Theoretical Note For Nutrition

October University for Modern Sciences and Arts
Faculty of Dentistry
Nutrition for Health
Dr. Mona Abd El-Motaleb Abd El-Fatah Hussein

NUT200
Chapter I: Basic Nutrition
BASIC NUTRITION
What do we mean by nutrition?
T he term nutrition refers to the science of how living

organisms obtain and use food to support all the processes
required for their existence. Substances in foods required or used
by the body are called nutrients; they support and fuel all we do.
Nutrients and Nonnutrients
Not all compounds in food are nutrients, foods contain

nutrients and nonnutrients; for example when you examine a
food label many of these compounds, such as the artificial colors,
are not nutrients because your body does not use them to support
its basic functions.
Essential and nonessential nutrient

Essential nutrients must be obtained from diet; because
your body needs them and either cannot make them at all or
cannot make them in adequate amounts. These are
carbohydrates, essential amino acids, essential fatty acids,
vitamins, minerals and water.
Nonessential nutrients are those food components that, if
necessary your body can make in amounts needed to satisfy its
physiological requirements for example cholesterol, creatine, and
glucose. Hence, you do not actually need to consume the
nonessential nutrients.
Most foods contain a mixture of essential and nonessential

nutrients. For example, milk contains a variety of essential
vitamins and minerals (such as vitamin A and calcium) as well as
several nonessential nutrients (such as cholesterol).
Macronutrient and micronutrient
 Water, carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids are called

macronutrients, because they are needed in large quantities
(over half a kilogram each day).
 Vitamins and minerals are called

micronutrients, because we need only
very small amounts of them (often
micrograms or milligrams each day).
Organic and inorganic foods
 Molecules that contain carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen atoms

or other carbon atoms are called organic compounds.
Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and vitamins are therefore
chemically organic nutrients.
 Water and minerals are inorganic because they do not contain

carbon—carbon or carbon—hydrogenbonds. In this way all
foods are considered organic—at least in the chemical sense of
the term.
Organic food must be produced, grown, and harvested

without the use of most conventional pesticides, fertilizers made
with synthetic ingredients, bioengineering, or ionizing radiation.
Furthermore, organic meat, eggs, and dairyproducts must come

from livestock raised without the use of growth-promoting
hormones and antibiotics.
Phytochemicals and zoonutrients
Phytochemicals (also called phytonutrients) are substances

found in plants that may help reduce the risk for developing
certain diseases e.g.: consuming phytochemicals found in garlic
contains phytochemicals that inhibit cancer and chronic
degenerative diseases.
Zoonutrients (also called

zoochemicals) are compounds
present in animal foods that
provide health benefits. e.g.: a
variety of nonessential lipids,
found in fish and dairy products,
that are thought to decrease your risk for cancer, high blood
pressure and inflammatory diseases.
Functional foods
 Functional foods, Also known as "neutraceuticals," promote

optimal health, above and beyond simply helping the body meet
its basic nutritional needs. Functional foods contain enhanced
amounts of traditional nutrients, phytochemicals, and/or
zoonutrients, prebiotics and probiotics.
For example, soy milk is considered a functional food

because it contains phytochemicals thought to decrease risk for
some cancers. Other examples are tomatoes, which is healthy for
heart.
 The terms prebiotics and probiotics were derived from

antibiotics due to their probable effects on increasing
resistance to various diseases.
Prebiotics (also called intestinal

fertilizer) are fiber like, indigestible
carbohydrates that are broken down by
bacteria in the colon. The brokendown
products foster the growth of beneficial
bacteria which prevent certain diseases. e.g.: chicory, artichokes,
onions, garlic, wheat, prebiotic tablets and powders.
Probiotic is the term for live,

beneficial ("friendly") bacteria that enter
food products during fermentation and
aging processes e.g.cottage cheese, yogurt,
breast milk, probiotic tablets and powders.
Prebiotics and probiotics have been credited with important

benefits, such as the prevention and treatment of diarrhea and
other infections in the gastrointestinal tract; prevention of colon
cancer; decreased blood levels of triglycerides, cholesterol, and
glucose; and decreased dental caries.
How does food provide energy?
The amount of energy in food varies and is measured in

units called calories. This calories differ according to the type of
food e.g.: carbohydrates and proteins provide 4 calories per gram,
it differs from fats which provide 9 calories per gram (see major
nutrient classes).
Nutrition Facts panel
The Daily Values "% DV" listed on nutrition labels

represents the percentages of the standards obtained from one
serving of the food product. This information helps consumers
decide, for example, whether the carbohydrate content of a serv-
ing of a specific food product is a lot or a little.
Nutrient content claims made on food package labels must

meet specific criteria. If you wanted to increase your fiber intake,
you could consistently choose foods labeled as "good sources of
fiber." (Table 1).
Enrichment pertains only to refined grain products and

covers some of the vitamins and one of the minerals lost when
grains are refined.
Fortification is the addition of vitamins and minerals to food

for reduction in the incidence of diseases related to inadequate
intakes. e.g.: milk with vitamin D, and low-fat and skim milk with
vitamin D and vitamin A, and salt with iodine.
Adequate diets are most easily

obtained by consuming foods that are
good sources of a number of nutrients
but not packed with calories. Such foods
are considered nutrient-dense foods.
Those that provide calories and

low amounts of nutrients are considered "empty-calorie"
foods.Vegetables, fruits, lean meats, dried beans, breads, and
cereals are nutrient dense. Foods such as beer, chips, candy,
pastries, sodas, and fruit drinks are empty-calorie foods.
Table (1): FDA-Approved Nutrient Content Claims
Wording Description
"Light" or "Lite" If 50% or more of the calories are from fat, fat must be
reduced by at least 50% as compared with a regular
product. If less than 50% of calories are from fat, fat
must be reduced by at least 50% or calories reduced by
at least one-third as compared with a regular product
"Reduced Calories" At least 25% fewer calories per serving compared with
a regular product
"Calorie Free" Less than 5 kcal (calories) per serving
"Fat Free" Less than 0.5g fat per labeled serving
"Low Fat" 3 g fat or less per serving
"Saturated Fat Free" Less than 0.5g saturated fat and less than 0.5g trans
fatty acids per serving
"Low in Saturated Fat" 1g saturated fat per serving and containing 15% or less
of calories from saturated fat
"Cholesterol Free" Less than 2 mg cholesterol per serving. Note that
cholesterol claims are only allowed when food contains
2g or less saturated fat per serving
"Low in Cholesterol" 20mg cholesterol or less per serving
"Sodium Free" Less than 5mg sodium per serving
"Low in Sodium" 140mg or less sodium per serving
"Sugar Free" Less than 0.5g sugars per serving. This does not
include sugar alcohols
"High", "Rich in", Or "Excellent Contains 20% or more of the Daily value (DV) to
Source of" describe protein, vitamins, minerals, dietary fiber, or
potassium per serving
"Good Source of", "Contains", or 10-19% of the DV per serving
"Provides"
"More", "Added", "Extra", or 10% or more of the DV per serving. May only be used
"Plus" for vitamins, minerals, protein, dietary fiber, and
potassium
"Fresh" A raw food that has not been frozen, heat processed, or
otherwise preserved
"Fresh Frozen" Food was quickly frozen while still fresh
Major Nutrient Classes

There are 6 major classes of nutrients: Carbohydrates, proteins,
lipids, vitamins, minerals and water.
1-Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are used by the body mainly as a source of

readily available energy.
They consist of the simple sugars (monosaccharides and

disaccharides), complex carbohydrates (the polysaccharides),
fiber, and alcohol sugars.
The most basic forms of carbohydrates are

monosaccharides. The most common monosaccharides are:
 Glucose (also called "blood sugar" and "dextrose")
 Fructose ("fruit sugar")
 Galactose ("in milk sugar")
The most common disaccharides are
 Sucrose (glucose + fructose, or common table sugar)
 Maltose (glucose + glucose, or malt sugar)
 Lactose (glucose + galactose, or milk sugar)

Complex carbohydrates (also called polysaccharides) include:
 Starches (the plant form of stored carbohydrate)
 Glycogen (the animal form of stored carbohydrate)
 Most types of fiber.
Each type of simple and complex carbohydrate, except fiber,

provides 4 calories per gram.
Fibers do not count as a source of energy, because they

cannot be broken down by human digestive enzymes. The main
functions of fiber are:
 Providing "bulk" for normal elimination.
 High-fiber diets reduce the rate of glucose absorption

(a benefit for people with diabetes).
 May help prevent cardiovascular disease and some

types of cancer.
With 7 calories per gram, alcohol has more calories per

gram than do other carbohydrates.
Glycemic Index is the extent to which carbohydrates

increase blood glucose levels. Carbohydrates that are digested
and absorbed quickly have a high glycemic index and raise blood
glucose levels to a higher extent than do those with lower

glycemic index values (Table 2).
Diets providing low glycemic index carbohydrates have

been found to:
 Improve blood glucose control in people with diabetes.
 Reduce elevated levels of blood cholesterol and

triglycerides.
 Increase levels of beneficial HDL cholesterol.
 Decrease the risk of developing type 2 diabetes, some

types of cancers, and heart diseases.
Recommended intake of carbohydrates is based on their

contribution to total energy intake. It is recommended that 45-
65% of calories come from carbohydrates.
Added sugar should constitute no more than 25% of total

caloric intake.
It is recommended that adult females consume between 21

and 25 grams, and males 30-38 grams of total dietary fiber daily.
Carbohydrates are widely distributed in plant foods; while

milk is the only important animal source of carbohydrates
(lactose). Table 3 lists selected food sources by type of carbo-
hydrate.
Table (2): Glycemic Index (GI) of selected foods

High GI (70 and higher) Medium GI (56-69) Low GI (55 and lower)
Glucose 100 Breadfruit 69 Honey 55
French bread 95 Orange soda 68 Oatmeal 54
Scone 92 Sucrose 68 Corn 53
Potato, baked 85 Taco shells 68 Cracked Wheat bread 53
Potato, instant mashed 85 Angel food cake 67 Orange juice 52
Corn chex 83 Croissant 67 Banana 52
Pretzel 83 Cream of Wheat 66 Mango 51
Rice krispies 82 Quaker Quick Oats 65 Potato, boiled 50
Cornflakes 81 Chapati 62 Muesli 48
Corn Pops 80 French bread with Green Peas 48
Gatorade 78 butter and jam 62 Pasta 48
Jelly beans 78 Couscous 61 Carrots, row 47
Doughnut, cake 76 Raisin bran 61 Cassava 46
Waffle, frozen 76 Sweet potato 61 Lactose 46
French fries 75 Bran muffin 60 Milk chocolate 43
Shredded Wheat 75 Just right cereal 60 All bran 42
Cheerios 74 Rice, white or brown 60 Orange 42
Popcorn 72 Muffin blueberry 59 Peach 42
Watermelon 72 Coca-cola 58 Apple juice 40
Grape nuts 71 Power bar 56 Plum 39
Wheat bread 70 Apple 38
White bread 70 Pear 38
Tomato juice 38
Yam 37
Dried beans 25
Grape fruit 25
Cherries 22
Fructose 19
Xylitol 8
Hummus 6
Table (3): Food sources of carbohydrates

A. Simple Sugars ( Mono - Disaccharides )
portion size Grams of Carbohydrates portion size Grams of Carbohydrates
Breakfast cereals Apple 1 med 16
Raisin Bran 1c 18 Orange 1 med 14
Corn Pops 1c 14 Peach 1 med 8
Frosted Cheerios 1c 13 Vegetables
Bran Flakes ¾c 5 Corn c½ 3
Grape Nuts c½ 3 Broccoli c½ 2
Special K 1c 3 Potato 1 med 1
Wheat Chex 1c 2 Beverages
Cornflakes 1c 2 Soft drinks 12 oz 38
Sweeteners Fruit drinks 1c 29
Honey 1 tsp 6 Skim milk 1c 12
Corn syrup 1 tsp 5 whole milk 1c 11
Maple syrup 1 tsp 4 Candy
Table sugar 1 tsp 4 Hard candy 1 oz 28
Fruits Gumdrops 1 oz 25
Watermelon 1pc (4"×8") 25 Caramels 1 oz 21
Banana 1 med 21 Milk Chocolate 1 oz 16
Table (3): Food sources of carbohydrates (Continued)

B. Complex Carbohydrates (Starches)
Grain Products Dried Beans
White beans,
Rice, white, cooked c½ 21 c½ 13
cooked
Kidney beans,
Pasta, cooked c½ 15 c½ 12
cooked
Oatmeal, cooked c½ 12 lima beans, cooked c½ 11
Cheerios 1c 11 Vegetables
Cornflakes 1c 11 Potato 1 med 30
Bread, whole wheat 1 slice 7 Corn c½ 10
Broccoli c½ 2
Table (3): Food sources of carbohydrates (Continued)

C. Total Fiber
portion size Grams of Total Fiber Portion size Grams of Total Fiber
Grain Products Green peas C½ 4
Bran Buds c½ 12 Carrot C½ 3
All Bran c½ 10 Potato, with skin 1 med 4
Raisin Bran 1c 7 Collard greens C½ 3

Bran Flakes ¾c 5 Corn C½ 3
Oatmeal, cooked 1c 4 Cauliflower C½ 2
Bread, whole wheat 1 slice 2 Nuts

Fruits Almonds C½ 5
Avocado med½ 7 Peanuts C½ 3
Raspberries 1c 5 Peanuts butter 2 tbs 2
Mango 1 med 4 Dried beans
Pear, with skin 1 med 4 Pinto beans, cooked C½ 10
Orange 1 med 3 black beans, cooked C½ 8
Banana 1 med 2 Black-eyed peas, cooked C½ 8
Vegetables Navy beans, cooked C½ 6

Lima beans ½c 5 Lentils, cooked C½ 5
2-Proteins
 Protein in foods provides the body with amino acids used to
build and maintain tissues such as muscle, bone, enzymes,
and red blood cells.
 The body can also use protein as a source of energy; it provides
4 calories per gram. However, this is not a primary function of
protein.
 Of the common types of amino acids, nine must be provided by
the diet and are classified as "essential amino acids." They are
phenyl alanine, tryptophan, histidine, methionine, threonine,
valine, isoleucine, leucine, and lysine.
 Many different amino acids obtained from food perform
important functions, but since the body can manufacture these
from other amino acids, they are classified as "nonessential
amino acids".
 Foods of high protein quality include all of the essential amino
acids. Protein from milk, cheese, meat, eggs, and other animal
products is considered high quality.
 Plant sources of protein, (with the exception of soybeans), do
not provide all nine essential amino acids.
 Combinations of plant foods, such as grains or seeds with
dried beans, however, yield high-quality protein. Amino acids
found in these individual foods "complement" each other, thus
providing a source of high-quality protein.
 Proteins should contribute 10-35% of total energy intake.
Animal products and dried beans are particularly good sources
of protein. These and other food sources of proteins are listed
in Table 4.
Table (4): Food sources of protein

Portion Grams of Portion Grams of
Size Protein Size Protein
Meats Cottage cheese, 14
low fat 1\2 c
Beef, lean 3 oz 26 Yogurt, low fat 1c 13
Tuna, in 3 oz 24 Milk, skim 1c 9
water
Hamburger, 3 oz 24 Milk, whole 1c 8
lean
Chicken, no 3 oz 24 Swiss cheese 1 oz 8
skin
Lamb 3 oz 22 Cheddar cheese 1 oz 7
Pork chop, 3 oz 20 Grain Products
lean
Haddock, 3 oz 19 Oatmeal, cooked 1\2 c 4
broiled
Egg 1 med 6 Pasta, cooked 1\2 c 4
Dairy Bread 1 slice 2
Products
Oz: ounze, med: medium, c: cup
3-Lipids
Lipids include fats, oils, and related compounds such as

cholesterol. Fats are generally solid at room temperature,
whereas oils are usually liquid.
Fats and oils are a concentrated source of energy, providing

9 calories per gram. Fats perform a number of important
functions in the body:
 Precursors for cholesterol and sex hormone synthesis.
 Components of cell membranes.
 Vehicles for carrying certain vitamins required for growth and

health.
Fats (lipids) come in two basic types: saturated and

unsaturated. Whether a fat is saturated or not depends on
whether it has one or more double bonds between carbon atoms
in one or more of the fatty acid components of the fat.
If one double bond is present in one or more of the fatty

acids, the fat is considered monounsaturated; if two or more are
present, the fat is polyunsaturated.
 Essential Fatty acids: are fatty acids that can't be made in

the body and must be consumed in the diet with vitamins.
There are two essential fatty acids: linoleic acid (LA)(omega6)

and alpha-linolenic acid (ALA)(omega3).
Omega 3 (Antioxidant)
Discovery of the omega-3 oils (Began in 1987)
 Vitamin C and E preserve the omega-3 by protecting it

from oxidation.
 As damage caused by free radicals can damage omega – 3

fatty acids in the membrane. Once the molecule is oxidized
it loose its function and may also oxidize other surrounding
molecule.
 Deficiency
-Pregnancy depression. -Heart disease.
-Post partum depression. -Premature babies.
 Function
 Helps controling blood cholesterol levels.
 Reduce the risk of heart diseases.
 The developing foetus and new- born require high amounts

of omega-3 fatty acids and receive them through placenta
and breast milk respectively.
 Important for growth.
 For healthy skin.
 For proper function of eyes and nerves.
 Used by the body to make other types of fatty acids.
 Reduce osteoclastic activity and alveolar bone resorption in

experimental periodontitis.
 Treatment of arthritis, diabetes, autoimmune disease,

depression, psychiatric disease and even cancer.
 Needed for normal nervous system, involved in mood

regulation.
 Essential for the efficient function of every cell in our body.
 Sharpen attention and enhance learning in those who had

appropriate omega- 3 levels before the studies began.
 Protects us against Alzheimer disease.
 Reduces risk of brain damage and stroke.
Saturated fats contain no double bonds between carbons

and tend to be solid at room temperature.
Although most foods contain both saturated and

unsaturated fats, animal foods tend to contain more saturated
and less unsaturated fat than plant foods.
Saturated fatty acids tend to increase blood levels of LDL

cholesterol whereas unsaturated fatty acids tend to decrease
LDL-cholesterol levels.
Oils can be made solid by adding hydrogen to the double

bonds of their fatty acids. This process, called hydrogenation,
makes some of the fatty acids in oils saturated and enhances
storage life and baking qualities.
Hydrogenation may alter the molecular structure of the

fatty acids, however, changing the naturally occurring Cis-
structure to the Trans form.
Trans fatty acids raise blood LDL-cholesterol levels to a

greater extent than do saturated fatty acids.
 Dietary cholesterol is a fat like, clear liquid substance found

in lean and fat components of animal products. Cholesterol is:
1. A component of all animal cell membranes, the brain, and the

nerves.
2. It is the precursor of estrogen, testosterone, and vitamin D,

which is manufactured in the skin upon exposure to sunlight.
The body generally produces only one-third of the choles-

terol our bodies use, because more than sufficient amounts of
cholesterol are provided in most people's diet.
The extent to which dietary cholesterol intake modifies

blood cholesterol level appears to vary a good deal based on
genetic tendencies.
Dietary cholesterol intake affects blood cholesterol level

substantially less than does saturated fat intake. The list of
unhealthy fats includes Trans fats, saturated fats, and
cholesterol. Monounsaturated fats, polyunsaturated fats are
considered healthful fats.
Current recommendations call for consumption of 20-35% of

total calories from fat.
Cholesterol intake averages around 250 mg per day; but a

more health-promoting level of intake would be less than 200 mg
a day. Table 5 lists the total fat, saturated fat, unsaturated fat,
Trans fat, cholesterol and omega-3-fatty acid contents of selected
foods.
Table (5): Food sources of fats
A. Total Fat
portion Grams portion Grams of
size of Fat size Fat
Fats and Oils Veggie pita 1 17
Subway meatball
Mayonnaise 1 tbs 11 1 16
sandwich
Subway turkey
ranch dressing 1 tbs 6 1 4
sandwich
Milk and milk
Vegetable oils 1 tsp 4.7
products
Butter 1 tsp 4 Cheddar cheese 1 oz 9.5
Margarine 1 tsp 4 Milk, whole 1c 8.5
Meats, Fish American Cheese 1 oz 6
Cottage Cheese,
Sausage 4 links 18 c½ 5.1
regular
Hot dog 2 oz 17 Milk,2% 1c 5
Hamburger,21% fat 3 oz 15 Milk,1% 1c 2.9
Hamburger,16% fat 3 oz 13.5 Milk, skim 1c 0.4
Steak, rib eye 3 oz 9.9 Yogurt, frozen 1c 0.3
Bacon 3 strips 9 Other Foods
Steak, round 3 oz 5.2 Avocado ½ 15
Chicken, baked, no
3 oz 4 Almonds 1 oz 15
skin
Flounder, baked 3 oz 1 Cashews 1 oz 13.2
French fries, small
shrimp, boiled 3 oz 1 1 10
serving
1oz (10
Fast Foods Taco chips 10
Chips)
1oz (14
Whopper 8.9 oz 32 Potato chips 7
Chips)
Big Mac 6.6 oz 31.4 Peanut Butter 1 tbs 6.1
Quarter Pounder
6.8 oz 28.6 Egg 1 6
with Cheese
Table (5): Food sources of fats (Continued)

B. Saturated Fats
portion Grams portion Grams of Fat
size of Fat size
Fats and Milk and Milk
Oils Products
Margarine 1 tsp 2.9 Cheddar cheese 1 oz 5.9
Butter 1 tsp 2.4 American cheese 1 oz 5.5
Salad 1 tbs 1.2 Milk, whole 1c 5.1
dressing,
Ranch
Peanut oil 1 tsp 0.9 Cottage cheese, c½ 3
regular
Olive oil 1 tsp 0.7 Milk,2% 1c 2.9
Salad 1 tbs 0.5 Milk,1% 1c 1.5
dressing,
1000 Island
Canola oil 1 tsp 0.3 Milk, skim 1c 0.3
Meats, Fish Fast Foods
Hamburger, 3 oz 6.7 Croissant w/egg, 1 16
21% fat bacon, cheese
Sausage, 4 5.6 Sausage croissant 1 16
links
Hot dog 1 4.9 Whopper 1 11
Chicken, 3 oz 3.8 Cheeseburger 1 9
fried, with
skin
Salami 3 oz 3.6 Bac'n Cheddar 1 8.7
Deluxe
Haddock, 3 oz 3 Taco, regular 1 4
breaded,
fried
Rabbit 3 oz 3 Chicken breast 1 3
sandwich
Pork chop, 3 oz 2.7 Nuts and seeds
lean
Steak, 3 oz 2 Macadamia nuts 1 oz 3.2
round, lean
Turkey, 3 oz 2 Peanuts, dry 1 oz 1.9
roasted roasted
Chicken, 3 oz 1.7 sunflower seeds 1 oz 1.6
baked, no
skin
Prime rib, 3 oz 1.3
lean
Venison 3 oz 1.1
Tuna, in 3 oz 0.4
water

C. unsaturated Fats
Grams of
Portion size Grams of Fat portion size
Fat
chicken, baked,
Fats and Oils 3 oz 6
no skin
Canola oil 1 tsp 4.1 Pork chop, lean 3 oz 5.3
vegetable oils 1 tsp 3.6 Turkey, roasted 3 oz 4.5
margarine 1 tsp 2.9 Tuna, in water 3 oz 0.7
Butter 1 tsp 1.3 Egg 1 5
Milk and Milk

Nuts and Seeds
Products
Cottage cheese,
½c 3 Sunflower seeds 1 oz 16.6
regular
Cheddar cheese 1 oz 2.9 Almonds 1 oz 12.6
American
1 oz 2.8 Peanuts 1 oz 11.3
Cheese
Milk, whole 1c 2.8 Cashews 1 oz 10.2
Meats, Fish
Hamburger,21
3 oz 10.9
%fat
Haddock,
3 oz 6.5
breaded, fried
D. Trans Fats
Grams of
Grams of Trans portion
portion size Trans
Fats size
Fats
Fats and Oils Milk
Margarine, stick 1 tsp 1.3 Whole 1c 0.2
Margarine, tub (soft) 1 tsp 0.1 Other Foods
Shortening 1 tsp 0.3 Doughnut 1 3.2
Butter 1 tsp 0.1 Danish Pastry 1 3
Margarine, "no trans French Fries,
1 tsp 0 1 2.9
fat" small serving
Meats Cookies 2 1.8
Beef 3 oz 0.5 Corn chips 1 oz 1.4
Chicken 3 oz 0.1 Cake 1 slice 1
Crackers 4squares 0.5
E. Cholesterol
Milligra
Portio
Milligrams Portion ms
n cholesterol size cholester
size
ol
Meats, Fish
Fats and Oils
Butter 1 tsp 10.3 Brian 3 oz 1476

Vegetable oils, margarine 1 tsp 0 Liver 3 oz 470
Egg 1 212 Venison 3 oz 48
Veal 3 oz 128 Wild pig 3 oz 33
Shrimp 3 oz 107 Goat, roasted 3 oz 32
Prime rib 3 oz 80 Tuna, in water 3 oz 25
Milk and Milk
Chicken, baked, no skin 3 oz 75
Products
Salmon, broiled 3 oz 74 Ice cream, regular 1c 56
Turkey, barked, no skin 3 oz 65 Milk, whole 1c 34
Hamburger,20% fat 3 oz 64 Milk,2% 1c 22
Ostrich, ground 3 oz 63 Yogurt, low fat 1c 17
Pork chop, lean 3 oz 60 Milk,1% 1c 14
Hamburger,10% fat 3 oz 60 Milk, skim 1c 7

F. Omega-3 (n-3) Fatty Acids

Grams EPA
portion size Grams EPA +DHA portion size
+ DHA
fish and sea food Tuna, white, canned 3.5 oz 1.7
Sardines in oil 3.5 oz 3.3 Swordfish 3.5 oz 0.8
Mackerel 3.5 oz 2.6 Flounder 3.5 oz 0.5
Salmon, Atlantic,
3.5 oz 2.2 Scallops 3.5 oz 0.5
farmed
Lake trout 3.5 oz 2 Carp 3.5 oz 0.3
Herring 3.5 oz 1.8 Cod 3.5 oz 0.3
Salmon, sockeye 3.5 oz 1.5 Crab 3.5 oz 0.3
Whitefish, lake 3.5 oz 1.5 Pike, Walleye 3.5 oz 0.3
Anchovies 3.5 oz 1.4 Catfish, wild 3.5 oz 0.2
Salmon, Chinook 3.5 oz 1.4 Fish sticks 3.5 oz 0.2
Bluefish 3.5 oz 1.2 Haddock 3.5 oz 0.2
Halibut 3.5 oz 1.2 Lobster 3.5 oz 0.2
Oysters 3.5 oz 1.1 Perch, ocean 3.5 oz 0.2
Salmon, Pink 3.5 oz 1 Salmon, red 3.5 oz 0.2
Trout, rainbow 3.5 oz 1 Snapper, red 3.5 oz 0.2
Bass, striped 3.5 oz 0.8 Clams 3.5 oz 0.1
Oysters 3.5 oz 0.6 Others
Catfish 3.5 oz 0.5 Egg yolk 1 0.4
Pollock 3.5 oz 0.5 DHA fortified egg 1 0.2
Shrimp 3.5 oz 0.5 Human Milk 3.5 0.2
Oz: ounze=28.2gm, tbs: table spoon, tsp: tea spoon, c: cup, pc: piece
4-Vitamins
Vitamins are chemical substances in foods that perform

specific functions in the body. The polish scientist Kazimierz
Funk is the first in the medical history to use the term Vitamins
in 1911.
Vitamins are characterized with their most significant

needs for the living of man and his growth naturally.
The daily needs for Vitamins ranges from one person to

another in accordance with sex, age, health condition, body
structure and to the nature of work that the person performs.
This average range of the need to Vitamins increases in

cases of wounds , cuts , burns and general conditions of an illness
or due to chronic lacking of vitamins because of some bad habits
such as smoking, drinking alcohol or taking some drugs such as
antibiotics and sulfonamides for a long period of times.
They are classified as either fat soluble (vitamin A, D, E,

and K) or water soluble (vitamin C and vitamin B complex).
o Substances such as coenzyme Q10, inositol, provitamin

Bs complex, and pangamic acid (vitamin B15) may be
called vitamins, but they are not.
o With the exception of vitamins D-K; vitamins can`t be

made by the body and so have to be obtained through the
food we eat.
o Except for vitamin B12, water-soluble

vitamin stores in the body are limited
and run out within a few weeks to a
few months after intake becomes
inadequate.
o Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the

body's fat tissues and the liver. These stores can be siz-
able and last from months to years when intake is low.
o Vitamin overdoses are very rarely related to food intake.
Supplements
 Are not replacements for food sources of

vitamins.
 They cannot be ingested without food.
 They will enhance a good or a poor diet.
Vitamins and minerals work in conjunction with one

another and mega dosing of one can upset the body`s
balance.
Primary functions, consequences of deficiency and overdose,

primary food sources, and comments about each vitamin are
listed in Table 6. Recommendations for levels of intake of
vitamins are presented.
Table (6): Summary of the vitamins

The water-soluble Vitamins
Consequences of
Primary Function Consequences of Overdose Primary Food Sources Highlights and Comments
Deficiency
Thiamin • Coenzyme in the • Fatigue, weakness. • High intakes of thiamin are • Grains and grain products • need increases with
(vitamin B1) metabolism of • Nerve disorders, rapidly excreted by the kidneys. oral (cereals, rice ,pasta, bread) carbohydrate intake
AIa Women :1.1 mg Carbohydrates, alcohol and mental doses of 500 mg/day or less are • ready-to-eat cereals • there is no "e"on the end of
Men : 1.2 mg some amino acids. confusion, Apathy. considered safe • pork and ham liver thiamin!
• Required for the growth • Impaired growth. • milk, cheese, yoghurt • deficiency rare in the U.S.; may
and maintenance of nerve • Swelling. • dried beans and nuts occur in people with alcoholism
and muscle tissues. • Heart irregularity and • enriched grains and cereals
• Required for normal failure. prevent thiamin deficiency
appetite.
Riboflavin • Coenzyme involved in • Reddened lips, cracks • None known. High doses are • Milk, yogurt, cheese • Destroyed by exposure to light
(Vitamin B2) energy metabolism of at rapidly excreted by the kidneys. • grains and grain
AI carbohydrates, proteins and both corners Of the product(cereals, rice, pasta,
Women: 1.1 mg fats. mouth . bread)
• Coenzyme function in cell • Fatigue. • liver, poultry, fish, beef.
Men : 1.3 mg division. • eggs
• Promotes growth and
tissue repair.
-Promotes normal vision.
Niacin • Coenzyme in energy • Skin disorders. • flushing, headache, cramps, rapid • meats (all types) • Niacin has a precursor-
(Vitamin B3) metabolism. • Nervous and mental heart beet, nausea, diarrhea, • grains and grain tryptophan. Tryptophan is
RDA • Coenzyme required for the disorders. decreased liver function with doses product(cereals, rice, pasta, converted to niacin by the body.
Women : 14mg synthesis of body fats. • Diarrhea, indigestion. above 0.5 g per day bread) Much of our niacin intake comes
Men : 16mg • Helps maintain normal • Fatigue. • dried beans and nuts from tryptophan.
UL: 35 mg (from supple- nervous system functions. • milk, cheese, yogurt • high doses raise HDL-cholesterol
ments and fortified foods) • ready-to-eat cereals levels.
• coffee
• potatoes
Table (6): Summary of the vitamins (Continued)

Consequences of
Deficiency
Vitamin B6(Pyridoxine) • Coenzyme involved in • Irritability, depression. • Bone pain, loss of feeling in • oatmeal, bread, breakfast Vitamins go from B3toB6 because
AI amino acid, •Convulsions, twitching. fingers and toes, muscular cereals B4andB5 were found to be
Women : 1.3 mg Glucose and fatty acid • Muscular weakness. weakness, numbness, loss of • bananas, avocados, prunes, duplicates of vitamins already
Men : 1.3 mg metabolism • Dermatitis near the balance(mimicking multiple tomatoes, potatoes identified
UL : 100 mg And neurotransmitter eyes. sclerosis) • chicken, liver
synthesis. • Anemia. • dried beans
• Coenzyme in the • Kidney Stones. • meats(all types), milk
conversion of • green and leafy vegetables
Tryptophan to niacin.
• Required for normal red
blood cell Formation.
• Required for the synthesis
if lipids in the nervous and
immune systems.
Folate ( folacin, folic acid ) • Required for the conversion •Megaloblastic cells and • May cover up signs of vitamin B12 • fortified, refined grain • folate means "foliage". It was
RDA of the homocysteine to the anemia. deficiency(pernicious anemia) products(bread, flour, pasta) first discovered in leafy green
Women : 400 mcg methionine . • Diarrhea, weakness, • ready-to-eat cereals vegetables
• Methyl (Ch3) group donor •irritability, • dark green, leafy • this vitamin is easily destroyed
Men : 400 mcg and coenzyme in DNA Paranoidbehavior. Red, vegetables(spinach, collard, by heat
UL : 1000 mcg (from synthesis, gene expression sore tongue. romain) • synthetic form added to fortified
supplements and fortified and regulation. • Increased • brocoli, Brussels, sprouts grain products is better absorbed
foods ) • Required for the normal bloodhomocysteine levels • oranges, bananas, grape fruit than naturally occurring folates
formation of red blood and • Neural tube defects, • milk, cheese, yogurt
other cells. low • dried beans
birth weight (in
pregnancy) ; increased
risk of Heart disease and
stroke .

Consequences of
Deficiency
Vitamin B12 • Coenzyme involved in the • Neurological disorders • none known. Excess vitamin B12 • animal products: beaf, lamb, • older people and vegans are at
(cyanocobalamin ) synthesis of DNA, RNA and (nervousness, is rapidly excreted by kidneys or is liver, clams, crab, fish, poultry, risk for vitamin B12 deficiency
myelin. Tingling sensations, not absorbed into the blood streem eggs • some people become vitamin B12
AI
• Required for the conversion brain • vitamin B12 injections may cause • milk and milk products deficient because they are
Women : 2.4 mcg of the a temporary feeling of hightened genetically unable to absorb it
Degeneration ) • ready-to-eat cereals
Men : 2.4 mcg Homocysteine to methionine. energy. • vitamin B12 is found in animal
• Pernicious anemia.
• Needed for normal red products and micro-organisms only
• Increased blood
blood cell homocysteine levels.
Development. • Fatigue.
• Deficiency reported
in39 % of adults
In one study.
Biotin • Required by enzymes • Depression, fatigue, None known. Excess are rapidly • grain and cereal products • Deficiency is extremely rare.
AI Women : 30 mcg involved in fat, protein and nausea. excreted • meats, dried beans, cooked May be induced by the over-
glycogen metabolism. • Hair loss, dry and scaly eggs consumption of row eggs
Men : 30 mcg
skin. • vegetables
• Muscular pain.
Pantothenic acid • Coenzyme involved in • Fatigue, sleep

energy Metabolism of disturbances, Numbness, None known. Excesses • Many foods, including meats,
(pantothenate) • Deficiency is very rare.
carbohydrates And fats. impaired Coordination. Are rapidly excreted. grains, vegetables, fruits and
AI Women : 5 mg
• Coenzyme in protein • Vomiting, nausea. milk.
Men : 5 mg metabolism.

Consequences of
Deficiency
Vitamin C • Required for collagen • Bleeding and bruising Intakes of 1 g or more Per day can • Fruits: oranges, lemons, limes,
synthesis. easily Due to weak- cause nausea, cramps, diarrhea and Strawberries, cantaloupe, gwafa,
(ascorbic acid ) ended blood vessels, may increase the risk of kidney honeydew, Melon, grapefruit,
• Acts as an antioxidant; • Need increase among smokers
RDA cartilage and other stones Kiwi fruit, mango, papaya.
protects LDL cholesterol, eye tissues containing (to 110 – 125 mg per day).
Women : 75 mg Tissues, sperm proteins, collagen.
DNA and lipids against • Is fragile; easily destroyed by
Men : 90 mg oxidation. • Slow recovery from • Vegetables: broccoli, green and
heat and exposure to air.
infections and poor red peppers, collards, cabbage,
UL : 2000 mg • Required for the conversion Tomato, asparagus, potatoes. • Supplements may decrease
wound healing.
of the Fe++ to Fe+++. duration andSymptoms of colds.
• Fatigue, depression. • Ready-to-eat cereals.
• Required for • Deficiency may develop within 3
neurotransmitters and • Deficiency reported in weeks of very low intake.
steroid hormone synthesis.
9-24% of adults in one
study.

The Fat-Soluble Vitamins
Consequences of
Deficiency
Vitamin A • Needed for the • Increased • Vitamin A toxicity • Vitamin A is • Beta-caroteneis a vitamin A
RDA formation and susceptibility to (hypervitamosis A) found in animal Precursor or "provitamin"
Women: 700mcg Maintenance of Infection, With acute doses of products only. • Symptoms of vitamin A
Men : 900 mcg mucous •increased 500,000 IU, or long- • Liver, butter, toxicity may mimic those of
UL : 3000 mcg membranes, skin, incidence and term intake of 50,000 margarine, milk, brain tumors and liver disease.
bone. severity of IU per day ; limit cheese, eggs. •Vitamin A toxicity is
• Needed for infection retinol use in • Ready -to-eat sometimes misdiagnosed
vision in dim light. (including pregnancy to 5000 IU cereals. because of the similarities in
measles) daily symptoms.
• Impaired vision , • Nausea, irritability, • 1 mcg retinol equivalent = 5
Xerophthalmia, blurred vision, IU vitamin A or 6 mcg beta-
blindness. weakness. carotene.
• Inability to see • Increased pressure
in dim light. in the skull, headache.
• Liver damage.
-Hair loss, dry skin.
• Birth defects.
Consequences of
Deficiency
Vitamin E • Acts as an • Muscle loss, • Intake of up to 800 • Oils and fats. • Vitamin E is destroyed by
(alpha-tocopherol ) antioxidant. nerve damage. IU per day are • Salad dressing, exposure to oxygen and heat.
RDA prevents damage • Anemia. unrelated to toxic side mayonnaise, • Oils naturally contain vitamin
Women: 15 mg to cell membranes • Weakness. effects; Margarine, E. It is there to protect the fat
Men : 15 mg in blood cells, • Many adults Over 800 IU per day shortening, butter. from breakdown due to free
UL : 1000 mg lungs and other may have may increase bleeding • Whole grains radicals.
tissues by No optimal blood (blood-clotting time) .wheat germ. • Eight forms of vitamin E exist,
repairing damage levels. • Avoid supplement • Leafy, green and each has different
caused by free use if aspirin, vegetables, antioxidant strengths.
radicals. anticoagulants, or fish Tomatoes. • Natural form is better
• Reduces oil supplements are • Nuts and seeds. absorbed than synthetic form :
oxidation of LDL taken regularly. -Eggs. 15 IU alpha-tocopherol =22 IU
Cholesterol. d-alpha-tocopherol (natural
form) and 33 IU synthetic
vitamin E.

Consequences of
Deficiency
Vitamin D • Required for calcium • Weak, deformed
(1.25 dihydroxy- and phosphorus bones (Children), • Mental retardation in • Vitamin D-fortified • Vitamin D is manufactured from
cholecalciferol) metabolism in the rickets, osteomalacia. young children. milk and margarine. cholesterol in cells beneath the surface
AI Women : 5 mcg intestines and bone • Loss of calcium from • Abnormal bone growth and • Butter. of the skin upon exposure of the skin to
(200 IU ) and for their utilization bones formation. • Fish. sunlight.
Men : 5 mcg (200 IU ) in bone and teeth (adults), Osteoporosis. • Nausea, diarrhea, • Eggs. • Deficiency may be common in ill,
UL : 50 mcg (2000 IU) formation, nerve and irritability, weight loss. • Mushrooms. homebound, elderly and hospitalized
muscle activity. • Deposition of calcium in • Milk products such adults.
organs such as the kidneys, as cheese, yogurt and • Breastfed infants with little sun
liver and the heart. ice cream are generally exposure benefits from Vitamin D
not fortified with supplements.
vitamin D.
Vitamin K • Regulation of • Bleeding, bruises. • Toxicity is a problem only • Leafy, green • Vitamin K is produced by bacteria in
(phylloquinone, synthesis of • Decreased calcium in when synthetic forms of vegetables. the gut.
menaquinone) Blood-clotting proteins. bones. vitamin K are taken in Part of our vitamin K
AI Women : 90 mcg • Deficiency is rare ; excessive amounts. • Grain products. Supply comes from these bacteria.
Men : 120 mcg • Aids in the May be induced by the That may cause liver • Newborns are given a vitamin K
incorporation of long-term use (month disease. injection because they have "sterile" guts
calcium into bones. or more) and
Of antibiotics. Consequently no vitamin K-producing
bacteria.
mcg: microgram mg: milligram

5-Minerals:
 Human body contains mineral elements in the form of

organic components. They all form 40 % of body weight.
 Mineral elements play vital role in human life. Science has

proved that human being can not live healthy without
them.
 Healthy body absorbs these elements through digestive

system to organize vital processes and ensure physiological
balance.
 The body stores limited quantities of them and get rid of the
unneeded through its daily waste, such as urine, stool, and
sweat.
 They are essential to many processes, including

maintaining the body fluid balance and the structure of
hormones, bones and teeth.
 Also Wound healing and blood pressure maintainance.
 Minerals cannot be made by the body. So we have to obtain

them from our diet.
 Minerals tend to be more stable than vitamins.
 Minerals enhanced by Vitamins e.g.: iron with vit. C,

calcium with vit.D, selenium and zinc with vit.A,C, and E.
 Minerals are unlike other nutrients in that they consist of

single atoms and carry a charge in solution. The property of
being charged is related to many of the functions of
minerals:
1. It allows them to combine with other minerals to form

stable complexes in bone, teeth, cartilage, and other
tissues.
2. In body fluids, charged minerals serve as a source of

electrical power that stimulates muscles to contract
(e.g., the heart to beat) and nerves to react.
3. Minerals also help the body maintain an adequate

amount of water in tissues and control how acidic or
basic body fluids remain.
 The tendency of minerals to form complexes has

implications for the absorption of minerals from food.
Calcium and zinc, for example, may combine with other

minerals in supplements or with dietary fiber and form
complexes that cannot be absorbed.
Therefore, in general, the proportion of total mineral intake

that is absorbed is less than for vitamins.
Functions, consequences of deficiency and overdose,

primary food sources, and comments about the 15 minerals
needed by humans are summarized in Table 7.
Table (7): Summary of minerals

Primary Functions Consequences of deficiency Highlights and Comments Primary Food Sources Consequences of Overdoes
Calcium  Component of bones  Poorly mineralized, weak  The average intake of  Milk and milk  Drowsiness
AI* women: 1000 mg and teeth bones (osteoporosis) calcium among U.S women products (cheese,  Calcium deposits in kidneys,
Men: 1000 mg  Required for muscle  Rickets in children is approximately 60% of the yogurt) liver, and other tissues
UL: 2500 mg and nerve activity,  Osteomalacia (rickets in DRL.  Broccoli  Suppression of bone remodeling
blood clotting adults)  One in four women and one  Dried beans  Decreased zinc absorption
 Stunted growth in children in eight men in the U.S  Calcium-fortified food
 Convulsions, muscle develop osteoporosis. (some juices,
spasms  Adequate calcium and breakfast cereals,
vitamin D status must be bread, for example)
maintained to prevent bone
loss.
Phosphorus  Component of bones  Loss of appetite  Deficiency is generally  Milk and milk  Muscle spasms
RDA women: 700 mg and teeth  Nausea, vomiting related to disease processes. products (cheese,
Men: 700 mg  Component of certain  Weakness yogurt)
UL: 400 mg enzymes and other  Confusion  Meats
substances involved in  Loss of calcium from bones  Seeds, nuts
energy formation   Phosphates added to
 Required for foods
maintenance of acid-
base balance of body
fluids
Magnesium  Component of bones  Stunted growth in children  Magnesium is primarily  Plants foods (dried  Diarrhea
RDA women: 310 mg and teeth  Weakness found in plant foods where it beans, tofu, peanuts,  Dehydration
Men: 400 mg  Needed for nerve  Muscles spasms is attached to chlorophyll. potatoes, green  Impaired nerve activity due to
UL: 350 mg activity  Personality changes  Average intake among U.S vegetables) disrupted utilization of calcium
( From supplements only )  Activities enzymes adults is below the RDA.  Milk
involved in energy and  Brad
protein formation  Ready-to-eat cereals
 Coffee
Table (7): Summary of minerals (Continued)

Primary Functions Consequences of deficiency Highlights and Comments Primary Food Sources Consequences of Overdoes
Iron  Transport oxygen as a  Iron deficiency  Cooking food in iron  Liver, beef, pork  Hemochromatosis ("iron
RDA women: 18 mg component of  Iron-deficiency anemia stainless steel pans  Dried beans poisoning")
Men: 8 mg hemoglobin in red  Weakness, fatigue increases the iron content of  Iron-fortified cereals  Vomiting, abdominal pain
UL: 45 mg blood cells  Pale appearance the foods.  Prunes, apricots,  Blue coloration of skin
 Component of  Reduced attention span  Vitamin C, meat, and raisins  Liver and heart damage,
myoglobin (a muscle and resistance to infection alcohol increase iron  Spinach diabetes
protein)  Mental retardation, absorption.  Bread  Decreased zinc absorption
 Required for certain developmental delay in  Iron deficiency is the most  Pasta  Atherosclerosis (plaque buildup)
reactions involving children common nutritional in order adults
energy formation deficiency in the world.
 Average iron intake of young
children and women in the
U.S is low.
Zinc  Required for the  Growth failure  Like iron, zinc is better  Meats (all kinds)  Over 25 mg/day is associated
RDA women: 8 mg activation of many  Delayed sexual maturation absorbed from meats than  Grains with nausea, vomiting,
Men: 11 mg enzymes involved in  Slow wound healing from plants.  Nuts weakness, fatigue, susceptibility
UL:40 mg the reproduction of  Loss of taste and appetite  Marginal zinc deficiency  Milk and milk to infection, copper deficiency,
proteins  In pregnancy, low birth- may be common, especially products (cheese, and metallic taste in mouth
 Component of insulin, weight infants and preterm in children. yogurt)  Increased blood lipids
many enzymes delivery  Zinc supplements may  Ready-to-eat cereals
decrease duration and  Bread
severity of the common cold.
Fluoride  Component of bones  Tooth decay and other  Toothpastes, mouth rinses,  Fluoridated water  Fluorosis
AI women: 3 mg and teeth (enamel) dental diseases and other dental care and foods and  Brittle bones
Men: 4 mg  products may provide beverages made with  Mottled teeth
UL:10 mg fluoride. it  Nerve abnormalities
 Fluoride overdose has been  Tea
caused by ingestion of  Shrimp, crab
fluoridated toothpaste.
Table (7): Summary of minerals (Continued)

Primary Functions Consequences of deficiency Consequences of Overdoes Primary Food Sources Highlights and Comments
Iodine  Component of thyroid  Goiter  Over 1 mg/day may produce  Iodized salt  Iodine deficiency
RDA women: 150 mcg hormones that help  Cretinism (mental pimples, goiter, and  Milk and milk remains a major
regulate energy retardation, hearing loss, decreased thyroid function products health problem in
Men: 150 mcg production and growth some developing
growth failure)  Seaweed, seafood
UL: 1100 mcg countries.
 Bread from  Amount of iodine in
commercial bakeries plants depends on
iodine content of soil.
 Most of the iodine in
our diet comes from
the incidental addition
of iodine to foods from
cleaning compounds
used by food
manufacturers.
Selenium  Content of food depends  Anemia  "Selenosis;" symptoms of  Meats and seafood  Acts as an anti-oxidant
on amount of selenium  Muscles pain and selenosis are hair and  Egg in conjunction with
RDA women: 900 mcg
in soil, water, and tenderness fingernail loss, weakness, vitamin E (protect
Men: 55mcg animal feeds liver damage, irritability,  Whole grains cells from damage due
Keshan disease (heart and "garlic" or "metallic" to exposure to oxygen)
UL: 400mcg  May play a role in the failure), kashinbeck disease
prevention of some breath  Needed for thyroid
(joint disease)
types of cancer hormone production
Table (7): Summary of minerals (continued)

Consequences of Consequences of
Primary Functions Primary Food Sources Highlights and Comments
deficiency Overdose
Copper  Component of enzymes  Anemia  Wilson's disease  Bread  Toxicity can result from
RDA involved in the body's  Seizures (excessive  Potatoes copper pipes and cooking
Women: 900mcg utilization of iron and accumulation of copper pans
 Nerve and bone  Grains
oxygen in the liver and  Average intake in the U.S.
Men: 900mcg abnormalities in  Dried beans
 Functions in growth, kidneys) is below the RDA
UL: 10,000 children
immunity, cholesterol and  Vomiting, diarrhea  Nuts and seeds
 Growth retardation
glucose utilization, brain  Tremors  Seafood
development  Ready-to-eat cereals
 Liver disease
Manganese  Required for the formation  Weight loss  Infertility in men  Whole grains  Toxicity is related to
AI of body fat and bone  Rash  Disruption in the  Coffee, tea overexposure to
Women: 2.3mg nervous system manganese dust in miners
 Nausea, vomiting  Dried beans
Men: 1.8mg (psychotic symptoms)
 Nuts
 Muscle spasms
Chromium  Required for the normal  Elevated blood  Kidney and skin  Whole grains  Toxicity usually results
AI utilization of glucose and glucose and damage  Wheat germ from exposure in chrome-
Women:35mcg fat triglyceride level making industries or
 Liver, meat
 Weight loss overuse of supplements
Men: 25mcg  Beer, wine
 Supplements do not build
 Oysters muscle mass or increase
endurance

Consequences of Consequences of Primary Food Highlights and
Primary Functions
deficiency Overdose Sources Comments
Molybdenum  Component of enzymes  Rapid heart beat  Loss of copper from  Dried beans  Deficiency is
RDA involved in the transfer of and breathing the body  Grains extraordinarily rare
Women: 45mcg oxygen from one molecule  Nausea, vomiting  Joint pain  Dark green
Men: 45mcg to another  coma  Growth failure vegetables
UL: 2000mcg  Anemia  Liver
 Gout  Milk and milk
products
Sodium  Regulation of acid-base in  Weakness  High blood pressure in  Foods processed with  Very few foods naturally
AI adults: 1500mg body fluids  Apathy susceptible people salt contain much sodium;
UL adults: 2300mg  Maintenance of water  Poor appetite  Kidney diseases  Cured foods (corned processed foods are the
balance in body tissues  Muscle cramps  Heart problems beef, ham, bacon, leading source
 Activation of muscles and  Headache pickles, sauerkraut)  High-sodium diets are
nerves  swelling  Table and sea salt associated with
 Bread hypertension in "salt-
 Milk, cheese sensitive" people
 Salad dressing  Kidney diseases, excessive
water consumption are
related to sodium
depletion
Potassium  Same as for sodium  Weakness  Irregular heart, heart  Plant foods (potatoes,  Content of vegetables id
AI adults: 4700mg  Irritability, mental attack squash, lima, beans, often reduced in processed
confusion tomatoes, plantains, foods
 Irregular heart beat bananas, oranges,  Diuretics (water pills),
 paralysis avocados) vomiting, diarrhea may
 Meats deplete potassium
 Milk and milk  Salt substitutes often
products contain potassium
 Coffee
Consequences of Consequences of Primary Food Highlights and

Primary Functions
deficiency Overdose Sources Comments
Chloride  Component of hydrochloric  Muscle cramps  Vomiting  Same as for sodium  Excessive vomiting and
AI adults: 2300mg acid secreted by the  Apathy (most of the chloride diarrhea may cause
stomach (used in digestion)  Poor appetite in our diets comes chloride deficiency
 Maintenance of acid-base  Long-term mental from salt)  Legislation regulating
balance of body fluids. retardation in the composition of infant
 Maintenance of water infants formula-related chloride
balance in the body deficiency and
subsequent mental
retardation in infants
 AIs and RDAs are for women and men 19-30 years of age; ULs are for males and females 19-70 years of age.
 AI: Adequate Intake; RDA: Recommended Dietary Allowance; UL: Upper intake Level
6-Water
Adults are about 60-70% water by weight. Water provides

the medium in which most chemical reactions take place in the
body. It plays a role in:
1. Energy transformation.
2. The excretion of wastes.
3. Temperature regulation.
People need enough water to replace daily losses from

perspiration, urination, and exhalation.
In normal weather conditions and with normal physical

activity levels, adult males need 15-16 cups of water from fluids
and foods each day, and females need 11 cups.
The need for water is generally met by consuming sufficient

fluids to satisfy thirst. The need for water is greater in hot and
humid climates, and when physical activity levels are high.
People generally consume 75% of their water intake from

water and other fluids and 25% from foods.The best sources of
water are tap and bottled water; nonalcoholic beverages such as
fruit juice, milk, and vegetable juice; and broth soups.
Alcohol tends to increase water loss though urine, so bev-

erages such as beer and wine are not as "hydrating" as water is.
Dietary Guidelines
Food group guides to the intake of healthful diets have been
available in the United States since 1916. Known by names such
as "Basic Four Food Groups" and "Food Guide Pyramid," the
guides have been periodically updated (figure 1).
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) released its

newest version of the food guide in 2005 Called "MyPyramid".
MyPyramid guidance stresses the importance of lower

calorie intakes and increased physical activity levels. It
emphasizes intake of whole grain products, colorful vegetables,
low-fat dairy products, and lean meats.
To put MyPyramid into action, first you need to estimate

your calorie needs (table 8). Overall, MyPyramid translates the
latest nutrition advice into twelve separate pyramids based on
calorie needs (1000 to 3200 kcal).
Once you have determined the calorie allowance

appropriate for you, you can use Table 9 to discover how that
calorie allowance corresponds to the recommended number of
servings from each food group.
Figure (1): Food guide pyramid

Table (8): Estimated amounts of calories needed to maintain energy

balance for various gender and age groups at three different levels
of physical activity
Activity Levela,b,c,d
Age
Gender Moderately
(years) Sedentarya Activec
Activeb
Child 2-3 1000 1000-1400d 1000-1400d
Female 4-8 1200 1400-1600 1400-1800
9-13 1600 1600-2000 1800-2200
14-18 1800 2000 2400
19-30 2000 2000-2200 2200
31-50 1800 2000 2000-2200
51+ 1600 1800
Male 4-8 1400 1400-1600 1600-2000
9-13 1800 1800-2200 2000-2600
14-18 2200 2400-2800 2800-3200
19-30 2400 2600-2800 3000
31-50 2200 2400-2600 2800-3000
51+ 2000 2200-2400 2400-2800
a Light physical activity
b Physical activity equivalent to walking about 1.5-3 miles per hour, in addition to the
light physical activity
c Physical activity equivalent to walking more than 3 miles per day at 3 to 4 miles per
hour, in addition to the light physical activity
d The calorie ranges shown are to accommodate needs of different ages within the
group.
Table (9): MyPyramid Recommendations for Daily Food Consumption Based on Calorie Needs and
Resulting in Twelve Separate pyramids
Calorie Level 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000 3200
Fuits 1 cup 1 cup 1.5 cups 1.5 cups 1.5 cups 2 cups 2 cups 2 cups 2 cups 2,5 cups 2.5 cups 2.5 cups
Vegetables 1 cup 1.5 cups 1.5 cups 2 cups 2.5 cups 2.5 cups 3 cups 3 cups 3.5 cups 3.5 cups 4 cups 4 cups
Meat & Beans 2 oz-eq 3 oz-eq 4 oz-eq 5 oz-eq 5 oz-eq 5.5 oz-eq 6 oz-eq 6.5 oz- eq 6.5 oz-eq 7 oz-eq 7 oz-eq 7 oz-eq
Grain 3 oz-eq 4 oz-eq 5 oz-eq 5 oz-eq 6 oz-eq 6 oz-eq 7 oz-eq 8 oz-eq 9 oz-eq 10 oz-eq 10 oz-eq 10 oz-eq
Milk 2 cups 2 cups 2 cups 3 cups 3 cups 3 cups 3 cups 3 cups 3 cups 3 cups 3 cups 3 cups
Oils 3 tsp 4 tsp 4 tsp 5 tsp 5 tsp 6 tsp 6 tsp 7 tsp 8 tsp 8 tsp 10 tsp 11 tsp
Discretionary
165 171 171 132 195 267 290 362 410 426 512 648
Calorie Allowance
- Oz-eq stands for ounce equivalent; tsp stands for teaspoon
- Vegetables are divided in to five subgroups (dark green, orange, legumes, starchy, and other). Over a week's time, a variety of vegetables should be eaten, especially dark green
and orange vegetables.
- Dry beans and peas can be counted either as vegetables (dry beans and peas subgroup), or in the meat & beans group. Generally, individuals who regularly eat meat, poultry, and
fish would count dry beans and peas in the vegetable group. Individuals who seldom eat meat, poultry, or fish (vegetarians) would consume more dry beans and peas and count
some of them in the meat & beans group until enough servings from that group are chosen for the day.
- At least half of the grain servings should be whole-grain varieties.
- Most of the milk servings should be fat-free or low-fat.
- Omit solid fats such as butter, stick margarine, shortening, and meat fat, as well as foods that contain these.
- Discretionary calories refer to food choices rich in added sugars or solid fat.

MyPlate
It is introduced along with 2011 updating of USDA food

patterns for the 2010 Dietary Guidelines as a different shape to
help grabbing consumers’ attention with a new visual cue (fig. 2).
Food Groups
Grains Vegetable Fruit
Dairy Group Protein Foods Group
Group Group Group

Make at
Focus Get your
least half Vary your
on calcium‐rich Go lean with protein.
your grains veggies.
fruits. foods.
whole.

(Figure2): (2011) Myplate
2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines for

Americans at a Glance
The 2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines focuses on the big picture with
recommendations to help Americans make choices that add up to an overall
healthy eating pattern. To build a healthy eating pattern, combine healthy
choices from across all food groups—while paying attention to calorie limits,
too.
Check out the 5 Guidelines that encourage healthy eating patterns:

Previous editions of the Dietary Guidelines focused primarily on individual dietary components
such as food groups and nutrients. However, people do not eat food groups and nutrients in
isolation but rather in combination, and the totality of the diet forms an overall eating pattern.
The components of the eating pattern can have interactive and potentially cumulative effects
on health. These patterns can be tailored to an individual’s personal preferences, enabling
Americans to choose the diet that is right for them. A growing body of research has examined
the relationship between overall eating patterns, health, and risk of chronic disease, and
findings on these relationships are sufficiently well established to support dietary guidance. As
a result, eating patterns and their food and nutrient characteristics are a focus of the
recommendations in the 2015‐2020 Dietary Guidelines.
The 2015‐2020 Dietary Guidelines provides five overarching Guidelines that encourage healthy
eating patterns, recognize that individuals will need to make shifts in their food and beverage
choices to achieve a healthy pattern, and acknowledge that all segments of our society have a
role to play in supporting healthy choices. These Guidelines also embody the idea that a
healthy eating pattern is not a rigid prescription, but rather, an adaptable framework in which
individuals can enjoy foods that meet their personal, cultural, and traditional preferences and
fit within their budget. Several examples of healthy eating patterns that translate and integrate
the recommendations in overall healthy ways to eat are provided.
An underlying premise of the Dietary Guidelines is that nutritional needs should be met
primarily from foods. All forms of foods, including fresh, canned, dried, and frozen, can be
included in healthy eating patterns. Foods in nutrient‐dense forms contain essential vitamins
and minerals and also dietary fiber and other naturally occurring substances that may have
positive health effects. In some cases, fortified foods and dietary supplements may be useful in
providing one or more nutrients that otherwise may be consumed in less‐than‐recommended
amounts.
For most individuals, achieving a healthy eating pattern will require changes in food and
beverage choices. This edition of the Dietary Guidelines focuses on shifts to emphasize the
need to make substitutions—that is, choosing nutrient‐dense foods and beverages in place of
less healthy choices—rather than increasing intake overall. Most individuals would benefit
from shifting food choices both within and across food groups. Some needed shifts are minor
and can be accomplished by making simple substitutions, while others will require greater
effort to accomplish.
Although individuals ultimately decide what and how much to consume, their personal
relationships; the settings in which they live, work, and shop; and other contextual factors
strongly influence their choices. Concerted efforts among health professionals, communities,
businesses and industries, organizations, governments, and other segments of society are
needed to support individuals and families in making dietary and physical activity choices that
align with the Dietary Guidelines. Everyone has a role, and these efforts, in combination and
over time, have the potential to meaningfully improve the health of current and future
generations.
The Guidelineshe Guidelines
1. Follow a healthy eating pattern across the lifespan. All food and beverage
choices matter. Choose a healthy eating pattern at an appropriate calorie level to
help achieve and maintain a healthy body weight, support nutrient adequacy, and
reduce the risk of chronic disease.
2. Focus on variety, nutrient density, and amount. To meet nutrient needs within
calorie limits, choose a variety of nutrient-dense foods across and within all food
groups in recommended amounts.
3. Limit calories from added sugars and saturated fats and reduce sodium
intake. Consume an eating pattern low in added sugars, saturated fats, and
sodium. Cut back on foods and beverages higher in these components to
amounts that fit within healthy eating patterns.
4. Shift to healthier food and beverage choices. Choose nutrient-dense foods

and beverages across and within all food groups in place of less healthy choices.
Consider cultural and personal preferences to make these shifts easier to
accomplish and maintain.
5. Support healthy eating patterns for all. Everyone has a role in helping to
create and support healthy eating patterns in multiple settings nationwide, from
home to school to work to communities.
Recommendations
The Dietary Guidelines’ Key Recommendations for healthy eating patterns should be applied in
their entirety, given the interconnected relationship that each dietary component can have
with others.
Consume a healthy eating pattern that accounts for all foods and beverages within an
appropriate calorie level.
A healthy eating pattern includes:[1]
 A variety of vegetables from all of the subgroups—dark green, red and orange,
legumes (beans and peas), starchy, and other
 Fruits, especially whole fruits
 Grains, at least half of which are whole grains
 Fat‐free or low‐fat dairy, including milk, yogurt, cheese, and/or fortified soy beverages
 A variety of protein foods, including seafood, lean meats and poultry, eggs, legumes
(beans and peas), and nuts, seeds, and soy products
 Oils
A healthy eating pattern limits:
 Saturated fats and trans fats, added sugars, and sodium
Key Recommendations that are quantitative are provided for several components of the diet
that should be limited. These components are of particular public health concern in the United
States, and the specified limits can help individuals achieve healthy eating patterns within
calorie limits:
 Consume less than 10 percent of calories per day from added sugars[2]
 Consume less than 10 percent of calories per day from saturated fats[3]
 Consume less than 2,300 milligrams (mg) per day of sodium[4]
 If alcohol is consumed, it should be consumed in moderation—up to one drink per day
for women and up to two drinks per day for men—and only by adults of legal drinking
age.[5]
In tandem with the recommendations above, Americans of all ages—children, adolescents,
adults, and older adults—should meet the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans to help
promote health and reduce the risk of chronic disease. Americans should aim to achieve and
maintain a healthy body weight. The relationship between diet and physical activity
contributes to calorie balance and managing body weight. As such, theDietary
Guidelines includes a Key Recommendation to
 Meet the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans.

Mediterranean Diet
It is the dietary pattern found in the olive-growing areas of
the Mediterranean region, it can be thought of as having eight
components:
 High monounsaturated/saturated lipid ratio, high

consumption of legumes, cereals (including bread), fruits and
vegetables.
 Low consumption of meat and meat products.
 Moderate consumption of milk and dairy products and

ethanol.
Olive oil is important both because of its several beneficial

properties and because it allows the consumption of large
quantities of vegetables in the form of salads and equally large
quantities of vegetables and legumes in the form of cooked foods.
The Mediterranean Diet generally described as providing

an abundance of plant foods (fruits, vegetables, bread, cereal
products, legumes, nuts, and seeds), favoring the consumption of
locally grown, seasonally fresh, and minimally processed foods,
and being consumed by physically active people. It includes
modest amounts of foods from animal sources and this assures
the necessary intake of vitamin B12 and iron, while keeping
saturated lipid low (figure 3).
Figure (3): The Mediterranean Diet
Vegetarian Diets
The terms vegetarian, lactovegetarian, and vegan focus on
foods that are left after others have been omitted from the diet.
From the nutritional standpoint the animal food groups (e.g.,
meat, fish, fowl, eggs, milk, and milk products) which are
nutrient-dense foods may be omitted (table 10).
Depending on the particular animal food group under

consideration, these nutrients may include protein of high
biological value, highly bioavailable iron, zinc, calcium, vitamins
A, D, B12 and B6, riboflavin, W-3 fatty acids, and iodine. When
these food groups are eliminated entirely from the diet, low
intakes of these nutrients may cause many drawbacks on health.
Although dietary diversity in the number of food groups

consumed is less among vegetarians, diversity within food
groups is often considerable and is sufficient to provide adequate
amounts of nutrients.
Variety within food groups may even be increased on

vegetarian diets. For example, among those consuming vegan
diets the amount and type of legumes as well as other vegetables
and fruits is often increased.
Vegetarians' intakes of some of the bioactive constituents

that are rich in fruits and vegetables such as the flavonoids,
antioxidants, and dietary fiber may be much higher than those of
omnivores.
Table (10): Common types of vegetarian dietary patterns

categorized by animal food use
Pattern Comments
Meat avoiders Limit or avoid red meat and other flesh food; may also restrict poultry, fish, and
seafood. Diets are similar in most respects to non vegetarian diets
Lacto-ovo Avoidances include all meat, poultry, and often fish, but consume milk products and
vegetarians eggs. Iron may be limiting and it can be obtained from iron – fortified cereals. Low
fat dairy products are preferred to keep intakes of saturated fat and total fat
moderate
Lacto Avoid all meat, fish, poultry, and eggs. Nutrient considerations same as above
vegetarians
Macrobiotics Numerous restrictions generally including a voidance of all meat, poultry, milk and
eggs, but may consume fish in small amounts. Also avoid sugar and other refined
sweeteners, foods that are members of the nightshade family(peppers, egg plant,
tomatoes, and potatoes)and tropical fruits. Currents variations of the diet are less
restrictive than the versions of 30 years ago, but deficiencies of energy, iron,
calcium, vitamin B12, vitamin D, and other nutrients may still arise in weanlings,
pregnant women, and young children if diets are nutritionally unplanned
Vegans Avoidance include animal products including meat, fish, poultry, eggs, and dairy
products. Some vegans may also refuse to use any animal products in daily life.
Without careful planning, energy, vitamins B12 and D, and bioavailabe sources of
iron may be low. Concentrated sources of energy-dense foods such as sugars and
fats are helpful in increasing energy intakes. vitamin B12 and D and calcium can be
supplied from fortified soy milk, fortified cereals, and / or dietary supplements of
these nutrients. Usually protein is adequate if a variety of protein sources is
consumed
Other Raw food eaters and "living food" eaters avoid animal foods and eat raw plant foods,
Patterns including fruits, vegetables and cereals with special health foods such as
wheatgrass or carrot juice. Fruitarians consume diets mostly of fruits, nuts, honey,
and olive oil. Rastafarians eat a near-vegan diet and avoid alcohol, solt-preserverd
foods and additives.
Dietary Antioxidants
The human endogenous antioxidant system is impressive
but incomplete. Regular and adequate dietary intakes of (largely)
plant-based antioxidants, most notably vitamin C, vitamin E,
and folic acid, are needed.
Fresh fruits and vegetables are rich in antioxidants, and

epidemiological evidence of protection by diets rich in fruits and
vegetables is strong by decreasing the risk of chronic diseases
and lowering mortality.
However, there are a plethora of other dietary antioxidants.

Some or all of the thousands of carotenoids, flavonoids, and
phenolics found in plant-based foods, herbs, and beverages, such
as teas and wines, may also be important for human health,
although there are currently no Recommended Dietary Intakes
(RDI) for them.
In addition, there is growing evidence that other dietary

constituents with antioxidant properties, such as quercetin and
catechins (found in teas, apples, and onions), lycopene, lutein,
and zeaxanthin (found in tomatoes, spinach, and herbs)
contribute to human health.
Zinc (found especially in lamb, leafy and root vegetables,

and shellfish) and selenium (found especially in beef, cereals,
nuts, and fish) are incorporated into the antioxidant enzymes
superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase, and the

elements are themselves sometimes referred to as antioxidants.
The levels of ascorbic acid, α-tocopherol, folic acid,

carotenoids, and flavonoids within the body are maintained by
dietary intake.
There are a number of reasons for recommending dietary

changes in preference to supplementation for achieving increased
antioxidant status, as follows.
1. It is not clear which antioxidants confer protection.
2. The hierarchy of protection may
vary depending on body
conditions.
3. A cooperative mix of
antioxidants is likely to be more
effective than an increased intake of one antioxidant.
4. Antioxidants, including vitamin A, β-carotene, vitamin C,
selenium, and copper, can be harmful in large doses.
5. Antioxidant status is likely to be affected by the overall
composition of the diet e.g., the fatty acid and
phytochemical mix.
6. The iron status of the body, environmental conditions, and
lifestyle undoubtedly affect antioxidant demand.
It is recommended generally that at least five servings of

fruits and vegetables are eaten each day. This recommendation
is based on a wealth of epidemiological evidence that, overall,

indicates that 30- 40% of all cancers can be prevented by diet.
Furthermore, the antioxidant contents (both of individual

antioxidants and in total) of foods vary widely among different
food items and even within the same food item, depending on
storage, processing, and cooking method. In addition, the issues
of bioavailability and distribution must be considered, and it is of
interest to see where dietary antioxidants accumulate (Table 11)
Frequent small doses of antioxidant-rich food may be the

most effective way to achieve increasing defense by dietary
means.
Table (11): Dietary antioxidants: source, bioavailability, and
concentration in human plasma
Dietary source Bioavailability Concentration Comment

Ascorbic acid Fruits and 100% at low doses 25-80 µmoll Unstable at
(vitamin C) vegetables (<100mg) neutral PH,
particularly decreasing to < 15% concentrated in
strawberries, at >10g cells and the eye
citrus, kiwi,
sprouts and
cauliflower
Vitamin E (α- Green leafy 10-95%, but limited 15-40 Major tocopherol
tocopherol) vegetables, hepatic uptake of µmoll(depending on in diet is γ form,
vegetable oils, absorbed tocopherol vitamin supply butα form is
specially andlipid level) preferentially
sunflower takenup by
human liver
Carotenoids Orange/red Unclear, dose and Very low (<1 µmoll) Lutein and
fruits and form dependent, zeaxanthin are
vegetables probably <15% concentrated in
(carrot, tomato, macula of eye
apricot, melon),
green leafy
vegetables
Flavonoids Berries, apples, Most poorly No data for most, Possible
onions, tea, absorbed, likely < 3 µmoll in gastrointestin-al

citrus fruits, dependent on dose total tract protection
grapes, cherries and form by unabsorbed
flavonoids
Weight Reduction Guidelines

Weight is measured by body mass index (BMI), which is
calculated by dividing weight in kilograms by square height in
meters, and according to BMI and waist circumference, subjects
could be classified as having under, over, or ideal weight (table
12).
Table (12): Classification of overweight and obesity by BMI,

waist circumference and associated disease risk
(Disease Risk: Relative to Normal weight and Waist
Circumference)
Men<102 cm (<40
Obesity in) >40.16 in (>40 in)
BMI (kg/m2)
Class Women <88 cm >88 cm (>35 in)
(<35 in)
Underweight <18.5 - -
Normal +18.5 – 24.9 - -
Overweight 25.0 – 29.9 Increased High
Obesity 30.0 – 34.9 I High Very High
35.0 – 39.9 II Very High Very High
Extreme
>40 III Extremely High Extremely High
Obesity
* Disease risk for type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and CVD.
+ Increased waist circumference can also be a marker for increased risk even in persons of
normal weight.
How to achieve weight loss?
1. Dietary Therapy
Low caloric diets (LCDs)

are recommended for weight
loss in Overweight and obese
persons.
a. Reducing fat as part of a

LCD is a practical way to
reduce calories.
b. Reducing dietary fat alone

without reducing calories is not sufficient for weight loss.
c. However, reducing dietary fat, along with reducing dietary

carbohydrates, can facilitate caloric reduction.
d. A diet that is individually planned to help create a deficit of

500 to 1,000 kcal/day should be an intregal part of any
program aimed at achieving a weight loss of 1 to 2 lb/week.
2. Physical Activity
The combination of a reduced calorie diet and increased

physical activity is recommended since it:
 Produces weight loss that also results in decreases in

abdominal fat.
 Increases in cardiorespiratory fitness.

3. Behavior Therapy
There is suggestive evidence that patient motivation is a

key component for success in a weight loss program.
4. Lifestyle Therapy
Weight loss and weight maintenance therapy should

employ the combination of LCDs, increased physical activity, and
behavior therapy.
5. Pharmacotherapy
Weight loss drugs approved by the FDA may be used as

part of a comprehensive weight loss program, including dietary
therapy and physical activity for patients with a BMI of > 30
with no concomitant obesity-related risk factors or diseases, and
for patients with a BMI of > 27 with concomitant obesity-related
risk factors or diseases.
Weight loss drugs should never be used without

concomitant lifestyle modifications. Continual assessment of
drug therapy for efficacy and safety is necessary.
6. Weight Loss Surgery
Weight loss surgery is an option for carefully selected

patients with clinically severe obesity (BMI > 40 or > 35 with
comorbid conditions) when less invasive methods of weight loss
have failed and the patient is at high risk for obesity-associated
morbidity or mortality.
Figure (4): Body Mass Index (BMI) for Age Group 19-34
Figure (5): Waist-To-Hip Ratios in Women

Chapter II: Dental Nutrition
The Nutrition Connection to dental health

Following a proper and nutritious diet not only helps keep
your body healthy, but your mouth as well. Nutrition plays an
important role in the health and cleanliness of your teeth, gums
and mouth.
Eating sugar, as you probably

already know, is a major cause of
tooth decay. But it's not just how
much sugar you eat — when and
how you eat it can be just as
important for keeping teeth
healthy.
When you eat sugary foods or

drink sodas frequently throughout
the day, the enamel that protects
your teeth is constantly exposed to
acids.
Hard candies, cough drops, and breath mints that contain

sugar are especially harmful because they dissolve slowly in your
mouth. Many experts suggest that you take a 3-hour break
between eating foods containing sugar.
Sugary or starchy foods eaten with a meal are less harmful

to your teeth than when they're eaten alone, possibly because the
production of saliva, which washes away the sugar and bacteria,

is increased.
Eating sugary foods before you go to bed can be the most

damaging (especially if you don't brush your teeth afterward)
because you don't produce as much saliva when you sleep.
For most people, it's hard to cut out sweets completely, so try to
follow these more realistic guidelines:
 Eat carbohydrates (sugars and starches) with a meal.
 If you can't brush your teeth after eating, rinse your mouth
with water or mouthwash, or chew sugarless gum.
 Don't eat sugary foods between meals.
 If you snack, eat nonsugary foods, such as cheese, popcorn,

raw veggies, or yogurt.
Malnutrition and Oral Diseases
 The oral cavity is one of the first regions of the body to exhibit
clinical sings of malnutrition.
 The lips, tongue, oral mucosa and gingiva may all reflect
nutritional deficiencies.
 The oral epithelium acts as an effective barrier against the

invasion of toxic substances, particularly antigens derived
from oral microbes into the underlying collagenous connective

tissue.
 Inadequate nutrition can cause the oral epithelia to either

break down or to be compromised to increase the tissues
susceptibility to infectious diseases.
 Many severe and even moderate nutrient deficiencies can

results in defects in tooth development.
 Nutritional deficiencies weaken the resistance of oral tissue to

plaque bacteria, causing an increase in inflammation and
infection.
Essential nutrients for oral cavity protection and health
Fats
Omega-3:
 To reduce osteoclastic activity and alveolar bone resorption

in periodontitis for proper function of nerve.
 For treatment of autoimmune diseases.

Vitamins (Vit.)
Vitamins were discovered not as a result of their positive

functions, but rather by study of the diseases that are associated
with diets that lack some of them.
Vit. C:
 Local irritation must be present before deficiency and can

produce worsening of gingival infection.
 In long term antibiotic treatment boost immunity and increase

body resistance against local irritation, bacteria, viruses and
infectious disease.
 Maintains healthy bones, teeth and collagen production by

using proline and lysine amino acids.
 Prevent gingival infection, bleeding, swelling and loose teeth.
 Prevent anaerobic bacteria to produce an acute necrotizing

ulcerative gingivitis with its characteristic punched out
membranous interdental papilla and feotid breath.
Vit. C and Vit. E:
 Increase bone density in periodontal disease.
 Accelerate wound healing.
 Boost immunity against infection in case of pollution, smoking

and passive smoking.
 Anti-inflammatory property.
Vit. D
 In long term antibiotic therapy.
 In uncontrolled bleeding.
 Injury and surgery.
 Protection from dental caries.
 For the normal development of teeth and bone.
 Necessary for strong bone and teeth.
 Boost the immune system.
Vit. A:
o Lack of appetite.
o During development of tooth germ.
o Prevent inflammation of mucous membrane of the mouth

and in case of periodontal pockets.
o Promotes growth of teeth, bones, and gums.
o Decrease risk of infection in the oral cavity in case of poor

cells health.
o Maintain epithelial tissue and mucus forming cells for

synthesise of mucosa
o Development and maintenance of salivary glands.
o Suppress lesions and infection in the oral Cavity.
o In case of xerostomia.
o Increase activity of certain immune cells.
Vit. K:
 Promotes blood clotting and bone mineralization.
 In long term antibiotic treatment.
 Uncontrolled bleeding after injury and surgery.
Vit.B12:
o Relief pain in teeth, jaw, and tongue which may be burning

or itching sensation or due to painful lesions on the ventral
surface of tongue.
o In absence of tongue papillae with red, smooth, and shiny

tongue surface.
o In cases of xerostomia.
Vit.B6:
o Prevent incidence of dental caries in experimental animals

and in children aged 10-15 years for one year study.
o Prevent papillary changes, edema, and smoothening of

tongue.
o Prevent glossitis and pain in tongue.
Folate:
o Increase immune response (vit.C helps folate absorption).
o Prevent infection such as oral candidiasis.
o Prevent chronic periodontitis, loosening of teeth, and

glossitis.
Minerals
Calcium:
o For unhealthy muscle contraction and nerve function.
o In weak bone density and teeth - blood clotting and

coagulation.
o Slow the rate of alveolar resorption.
Zinc:
o Men should take Zinc from 12 years and forever.

o Important for more than 200 enzyme.
o As a protector of the immune system.
o In structure and function of cell membranes.
o To maintain sense of taste, smell and appetite.
o For tissue growth and repair.
o In collagen synthesis.
o In bone formation.
o In changes in tongue epithelium.
o In flattened filiform papillae.
o In impaired wound healing.
o To decrease susceptibility to infection.
Selenium:
o With vitamin A, C, and E to protect the body against free

radical, especially with vitamin E.
o To detoxify many drugs, smoke and some fat.
Iron:
o Essential component of hemoglobin.

o Energy production (accelerate oxidative reactions by

transferring oxygen to the tissues).
o Essential in case of glossitis, soreness and burning tongue.
 Medical Nutrition Therapy for osteoporosis
i. Advise all patients to consume adequate amounts of calcium

(>1200 mg/d, including supplements if necessary) and vitamin
D (400-800 I U / d for individuals at risk of deficiency).
ii. Women after menopause or over age 65 years will need 1500
mg calcium daily.
iii. For vitamin D, choose fortified milk, cod liver oil, egg yolks,
and fatty fish; do not exceed 2000 IU/d.
iv. To fulfill the requirement, 1 quart of milk daily can be

consumed.
v. If fluid milk is not consumed, dry skim milk powder can be

added to many foods.
vi. Aged cheeses and yogurt are sources as well.
vii. Calcium supplements can be used if dairy products are not

tolerated.
viii. Calcium absorption averages approximately 30-40% from most

sources.
ix. Space the supplements throughout the day.
x. Take no more than 500-600 mg two or more times daily with

meals.
xi. Use with calcium vitamin D and magnesium.
xii. Higher doses than the current recommendation of vitaminD in

persons over age 65 years may be required for optimal bone
health; use 800-1000 IU/d.
xiii. Encourage use of vitamin D-fortified milk.
xiv. Extra protein may be needed for sufficient intake of vitamin

B12, include dairy products, meat, poultry, fish, and fortified
cereals.
xv. Isoflavones may also prove to be beneficial (2-3 servings of soy

foods daily).
xvi. If patient is obese, use a calorie-controlled diet that provides

adequate protein, vitamins, calcium, and other minerals.
xvii. Adequate manganese, vitamins C and K, potassium, and

magnesium also should be consumed to meet at least the RDI
levels.
xviii. Include dietary components (fruits and vegetables) that

contribute to bone health.
xix. Beware of excesses of wheat bran because phytates may

increase calcium excretion.
xx. Sodium must be controlled; keep sodium within desired limits

while increasing potassium and magnesium.
xxi. Assure that folic acid and vitamins B6 and B12 are adequate,
especially if serum homocysteine levels are elevated.
Table (13): Nutrients and Bone Health

Nutrient Comments
Alcohol Moderate drinking (1-2 glasses of wine daily) is associated with increased
trochanteric bone mineral density (BMD), but higher intakes may be
associated with Lower BMD. Use guidelines of 1 drink daily for women
and no more than 2 for men.
B-complex Folic acid and vitamins B6 and B12 help to lower homocysteine when
vitamins elevated.
Caffeine Over 300 mg/d of caffeine can negatively impact the vitamin D receptor
gene (VDR), and the Site Testing Osteoporosis Prevention and
Intervention Trial (STOP-IT) found that greater amounts of caffeine
affect BMD negatively . Limit intake to 3 cups of coffee daily and 5
servings of caffeinated soft drinks or tea; be sure to include adequate
amounts of calcium.
Calcium and Dietary supplementation with calcium (1200 mg or more) and vitamin D
vitamin D (800-1000 IU) supports strong bone matrix, moderately reduces bone
loss, and reduces the incidence of fractures. Vitamin D may actually be
more important than calcium.
Magnesium Low intakes of magnesium and potassium contribute to bone loss
and potassium
Protein and soy 70-100 g/d provides more bone building. Soy yields isoflavones for
increasing bone density; use dietary sources. More soy in the diet may
lead to fewer fractures.
Sodium Excesses can increase calcium excretion. Avoid using salt at the table,
and limit total intake to 2400 mg/d.
Vitamin A High intake of retinol may be associated with increased risk of fractures
and osteoporosis.
Vitamin C Part of collagen, which supports healthy bone structure. Tissues saturate
at 200 mg/d.
Vitamin K Supports osteocalcin for bone strength. Supplement with 120 mcg may be
needed.
Quick Nutrition Tips for a beautiful smile
 Limit Soda, Coffee and Alcohol

Although these beverages contain a high level of phosphorous,
which is a necessary mineral for a healthy mouth, too much
phosphorous can deplete the body's level of calcium. This causes
dental hygiene problems such as tooth decay and gum disease.
Beverages containing additives such as corn syrup and food dye can
make pearly white teeth appear dull and discolored. Therefore, it is
best to choose beverages like milk, which helps strengthen teeth
and build stronger enamel, giving you a healthy, beautiful smile.
 Drink Tap Water When Possible

If bottled water is your main source of drinking water, you could be
missing the decay-preventive benefits of fluoride.
 Monitor Your Low-Carb Lifestyle

Despite their popularity, low-carb diets can cause bad breath. A
balanced, dental-healthy diet can help reduce tooth decay.
 Increase Your Calcium Intake

After age 20, both men and women lose more bone mass than
they form so it is important to restore lost calcium with a daily
supplement and by eating fruits and vegetables high in calcium,
such as dark leafy greens.
These foods will also help to lower the acid buildup in the saliva
that can lead to breakdown of tooth enamel.
 Take a Daily Dose of Vitamins C and D

These vitamins help support the absorption of healthy mouth
minerals such as calcium and phosphorous, which support the
bone and gum tissue, keeping it healthy. This is an easy way to
maintain dental hygiene and fight gum disease.
 Put Out the Cigarette

Smoking cigarettes is one of the greatest contributors to the
aging mouth.
In addition to staining teeth, smoking interrupts calcium

absorption in the body and can also cause potentially life-
threatening diseases such as oral cancer. So stop smoking and
enjoy the health benefits as well as a healthy, beautiful smile.

Theoretical Note For Nutrition

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Theoretical Note For Nutrition

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October University for Modern Sciences and Arts

Nutrition for Health

Dr. Mona Abd El-Motaleb Abd El-Fatah Hussein

T he term nutrition refers to the science of how living

Nutrients and Nonnutrients

Not all compounds in food are nutrients, foods contain

Essential and nonessential nutrient

Most foods contain a mixture of essential and nonessential

Macronutrient and micronutrient

 Water, carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids are called

 Vitamins and minerals are called

Organic and inorganic foods

 Molecules that contain carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen atoms

 Water and minerals are inorganic because they do not contain

Organic food must be produced, grown, and harvested

Furthermore, organic meat, eggs, and dairyproducts must come

Phytochemicals and zoonutrients

Phytochemicals (also called phytonutrients) are substances

Zoonutrients (also called

 Functional foods, Also known as "neutraceuticals," promote

For example, soy milk is considered a functional food

 The terms prebiotics and probiotics were derived from

Prebiotics (also called intestinal

Probiotic is the term for live,

Prebiotics and probiotics have been credited with important

How does food provide energy?

The amount of energy in food varies and is measured in

Nutrition Facts panel

The Daily Values "% DV" listed on nutrition labels

Nutrient content claims made on food package labels must

Enrichment pertains only to refined grain products and

Fortification is the addition of vitamins and minerals to food

Adequate diets are most easily

Those that provide calories and

Table (1): FDA-Approved Nutrient Content Claims

Major Nutrient Classes

Carbohydrates are used by the body mainly as a source of

They consist of the simple sugars (monosaccharides and

The most basic forms of carbohydrates are

 Glucose (also called "blood sugar" and "dextrose")

 Fructose ("fruit sugar")

 Galactose ("in milk sugar")

The most common disaccharides are

 Sucrose (glucose + fructose, or common table sugar)

 Maltose (glucose + glucose, or malt sugar)

 Lactose (glucose + galactose, or milk sugar)

Complex carbohydrates (also called polysaccharides) include:

 Starches (the plant form of stored carbohydrate)

 Glycogen (the animal form of stored carbohydrate)

 Most types of fiber.

Each type of simple and complex carbohydrate, except fiber,

Fibers do not count as a source of energy, because they

 Providing "bulk" for normal elimination.

 High-fiber diets reduce the rate of glucose absorption

 May help prevent cardiovascular disease and some

With 7 calories per gram, alcohol has more calories per

Glycemic Index is the extent to which carbohydrates

glucose levels to a higher extent than do those with lower

Diets providing low glycemic index carbohydrates have

 Improve blood glucose control in people with diabetes.

 Reduce elevated levels of blood cholesterol and

 Increase levels of beneficial HDL cholesterol.

 Decrease the risk of developing type 2 diabetes, some