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Sociology

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Sociology
Global Inequality

Structural functionality contributes to global inequality in that different nations adapt

differently to different technologies and profiting from a globalized economy. According to

symbolic interactionism, global inequality arises due to the difference between the definition of

poverty in core and peripheral nations. Based on the conflict theory, global inequality is due to

systemic inequality, which occurs as core nations exploit the resources of peripheral nations.

Peripheral nations have little industrialization, unstable governments, inadequate social

programs, and are economically dependent on core nations for jobs and aid. Semipheripheral

nations are not strong enough to dictate policies, and they are significant sources of raw

materials. Core nations are dominant capitalist countries, highly industrialized, technological,

and urbanized. First-world countries are Capitalist democracies; second-world countries have

moderate economies and standards of living, while third-world countries are the poorest and

most undeveloped countries.

Subjective poverty describes poverty composed of many dimensions; it is subjectively

present when one’s actual income does not meet their expectations and perceptions. Absolute

poverty occurs when people lack even the basic necessities, including adequate food, clean

water, safe housing, and access to healthcare. Finally, relative poverty is a state of living where

people can afford necessities but cannot meet their society's average standard of living.

Deindustrialization occurs when no new industries open to replace the jobs lost to foreign

nations, while capital flight refers to the movement of capital from one nation to another.

Feminization of poverty is a state in which women bear a disproportionate proportion of the

burden of poverty by living in poor conditions and receiving inadequate healthcare. High-income

nations are nations with a gross national income of at least $12,746 per capita. Middle-income
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nations have a GNI per capita of more than $1,045 but less than $12,746. Low-income nations

have a per capita GNI is $1,045 per capita or less.

Global inequality refers to the concentration of resources in wealthy and industrialized

countries while having a significantly negative impact on the opportunities of individuals in

poorer and less powerful countries. Aspects such as income disparities in different nations denote

global inequality (Alvaredo et al., 2018). Dependency theory states that global inequality is

primarily caused by core nations exploiting semi-peripheral and peripheral nations, which creates

a cycle of dependency. In contrast, modernization theory states that low-income countries are

affected by their lack of industrialization and can improve their global economic standing by

adjusting cultural values and attitudes to work and industrialization and other forms of economic

growth.

Race and Ethnicity

Physical characteristics used to categorize people include skin color or hair texture. Race

refers to the divisions of people based on specific physical characteristics. In contrast, ethnicity

refers to the characteristics that link a person’s culture to his/her identity and gives them a sense

of belonging. Physical characteristics are not enough to determine a person’s ethnicity because

ethnicity encompasses language, ancestry, and geography. Discrimination refers to the deliberate

and unfair treatment of people based on prejudice. Institutional discrimination refers to the

personal biases that carry over into structures of the society and go unnoticed and maintains the

advantage for the dominant group while providing the appearance of fairness to others.

Racism refers to prejudice that asserts that members of one race are inferior to another,

making them less worthy of fair treatment. Racism is characterized by discrimination alongside

intergroup privilege, power, and oppression. Racism arises when people identify that races exist,
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each race has distinct genetic differences, and thus racial inequality is due to those perceived

“differences”. The migration patterns in the U.S. between 2000-2010 indicate that more than

half of the population growth during this period was due to the immigration of Latinos. The

Latino population grew by 43%, while the non-Latino population grew by only 5%. The

undocumented population has since increased due to illegal immigration and foreign-born

citizens.

Gender

Gender identity refers to is a person’s internal sense of being female or male. Gender

roles are the attitudes, behaviors, rights, and responsibilities that particular groups associate with

their assumed or assigned sex. Sexism refers to the belief that one sex or gender is superior to

another sex or gender. Gender refers to the property relating to femininity or masculinity, the

social and cultural characteristics associated with biological sex. In contrast, sex refers to the

property of being biologically female or male, based on genetic and anatomic sex.

Misogyny refers to an extreme form of sexist ideology characterized by the hatred of women

resulting in brutality against women in domestic violence, rapes, and the commodification of

women and their bodies. The biological component of gender entails genetic and anatomical sex;

the cultural component creates gender distinctions, the psychosocial component encompasses

assigned gender, while the social component involves one's gender identity. An assigned gender

refers to the gender given by others, usually at birth. For example, an individual assigns gender

by looking at the genitals of a child at birth and labelling them as either boy or girl.

Gender nonconforming refers to people who do not follow other people’s ideas or

stereotypes about how they should look or act based on the female or male sex they were
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assigned at birth. In contrast, gender expression refers to how people express their gender

identity entailing the way they dress, the length of their hair, and the way they behave.

Marriage and Family

Family refers to an intimate group of two or more people who live together in a

committed relationship, care for one another and any children and share activities and close

emotional ties. U.S. Census Bureau regards a family as two or more people living together and

are related by birth, marriage, or adoption. Endogamy refers to a cultural practice that requires

marrying within one’s group, including those that are similar in religion, race or ethnicity, social

class, or age. According to Härtull and Saarela (2018), most individuals prefer to marry someone

from a similar group, resulting in family resemblance. On the other hand, exogamy refers to a

cultural practice that requires marrying outside one’s group, for example, prohibiting marriage

between relatives. The percentage of children living in the two-parent household was 64% in

2012.

An egalitarian family system refers to a family system where both partners share power

and authority equally. On the other hand, the patriarchal family system refers to family systems

in which the oldest males control cultural, political, and economic resources and, consequently,

have power over females. On the other hand, matriarchal family systems refer to family systems

where the oldest females control cultural, political, and economic resources and, consequently,

have power over males.

In monogamy, one person is married exclusively to another person, while in polygamy, a

man or woman has two or more spouses. On the other hand, polyandry refers to a state in which

one woman has two or more husbands. The percentage of cohabiting couples was 34% in 2010,

while the percentage of single-parent households led by the mother was 25% in 2012. An
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extended family refers to a family system consisting of parents and children and other kin, such

as uncles and aunts, nieces and nephews, cousins, and grandparents. In contrast, a nuclear family

refers to a family structure made up of married parents and their biological or adopted children.

Education

Informal education refers to the education system where elders pass information to the

next generation without using a curriculum. In contrast, formal education refers to the education

system where qualified teachers systematically deliver knowledge within a designated facility.

According to Chernikova et al. (2018), informal education encompasses cognitive sources like

television to facilitate learning. Education and economic advancement are related since

educational institutions connect to the job system by training individuals for specific types of

work. Furthermore, after an academic program, one gets the opportunity to qualify and earn a

higher salary, a secure career path, and the community benefits from their knowledge. The local

and state governments control education systems.

Charter schools are governed by a group or organization under a legislative contract with

the state, district, or other entity. These schools are exempted from certain state and local rules

and regulations, and in return, they must meet the accountability standards found in the charter.

Out of the 88% representing the public schools' proportions, 6% are chartered. Public charter

schools impact enrollment in traditional public schools. An increase in the number of students in

chartered schools leads to reduced enrollment in traditional public schools. For instance, during

2000 -2016, overall public charter school enrollment increased from 400,000 to three million

students while the number of students in traditional public decreased by roughly 600,000

between 2005-2016.
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In California, the percentage of students that qualify for free and reduced-price meals is

60.9% of the public schools' students. Iowa State had the highest graduation rate of 91% between

2016 and 2017. On the other hand, New Mexico, with 71%, had the lowest graduation rates.

Remedial courses increase student’s time at a learning facility. Furthermore, it delays graduation

and increases student attrition. Tracking refers to a system in which students are divided into

classes based on their overall achievement. The students are classified as average, normal, or

below average then divided into classes with students of the same achievement level.

Politics

Power refers to the ability to impose one’s will on others, while authority refers to the

legitimate right to wield power. In a democracy, citizens share in directing the activities of their

government rather than being ruled by an autocratic individual or authoritarian group. For

example, the citizens participate in the election of the officials who represent their interests in

law-making, law enforcement, resource allocation, and international affairs. Furthermore,

democracy emphasizes the right and capacity of individuals, acting either directly or through

representatives, to control through the majority rule the institutions that govern them. In

totalitarianism, on the other hand, the government seeks to control every aspect, public and

private, of citizens’ lives.

Furthermore, totalitarian regimes can further control the population by disseminating

ideology aimed at shaping their thoughts, values, and attitudes through propaganda. With

authoritarianism, citizens have no say in who rules them, what laws are made, or how they are

enforced. Authoritarianism refers to ruling trends that incapacitate the systems answerability to

its people through secrecy, tricking, or suppressing their voice (Glasius, 2018). Political power is

concentrated in the hands of a few elites who control military and economic resources.
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In an absolute monarchy, the ruler has complete authority over their subjects, similar to a

dictator. On the other hand, constitutional monarchy refers to a monarchy system led by royal

figures whose powers are defined by a political charter and limited by a parliament or other

governing body. Structural functionalists suggest that social institutions such as politics,

education, and religion provide critical functions for the needs of society and help maintain order

and unity. On the other hand, conflict theorists suggest that social institutions such as politics,

education, and religion represent the interests of those in power and thus create and maintain

inequities in society.

Pluralism refers to rulership where power is held by various organizations and institutions

such as corporations, each with its resources and interests. Political elite refers to a relatively

small number of influential individuals who occupy the top positions within the country's major

economic, political, and military institutions. PACs refer to organizations that support the

interests or plan of a select group or organization, while Super PACs are organizations that are

unlimited and use the money to do things like produce and air issue-based adverts. Special

Interests Groups are groups formed to raise and spend money to influence elected officials and

public opinion. A candidate who raises the most money has a better chance of winning the

elections.
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References

Alvaredo, F., Chancel, L., Piketty, T., Saez, E., & Zucman, G. (2018, May). The elephant curve

of global inequality and growth. In AEA Papers and Proceedings (Vol. 108, pp. 103-08).

Chernikova, E., Sivrikova, N., & Ptashko, T. (2018). Informal Education of Adolescents. In SHS

Web of Conferences (Vol. 55, p. 03019). EDP Sciences.

Glasius, M. (2018). What authoritarianism is… and is not: a practice perspective. International

Affairs, 94(3), 515-533.

Härtull, C., & Saarela, J. (2018). Endogamy and income in native couples: The case of

Finland. International Journal of Manpower.