42 Radiation Matier emits thermal radiation atts surface when its temperature is above absolute zero, This radiation is inthe form of photons of varying frequency. These phosons leeving the surface need no ‘medium to transport them, ualike conduction and convection (in ‘which heat transfer occurs through mater). The rate of thermal radiant energy emited by a surface depends on its absolute temper- ature and its surface characterises. A surface that absorbs all radi- ation ineident upon its called a black surface, and emits energy at the maximum possible rate ata given temperature. The heat emis> son from a black surface is given by the Stefan-Boltzmann law: oi, ast 4,07 ‘where, = oT i the blackbody emissive power in Wim? T, is absolute Surface temperature, K; and O = §.67 x 10-8 Wife) is, the Stefan-Boltzmann constant. Ia surface is nt black, the emis- sion per unit time pee unit areas, Exeols where Eis emissive power, and eis emissivity, where @ = I, For a black surface, ¢= Nonblack surfaces do not sbsorb all incident radiation, The absorbed radiation is Ganrdod= 1G where absorptivity «ts the faction of incident radiation absorbed, and irradiation G's the rate of radiant energy incident ona surface per unit area ofthe receiving surface due to emission and reflection fom surrounding surfaces. Fora black surface, ‘A surfae's emissivity and absorptivity are often both functions of the wavelength distribution of photons emitted and absorbed, respectively, by the surface, However, in many cases iti reason- able to assume that both cand e ae independent of wavelength, If so, a= « (agray surface), “Two surfaces at different temperatures that cen “see” cach other can exchange energy through radiation. The net exchange rate ‘dependson the surfaces (1) relative size, (2) relative orientation and shape, (B) temperatures, and (4) emissivity and absorptivity However, fora small area 4, in a large enclosure at constat tem [PETAUEE for the iradiation on A, fom the surroundings is the blackbody’ emissive power of the surroundings Bp, sye SO, iff, > top Net heat Toss from gray surface A, inthe radiation exchange with the surroundings at yy eet = Gonsed~ Bturbed= CAE tg CAE er A008 thy) @ Where =e forthe gray sure, If, < fy the expression FOF dye isthe same withthe sign reversed, and gg the net gain by 4, Note that gag ean be written as = Fa sure TT7eAy Geet In this form, £y,~ Bp 8 analogous tothe driving potential in an electric circuit, and {i(e4,) is analogous to electrical resistance. ‘This is « convenient analogy when only radiation is being consid= cred, bu if convection and radiation both occur st a surface, convec- tion is described by adriving potential based on the difference inthe fist power of the temperatures, whereas radiation is described by the diference in the fourth power ofthe temperatures. In eases like this it soften useful to express net radiation as ter HAL buae) "be br UA @ 2009 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals (SI) Fig. 2 Interface Resistance Across Two Layers where hy = 06(12~ tly * tay) 8 on called a radiation heat transfer coefficient. The disadvastage of this form is that h, depends on, which is often the desired result ofthe calculation. ‘Combined Radiation and Convection When fuyy = fn Equation (4, the total hest transfer from a sur face by convection and radiation combined is then = Grad * Poms = le~ tA, + hd) ‘The temperature difference, — isin either kelvins or °C; the dif. ference isthe same. Either can be used; however, absolute temper atures must be used 10 calculate (Absolute temperatures are K SC +273.15,) Note that hy and h, ae always postive, and thatthe direction of gis determined by the sign of ~t4) Contact or Interface Resistance Hest flow through two layers encounters two conduction resis- tances Lyf and Lylkz4 (Figure 2) At the interface beeween '80 layers are gaps eeross which Rea is ansfered by a combination of conduction at contact points and convection and radiation across ‘ps. This multimode heat transfer process is usually characterized Using a contact resistance cocicent yy, OF contact conductance h ar A Fer 7 bom Abt 4 where AL isthe temperature drop across the interface, Raq is it (Gx! K)W and fgg is in W (2K), The contactor interface resis- tances Ron = Riy/A= Wand andthe resistance ofthe 10 lay cers combined isthe sum ofthe resistances ofthe two layers and the contact resistance Contact resistance can be redued by lowering surface rough- nesses, increasing contact pressure, oF using & conductive grease or paste fill he gaps Heat Flux ‘The conduction hest transfer can be writen as Mig ~ta 2 oo Meant eer ‘where q” is heat flux in Wim2, Similarly, for convection the heat, Auxis|