive results. Several studies have found that high school students who combine a substantial academic
curriculum with a set of vocational courses do better than students who omit either one of these two
components.
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The idea of combining vocational and academic coursework is also central to High Schools That Work, a
network of more of more than 800 schools engaged in raising academic curriculum with modern vocational
studies. It is also a key component of the New American High Schools identified by the U.S. Department of
Education. Many of these schools are trying to raise academic standards and expectations by structuring the
curriculum alignment around students' career-related interests. Charles Benson, in a paper delivered in 1992 and
published posthumously in 1997, articulated some of the objectives of the new vocationalism: The first is to
enable almost all students, not just the minority, to obtain a thorough working knowledge of mathematics,
sciences, and languages. That is, the first objective of the new vocationalism is to help many more students
obtain a much higher standard of academic proficiency. The second objective is to help many, many more
students gain such a level of occupational proficiency that they enter easily and quickly into productive,
rewarding, and interesting careers.
What does the integration of academic and vocational curricula entail? Research has shown that schools bring
academic and vocational education together in a number of different ways, which comprise eight different
models of integration at the secondary level. These models are summarized as follows:
1. More academic content is incorporated in vocational courses.
2. Academic courses are made more vocationally relevant.
3. Academic and vocational teachers cooperate to incorporate academic content into vocational programs.
4. Curricular alignment is accomplished by modifying or coordinating both academic and vocational
curricula across courses.
5. Seminar projects are done in lieu of elective courses and require students to complete a project that
integrates knowledge and skills learned in both academic and vocational courses.
6. The academy model is a school-within-a-school that aligns courses with each other and to an
occupational focus.
7. Vocational high schools and magnet schools align courses with each other and to an occupational focus
for all students.
8. Occupational clusters, career paths, and occupational majors feature a coherent sequence of courses and
alignment among courses within clusters.
Work-Based Learning
Work experience programs allow students to learn first-hand about the world of work while still in school.
These efforts, broadly referred to as work experience programs, include formal work-based training programs
outside the school, such as cooperative education, youth apprenticeship, and school-based enterprises. Co-op
education is run by individual schools as part of their vocational education programs. Students are provided
part-time jobs during the school year in their field of vocational specialization. The job placements are arranged
by the classroom vocational instructor or by the school's co-op coordinator. A training plan that clearly states
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what the student is expected to learn and what the employer is expected to provide is developed. Business and
marketing education programs are generally the largest sponsors of co-op education.
The concept of youth apprenticeship includes preparation for postsecondary education as well as employment.
Youth apprenticeship, typically designed for high school students who may go on to postsecondary education,
are different from traditional apprenticeships run by unions or trade associations, that usually enroll young
adults who have graduated from high school. There is a growing consensus about the principles that should
guide any youth apprenticeship and about the basic design elements that differentiate youth apprenticeships
from other models linking school and work. These principles include active participation of employers;
integration of work-based and school-based learning; integration of academic and vocational learning;
structured linkages between secondary and postsecondary institutions; and award of a broadly recognized
certificate of occupational skill.
The third type of work experience program is school-based enterprises. In these programs, students produce
goods or services for sale or use to other people. Such enterprises include school restaurants, construction
projects, child care centers, auto repair shops, hair salons, and retail stores.
These programs differ from co-ops and apprenticeships in that they do not place students with employers.
Rather, the goal of school-based enterprises is to allow students to apply their classroom knowledge to running
real-world businesses. School-based enterprises are a viable option in communities where there are too few
employers to provide sufficient jobs and training opportunities in the private sector.
As the evolution toward higher technology in the work place continues, the focus of federal support for
vocational education must be on redoubling efforts to increase linkages between academic and occupational
skill development, secondary and postsecondary education, and business and education.
Q.4 How can a teacher effectively implement the curriculum in the school.
The curriculum development process systematically organizes what will be taught, who will be taught, and how
it will be taught. Each component affects and interacts with other components. For example, what will be taught
is affected by who is being taught (e.g., their stage of development in age, maturity, and education). Methods of
how content is taught are affected by who is being taught, their characteristics, and the setting. In considering
the above three essential components, the following are widely held to be essential considerations in
experiential education in non-formal settings:
Essential Considerations for Curriculum Development:

1. issue/problem/need is identified (issue ® what),
2. characteristics and needs of learners (target audience ® who),
3. changes intended for learners (intended outcomes/objectives ® what the learners
will be able to do),
4. the important and relevant content ®(what),
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5. methods to accomplish intended outcomes ®(how),

6. evaluation strategies for methods, content, and intended outcomes ®(What
works?).

The CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT MODEL on the next page (Figure 1) shows how these components
relate to each other and to the curriculum development process. It begins when an issue, concern, or problem
needs to be addressed. If education or training a segment of the population will help solve the problem, then
curriculum to support an educational effort becomes a priority with human and financial resources allocated.
The next step is to form a curriculum develop-ment team. The team makes systematic decisions about the target
audience (learner characteristics), intended out-comes (objectives), content, methods, and evaluation strategies.
With input from the curriculum development team, draft curriculum products are developed, tested, evaluated,
and redesigned -if necessary. When the final product is produced, volunteer training is conducted. The model
shows a circular process where volunteer training provides feedback for new materials or revisions to the
existing curriculum.
An Example: 1n the case of population education, a need rural out-of-school youth with
information on how population relates to the total environment as well as their personal lives.

(Insert Curriculum Development Model here)

Figure 1
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Figure 2
PHASES AND STEPS IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT (See Figure 2 on the previous page) further
illustrates how the 12 essential steps progress from one to the next. It also shows the interaction and
relationships of the four essential phases of the curriculum development process: ( I) Planning, (II) Content
and Methods, (III) Implementation, and (IV) Evaluation and Reporting. It is important to acknowledge that
things do not always work exactly as depicted in a model!
Each phase has several steps or tasks to complete in logical sequence. These steps are not always separate and
distinct, but may overlap and occur concurrently. For example, the curriculum development team is involved in
all of the steps. Evaluations should occur in most of the steps to assess progress. The team learns what works
and what does not and determines the impact of the curriculum on learners after it is implemented. Each step
logically follows the previous. It would make no sense to design learning activities before learner outcomes and
content are described and identified. Similarly, content cannot be determined before learner outcomes are
described.
In the experience of the author, and confirmed by other curriculum specialists, the following curriculum
development steps are frequently omitted or slighted. These steps are essential to successful curriculum
development and need to be emphasized.
Essential Curriculum Development Steps Needing Emphasis
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1. Needs assessment: if not conducted, wonderful curriculum could be

developed, but the appropriate needs of the target audience may not be met.
2. Involving youth: the target audience and volunteers (or staff) who will be the
implementors of the curriculum must be involved (i.e., they participate as full
members of the curriculum development team).
3. Recruiting and training volunteer facilitators: competent and skilled
curriculum implementors are critical (the printed word
cannot teach experiential group process, it doesn't provide feedback).
4. Evaluating and reporting on the impact of the curriculum: is critical for
securing human and financial support from key policy decision makers and for
assessing whether the curriculum has achieved the intended outcome.

Two types of evaluation are included in the Phases and Steps illustration: (1) Formative provides feedback
during the process of developing the curriculum, and (2) Summative answers questions about changes (impact)
that have occurred in learners because of their learning experiences. Summative evaluation provides evidence
for what works, what does not work, and what needs to be improved.
In every step of the curriculum development process, the most important task is to keep the learner (in this case,
youth) in mind and involve them in process. For example, the curriculum team members, who have direct
knowledge of the target audience, should be involved in conducting the needs assessment. From the needs
assessment process, the problem areas are identified, gaps between what youth know and what they need to
know are identified, and the scope of the problem is clarified and defined. The results may prompt decision
makers to allocate resources for a curriculum development team to prepare curriculum materials.
A brief description of each of the curriculum development steps is described below. After reviewing these
descriptions, you should have a very clear idea of how the steps occur in each of the phases and what each step
includes.
PHASE I: PLANNING
"Nobody plans to fail but failure results from a failure to plan."
The planning phase lays the foundation for all of the curriculum development steps. The steps in this phase
include:
(1) Identify Issue/Problem/Need

↪(2) Form Curriculum Development Team
↪(3) Conduct Needs Assessment and Analysis

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(1) Identify Issue/Problem/Need
The need for curriculum development usually emerges from a concern about a major issue or problem of one or
more target audience. This section explores some of the questions that need to be addressed to define the issue
and to develop a statement that will guide the selection of the members of a curriculum development team. The
issue statement also serves to broadly identify, the scope (what will be included) of the curriculum content.
(2) Form Curriculum Development Team
Once the nature and scope of the issue has been broadly defined, the members of the curriculum development
team can be selected. Topics covered in this section include: (1) the roles and functions of team members, (2) a
process for selecting members of the curriculum development team, and (3) principles of collaboration and
teamwork. The goal is to obtain expertise for the areas included in the scope of the curriculum content among
the team members and develop an effective team.
(3) Conduct Needs Assessment and Analysis
There are two phases in the needs assessment process. The first is procedures for conducting a needs
assessment. A number of techniques are aimed toward learning what is needed and by whom relative to the
identified issue. Techniques covered in this section include: KAP - Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice Survey;
focus groups; and environmental scanning.
Analysis, the second part of this needs assessment step, describes techniques on how to use the data and the
results of the information gathered. Included are: ways to identify gaps between knowledge and practice; trends
emerging from the data; a process to prioritize needs; and identification of the characteristics of the target
audience.
"As the twig is bent, so grows the tree"
PHASE II: CONTENT AND METHODS
Phase II determines intended outcomes (what learners will be able to do after participation in curriculum
activities), the content (what will be taught), and the methods (how it will be taught). Steps include:
(4) State Intended Outcomes

↪ (5) Select Content
↪(6) Design Experiential Methods

(4) State Intended Outcomes
Once the issue is defined, the curriculum team is formed, the needs assessed, analyzed and prioritized, the next
step is to refine and restate the issue, if needed, and develop the intended outcomes or educational
objectives. An intended outcome states what the learner will be able to do as a result of participating in the
curriculum activities.
This section includes: (1) a definition of intended outcomes, (2) the components of intended outcomes
(condition, performance, and standards), (3) examples of intended outcomes, and (4) an overview of learning
14
behaviors. A more complete explanation of the types and levels of learning behaviours is included in
the Addendum as well as intended outcome examples from FAO population education materials.
(5) Select Content
The next challenge in the curriculum development process is selecting content that will make a real difference
in the lives of the learner and ultimately society as a whole. At this point, the primary questions are: "If the
intended outcome is to be attained, what will the learner need to know? What knowledge, skills, attitudes, and
behaviours will need to be acquired and practiced?"
The scope (breadth of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviours) and the sequence (order) of the content are
also discussed. Intended outcomes of population education with content topics is provided
in the Addendum section as an example and application of how intended outcomes are linked with content.
(6) Design Experiential Methods
After the content is selected, the next step is to design activities (learning experiences) to help the learner
achieve appropriate intended outcomes. An experiential learning model and it's components (i.e., experience,
share, process, generalize, and apply) are discussed in this section.
Additional topics include:
1. learning styles and activities appropriate for each style;
2. a list of types of activities (with descriptions);
3. an activity design worksheet for facilitators; and
4. brief discussions on learning environments and delivery modes.
Ten population education sample activity sheets along with tips for facilitators working with youth and dealing
with sensitive topics are included in the Addendum.
PHASE III:IMPLEMENTATION
(7) Produce Curriculum Product

↪(8) Test and Revise Curriculum
↪(9) Recruit and Train Facilitators
↪(10) Implement Curriculum

(7) Produce Curriculum Product
Once the content and experiential methods have been agreed upon, the actual production of curriculum
materials begins. This section includes: 1) suggestions for finding and evaluating existing materials; 2)
evaluation criteria; and 3) suggestions for producing curriculum materials.
(8) Test and Revise Curriculum
This step includes suggestions to select test sites and conduct a formative evaluation of curriculum materials
during the production phase. A sample evaluation form is provided.
15
(9) Recruit and Train Facilitators
It is a waste of resources to develop curriculum materials if adequate training is not provided for facilitators to
implement it. Suggestions for recruiting appropriate facilitators are provided with a sample three-day training
program.
(10) Implement Curriculum
Effective implementation of newly developed curriculum products is unlikely to occur without planning.
Strategies to promote and use the curriculum are discussed in this step.
PHASE IV: EVALUATION AND REPORTING
(11) Design Evaluation Strategies

↪(12) Reporting and Securing Resources

(11) Design Evaluation Strategies
Evaluation is a phase in the curriculum development model as well as a specific step. Two types of evaluation,
formative and summative, are used during curriculum development. Formative evaluations are used during the
needs assessment, product development, and testing steps. Summative evaluations are undertaken to measure
and report on the outcomes of the curriculum. This step reviews evaluation strategies and suggests simple
procedures to produce valid and reliable information. A series of questions are posed to guide the summative
evaluation process and a sample evaluation format is suggested.
(12) Reporting and Securing Resources
The final element in an evaluation strategy is "delivering the pay off (i.e., getting the results into the hands of
people who can use them). In this step, suggestions for what and how to report to key shareholders, especially
funding and policy decision makers, are provided and a brief discussion on how to secure resources for
additional programming.
Q.5 Discuss the problemsand issues in curriculum implemenation in Pakistan.
It is mandated in the Constitution of Pakistan to provide free and compulsory education to all children between
the ages of 5-16 years and enhance adult literacy. With the 18th constitutional amendment the concurrent list
which comprised of 47 subjects was abolished and these subjects, including education, were transferred to
federating units as a move towards provincial autonomy.
The year 2015 is important in the context that it marks the deadline for the participants of Dakar declaration
(Education For All [EFA] commitment) including Pakistan. Education related statistics coupled with Pakistan’s
progress regarding education targets set in Vision 2030 and Pakistan’s lagging behind in achieving EFA targets
and its Millennium Development Goals(MDGs) for education call for an analysis of the education system of
Pakistan and to look into the issues and problems it is facing so that workable solutions could be recommended.

What is Education System?
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The system of education includes all institutions that are involved in delivering formal education (public and
private, for-profit and nonprofit, onsite or virtual instruction) and their faculties, students, physical
infrastructure, resources and rules. In a broader definition the system also includes the institutions that are
directly involved in financing, managing, operating or regulating such institutions (like government ministries
and regulatory bodies, central testing organizations, textbook boards and accreditation boards). The rules and
regulations that guide the individual and institutional interactions within the set up are also part of the education
system.

Education system of Pakistan:
The education system of Pakistan is comprised of 260,903 institutions and is facilitating 41,018,384 students
with the help of 1,535,461 teachers. The system includes 180,846 public institutions and 80,057 private
institutions. Hence 31% educational institutes are run by private sector while 69% are public institutes.

Analysis of education system in Pakistan
Pakistan has expressed its commitment to promote education and literacy in the country by education policies at
domestic level and getting involved into international commitments on education. In this regard national
education policies are the visions which suggest strategies to increase literacy rate, capacity building, and
enhance facilities in the schools and educational institutes. MDGs and EFA programmes are global
commitments of Pakistan for the promotion of literacy.

A review of the education system of Pakistan suggests that there has been little change in Pakistan’s schools
since 2010, when the 18th Amendment enshrined education as a fundamental human right in the constitution.
Problems of access, quality, infrastructure and inequality of opportunity, remain endemic.

Issues
A) MDGs and Pakistan
Due to the problems in education system of Pakistan, the country is lagging behind in achieving its MDGs of
education. The MDGs have laid down two goals for education sector:
Goal 2: The goal 2 of MDGs is to achieve Universal Primary Education (UPE) and by 2015, children
everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling. By the year 2014
the enrolment statistics show an increase in the enrolment of students of the age of 3-16 year while dropout rate
decreased. But the need for increasing enrolment of students remains high to achieve MDGs target. Punjab is
leading province wise in net primary enrolment rate with 62% enrolment. The enrolment rate in Sindh province
is 52%, in Khyber Pakhtunkhawa (KPK) 54% and primary enrolment rate in Balochistan is 45%.
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Goal 3: The goal 3 of MDGs is Promoting Gender Equality and Women Empowerment. It is aimed at
eliminating gender disparity in primary and secondary education by 2005 and in all levels of education not later
than 2015. There is a stark disparity between male and female literacy rates. The national literacy rate of male
was 71% while that of female was 48% in 2012-13. Provinces reported the same gender disparity. Punjab
literacy rate in male was 71% and for females it was 54%. In Sindh literacy rate in male was 72% and female
47%, in KPK male 70% and females 35%, while in Balochistan male 62% and female 23%.
B) Education for All (EFA) Commitment
The EFA goals focus on early childhood care and education including pre-schooling, universal primary
education and secondary education to youth, adult literacy with gender parity and quality of education as
crosscutting thematic and programme priorities.
EFA Review Report October 2014 outlines that despite repeated policy commitments, primary education in
Pakistan is lagging behind in achieving its target of universal primary education. Currently the primary gross
enrolment rate stands at 85.9% while Pakistan requires increasing it up to 100% by 2015-16 to fulfil EFA
goals. Of the estimated total primary school going 21.4 million children of ages 5-9 years, 68.5% are enrolled
in schools, of which 8.2 million or 56% are boys and 6.5 million or 44% are girls. Economic Survey of Pakistan
confirms that during the year 2013-14 literacy remained much higher in urban areas than in rural areas and
higher among males.

C) Vision 2030
Vision 2030 of Planning Commission of Pakistan looks for an academic environment which promotes the
thinking mind. The goal under Vision 2030 is one curriculum and one national examination system under state
responsibility. The strategies charted out to achieve the goal included:
(i) Increasing public expenditure on education and skills generation from 2.7% of GDP to 5% by
2010 and 7% by 2015.
(ii) Re-introduce the technical and vocational stream in the last two years of secondary schools.
(iii) Gradually increase vocational and technical education numbers to 25-30% of all secondary
enrolment by 2015 and 50 per cent by 2030.
(iv) Enhance the scale and quality of education in general and the scale and quality of
scientific/technical education in Pakistan in particular.
Problems: The issues lead to the comprehension of the problems which are faced in the development of
education system and promotion of literacy. The study outlines seven major problems such as:
1) Lack of Proper Planning: Pakistan is a signatory to MDGs and EFA goals. However it seems that it will
not be able to achieve these international commitments because of financial management issues and constraints
to achieve the MDGs and EFA goals.
18
2) Social constraints: It is important to realize that the problems which hinder the provision of education
are not just due to issues of management by government but some of them are deeply rooted in the social and
cultural orientation of the people. Overcoming the latter is difficult and would require a change in attitude of the
people, until then universal primary education is difficult to achieve.
3) Gender gap: Major factors that hinder enrolment rates of girls include poverty, cultural constraints,
illiteracy of parents and parental concerns about safety and mobility of their daughters. Society’s emphasis on
girl’s modesty, protection and early marriages may limit family’s willingness to send them to school. Enrolment
of rural girls is 45% lower than that of urban girls; while for boys the difference is 10% only, showing that
gender gap is an important factor.
4) Cost of education: The economic cost is higher in private schools, but these are located in richer
settlements only. The paradox is that private schools are better but not everywhere and government schools
ensure equitable access but do not provide quality education.
5) War on Terror: Pakistan’s engagement in war against terrorism also affected the promotion of literacy
campaign. The militants targeted schools and students; several educational institutions were blown up, teachers
and students were killed in Balochistan, KPK and FATA. This may have to contribute not as much as other
factors, but this remains an important factor.
6) Funds for Education: Pakistan spends 2.4% GDP on education. At national level, 89% education
expenditure comprises of current expenses such as teachers’ salaries, while only 11% comprises of development
expenditure which is not sufficient to raise quality of education.
7) Technical Education: Sufficient attention has not been paid to the technical and vocational education in
Pakistan. The number of technical and vocational training institutes is not sufficient and many are deprived of
infrastructure, teachers and tools for training. The population of a state is one of the main elements of its
national power. It can become an asset once it is skilled. Unskilled population means more jobless people in the
country, which affects the national development negatively. Therefore, technical education needs priority
handling by the government.
Poverty, law and order situation, natural disasters, budgetary constraints, lack of access, poor quality, equity,
and governance have also contributed in less enrolments.
An analysis of the issues and problems suggest that:
The official data shows the allocation of funds for educational projects but there is no mechanism which ensures
the proper expenditure of those funds on education.
 The existing infrastructure is not being properly utilized in several parts of the country.
 There are various challenges that include expertise, institutional and capacity issues, forging national
cohesion, uniform standards for textbook development, and quality assurance.
19
 The faculty hiring process is historically known to be politicized. It is because of this that the quality of
teaching suffers and even more so when low investments are made in teachers’ training. As a result teachers
are not regular and their time at school is not as productive as it would be with a well-trained teacher.
 Inside schools there are challenges which include shortage of teachers, teacher absenteeism, missing
basic facilities and lack of friendly environment.
 Out of school challenges include shortage of schools, distance – especially for females, insecurity,
poverty, cultural norms, parents are reluctant or parents lack awareness.
Solutions
There is a need for implementation of national education policy and vision 2030 education goals. An analysis of
education policy suggests that at the policy level there are several admirable ideas, but practically there are
some shortcomings also.
It may not be possible for the government at the moment to implement uniform education system in the country,
but a uniform curriculum can be introduced in educational institutes of the country. This will provide equal
opportunity to the students of rural areas to compete with students of urban areas in the job market.
Since majority of Pakistani population resides in rural areas and the access to education is a major problem for
them, it seems feasible that a balanced approach for formal and informal education be adopted. Government as
well as non-government sector should work together to promote education in rural areas.
The government should take measures to get school buildings vacated which are occupied by feudal lords of
Sindh, Balochistan and Punjab. Efforts should be made to ensure that proper education is provided in those
schools.
The federal government is paying attention to the vocational and technical training, but it is important to make
the already existing vocational and technical training centres more efficient so that skilled youth could be
produced.
Since education is a provincial subject, the provincial education secretariats need to be strengthened. Special
policy planning units should be established in provinces’ education departments for implementation of
educational policies and formulation of new policies whenever needed. The provincial education departments
need to work out financial resources required for realising the compliance of Article 25-A.
Federal Government should play a supportive role vis-à-vis the provinces for the early compliance of the
constitutional obligation laid down in Article 25-A. Special grants can be provided to the provinces where the
literacy rate is low.
Pakistan is not the only country which is facing challenges regarding promotion of literacy and meeting EFA
and MDGs commitments. Education remains a subject which is paid least attention in the whole South Asian
region. UNDP report 2014 suggests that there has been an improvement in other elements of human
development such as life expectancy, per capita income and human development index value (in past 3 years);
but there has been no progress in the number of schooling years. The expected average for years of schooling in
20
2010 was 10.6 years but the actual average of schooling remained 4.7 for all South Asian countries. In the year
2013 the expected average of number of years increased to 11.2 but the actual average of years of schooling of
South Asian countries remained 4.7. Regional cooperation mechanism can also be developed to promote
literacy in South Asian region. Sharing success stories, making country-specific modifications and their
implementation can generate positive results.
Recommendations
Technical education should be made a part of secondary education. Classes for carpentry, electrical, and other
technical education must be included in the curriculum.
 Providing economic incentives to the students may encourage the parents to send their children to school
and may help in reducing the dropout ratio.
 Local government system is helpful in promoting education and literacy in the country. In local
government system the funds for education would be spent on a need basis by the locality.
 Corruption in education departments is one of the factors for the poor literacy in the country. An
effective monitoring system is needed in education departments.
 For any system to work it is imperative that relevant structures are developed. Legislation and structure
should be framed to plan for the promotion of education in the country. After the 18 th amendment the
education has become a provincial subject, therefore, the provinces should form legislations and design
educational policies which ensure quality education.
 Unemployment of educated men and women is a major concern for Pakistan. There should be career
counselling of the pupils in schools so that they have an understanding of job market and they can develop
their skills accordingly.
 Counselling of parents is required, so that they can choose a career for their child which is market
friendly.
 There are two approaches to acquiring education: First, which is being followed by many in Pakistan is
to get education to earn bread and butter. The second approach is to get education for the sake of personal
development and learning. This approach is followed by affluent and economically stable people who send
their children to private schools and abroad for education. The problem arises when non-affluent families
send their children to private schools, and universities. This aspiration for sending children for higher
education is wrong, because the country does not need managers and officers only. There are several other
jobs where people are needed. Hence the mind-set of sending one’s children to university only for becoming
officers and managers needs to be changed.
21

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Course: Curriculum Development and Instruction (838)

Semester: Autumn, 2020

Essential Considerations for Curriculum Development:

5. methods to accomplish intended outcomes ®(how),

Essential Curriculum Development Steps Needing Emphasis

1. Needs assessment: if not conducted, wonderful curriculum could be

(1) Identify Issue/Problem/Need

(4) State Intended Outcomes

(7) Produce Curriculum Product

(11) Design Evaluation Strategies

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