CRISPR is used as a gene editing tool. Initially, it stemmed from quasi-palindromic repeats in the E.

Coli genome. Later findings show it creates an RNA transcript aimed at recognizing viral DNA from a
previous infection. Nucleases are guided by this RNA to the cytoplasmic virus to be destroyed.

In eukaryotic organisms, the tissue where the target gene is active can be marked by using another
version of Cas9. Additionally, light-sensitive proteins (optogenetic constructs) can be inserted, which
will direct gene transcription whenever light is present. Therefore, it can alter any protein expression
as a result of genetic removal and can be used in a variety of scopes across biological fields.

Previously, scientists could only track genetic changes in Drosophila. Using CRISPR on ant olfactory
receptors showed behavioural, but also brain changes which were not anticipated. Another direction
was removing retrotransposons from pig cells to allow for xenotransplants.

Human gene therapy is a controversial issue. If the change is somatic (HIV/blood diseases) the result
can be life-changing for the individual (sickle-cell anaemia). On the other hand, germline modification
will be carried on through the generations, which can have unwanted effects in the future. For
instance, Huntington’s disease (caused by more than 36 CAG repeats) could be cured by removing
the dominant gene(s). However, as Dr He Jiankui’s experiment showed, the result is unpredictable:
the individuals he inserted a mutation in displayed a mosaic change and off-target effects, potentially
making them prone to other diseases.

Considering agriculture, current GMO crops have been developed by radiation, randomly de-
activating genes. Although CRISPR is more specific and capable, is it ecologically wise to create
more resistant crops or might it destabilize the ecosystem? Regarding livestock, pigs can be
CRISPRd to display the RELA gene for resistance to African swine fever.

A simple technique involves gene drives, which can change whole ecosystems. In mosquitoes, a
traditional mutation will become statistically irrelevant in a few generations, yet CRISPR would copy it
in all genome sequences of the individual. Should we wipe out mosquito populations? A case of
unpredictable ecological hazards this is the introduction of the poisonous cane toad in Australia to
remove beetles, but which killed wild animals trying to eat it. Scientists claim such changes could be
reverted by releasing the original sequence organism, yet it seems unlikely they would be given
permission to do so, since they were not aware of the effects initially.

The context of gene drives should be considered on an international scale. For instance, the zika virus
used to be a problem in Africa, but once mosquitoes were unintentionally moved to South America the
virus changed. Also, the price of not acting is already high: millions die of malaria.

Currently, CRISPR has become much more easily available. MBL Science taught high school
students to drive genetic changes in embryos; biohackers such as Johan Sosa are manipulating
genes even in their garage, by using online-bought CRISPR kits.

All things considered, CRISPR is not the source of these problems, but rather puts them in
perspective. It allows for previously impossible procedures to be easily tackled in laboratories but is a
challenging issue when it comes to applying it in ecosystems, for it may destabilize nature.