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Koro?The Psychological Disappearance of the Penis

Article  in  Journal of Sexual Medicine · September 2007

DOI: 10.1111/j.1743-6109.2007.00586.x

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 1509

SEXUAL MEDICINE HISTORY

Koro—The Psychological Disappearance of the Penis

Johan J. Mattelaer, MD, FEBU,* and Wolfgang Jilek, MD, MSc, MA, FRCP(C)†
*History Office of the European Association of Urology, Kortrijk, Belgium; †Clinical Professor Emeritus of Psychiatry,
University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada

DOI: 10.1111/j.1743-6109.2007.00586.x

ABSTRACT

The aim of this article is to present a summarizing overview on ethnomedical aspects of koro (in Chinese called
suo-yang), the panic anxiety state in which affected males believe that the penis is shrinking and/or retracting, and
perhaps disappearing.
While reduction of penile volume occurs physiologically due to vasoconstriction in cold temperature and intense
anxiety, it is believed in certain cultures that genital shrinking leads to impotence and sterility, and eventually to
death.
Traditional Chinese medicine treats suo-yang, the reduction of the male principle yang, as a dangerous disturbance
of the life-sustaining yin-yang equilibrium of the organism.
Koro has therefore been held to be a Chinese “culture-bound” condition. However , the koro phenomenon is also
known among diverse ethnic and religious groups in Asia and Africa, typically in cultures in which reproductive
ability is a major determinant of a young person’s worth.
Koro epidemics of panic anxiety due to widespread fears of losing one’s genitals, procreative ability, and even one’s
life, are triggered by rumors of genital disappearance supposedly caused in China by female fox spirits, in Singapore
and Thailand by mass poisoning, and in Africa by sorcery, usually in the context of socioeconomic or political
tension.
Today, in contemporary Western societies, ideas of genital disappearance are not culturally endorsed. But histori-
cally, it should be remembered that in the late Middle Ages in Europe, a man could lose his membrum virile through
magical attacks by witches.
The conclusion is that the psychological disappearance of the penis is a universal syndrome that was described
recently in Asia and Africa and already in Medieval Europe. Mattelaer JJ, and Jilek W. Koro—The psychological
disappearance of the penis. J Sex Med 2007;4:1509–1515.
Key Words. Koro; History of Medicine; Penis

Why, who has fear, contracts his genitals? The term “koro,” although of uncertain origins,
Aristoteles in Problemata
is believed to come from a Malaysian word that

T he Malay word koro is generally used today

for an acute state of panic anxiety, in which
the affected male believes or perceives that his
penis is shrinking and/or retracting, and perhaps
disappearing, while the affected female believes
her breasts and/or external genitalia are shrinking
and/or retracting. Koro is a culture-specific disor-
der that has existed for centuries in Asian cultures
and was first described for Western science in
1895 [1].
means “the head of a turtle” [2].
Of course, reduction in penile volume and cir-
cumference is known to physiologically occur
under conditions of vasoconstriction such as
caused by cold temperature, and also by anxiety,
which has been demonstrated by plethysmo-
graphic study [3]. Given the universal concern of
younger males about penis size, representing mas-
culinity and potency, such penile volume reduction
may cause considerable anxiety. In several cultures,

© 2007 International Society for Sexual Medicine J Sex Med 2007;4:1509–1515

1510
it is assumed that penile shrinking leads not only to
erectile dysfunction and/or sterility but also to
death, should the genitals be completely retracted
and “disappear.” This explains the emergency
treatment practiced in panic-like koro attacks,
which consists of holding on to the penis either
manually or with special instruments.
Western medicine became aware of the koro
syndrome at the turn of the 20th century through
the scientific reports of Dutch physicians in what is
now Indonesia [1,3,4]. Ethnomedical analyses in
the 1930s [5–9] led psychoanalytical authors to
assume that koro is the concrete example of oedi-
pal castration anxiety [10,11]. The most ancient
Chinese medical textbook Huangdi Neiching
(Yellow Emperor’s Classic of Internal medicine),
believed to have been written around 200–300
B.C., states that: “As yang (the male genitals)
retracted into the abdomen, death is inevitable.”
Suo-yang (retraction of the genitals into the
abdomen) is described as a sign of terminal condi-
tion. Later, some traditional Chinese medical
books adopted this statement to describe suo-yang
as a fatal disease caused by shrinking of the penis,
nipples, or other protruded (yang) organs, includ-
ing the nose or tongue. This disturbs the life-
sustaining yin-yang equilibrium of the organism
and calls for the vitalizing remedies of traditional
Chinese medicine and for yang-strengthening
acupuncture.
Individual cases studied by Chinese psychia-
trists in Taiwan [12], Singapore [13], and Hong
Kong [14] were mostly concerned younger males
whose suo-yang anxiety attacks arose in connection
with sexual problems or in the context of a para-
noid or depressive disorder. Yap [15] introduced
the concept of “culture-bound” syndromes. He
assumed that koro was bound to Chinese culture
and exported to Indonesia by Chinese immigrants.
This argument overlooks the fact that the koro
phenomenon has long been endemic not only in
Moslem, Christian, and animist ethnic groups of
the Indonesian archipelago, but also among
aboriginal tribes of Flores [16] and in the interior
of Mindanao, Philippines [17], not to mention its
occurrence in Thailand, India, and Africa. Krae-
pelin [18] had already observed koro-like delusions
in manic-depressive patients in Germany. With
the growing interest of European and American
clinicians in transcultural psychiatry, reports of
koro symptoms in Western psychiatric, neurologic,
urologic, and substance-using patients have been
increasing steadily since 1970 [19–30]. Increas-
ingly also journals of urology report on koro
J Sex Med 2007;4:1509–1515
Mattelaer and Jilek
symptoms seen by urologists, for example, after
prostatectomy [31] or in association with infertility
[32], or even without prior urogenital pathology
[33–36].
It is important to distinguish between primary
koro and secondary koro [37]. In western societies,
most koro symptoms are secondary to underlying
mental or somatic disorders or to drug-induced
conditions, and treatment has to focus on these
disorders. In this secondary koro, the western
patients’ anxiety-arousing idea of a potentially
lethal genital disappearance is autistic and not
shared by their cultural group, as in socioculturally
determined primary koro.
Recent Greater Epidemics of Koro in Asia
Primary koro is an expression of individual or col-
lective fears, provoked by an assumed threat to
reproductive ability, in cultures in which repro-
ductive ability is a major determinant of a young
person’s worth. In Asia, koro is therefore closely
related to, and may occur in combination with, the
“semen loss” syndrome known as shen-k’uei, “vital
weakness” in traditional Chinese medicine [38,39],
in Ayurvedic medicine as jiryan or dhat in India,
and as sukra prameha in Sri Lanka [40]. Primary
koro has occurred in epidemic form at several times
and places. The first European report of a suo-yang
(koro) epidemic in a Chinese population was by a
French physician who observed it among young
students in Szechuan in 1907 [41].
In 1967, the male Chinese population of
Singapore was stricken by a koro epidemic affect-
ing approximately 500 people [42,43]. The epi-
demic was provoked by rumors of the poisoning of
pork and unfolded during a historical period of
intense political and ethnic conflict between the
Moslem Malays who do not eat pork, and the
pork-eating Chinese who, after the end of British
rule, felt threatened by the Malays [44].
In 1976, we were in Thailand during a koro
epidemic [45–47]. This epidemic of typical koro
attacks began in provinces bordering on Vietnam,
moved inland and ultimately affected more than
2,000 persons, about one-third of them were
women and children; all were Thai, without a
single Chinese. In a time of widespread fear of
communist Vietnam, suspicions of a malevolent
Vietnamese attack on the reproductive capability
of the Thai nation through mass poisoning of
food, drink, and tobacco were fanned by sensa-
tional media reports.
Koro—Psychological Disappearance of the Penis
In Leizhou and Hainan, southern China, the
mass occurrence of suo-yang (koro) has been docu-
mented since 1865 in years of particular political
tension and socioeconomic turmoil in China.
The last major epidemic in 1984–1985 struck
several thousand people with typical koro-attacks,
most of them young men, but also some young
women [48,49]. We had the opportunity to visit
the region with Chinese colleagues toward the
end of the epidemic and to interview affected
individuals, their families, and traditional healers
[50]. Common among the sufferers of acute koro
attacks was the feeling that their genitals were
shrinking and retracting, and the ensuing fear of
death should the genitals disappear. Despite
decades of Marxist indoctrination, the traditional
belief still prevailed that the possession by female
fox spirits caused the disappearance of the geni-
tals (Figure 1). Fox spirits transforming them-
selves into femmes fatales are a classic theme of
Chinese folklore. We were told that genital-
robbing female fox spirits had been seen roaming
Figure 1 Attack of acute “genital disappearance” anxiety
during epidemic of koro in South China, 1985 [40].
1511
Figure 2 Exorcism treatment of koro attack during epi-
demic in South China, 1985. Extracting the possessing
female fox spirit from the middle finger of the koro patient
[40].
the area, which caused widespread alarm, so that
the epidemic jumped from village to village. As
local informants told us, the traditional treatment
of koro victims was that several helpers took turns
in firmly holding on to the organ for hours, while
others performed exorcism rituals, accompanied
by spirit-chasing noise of fire crackers, gongs,
and drums, which further heightened the general
anxiety. The possessing fox spirit was supposed to
be driven out of the victim by beating, but the
victim had to suffer the blows and was finally
relieved when the spirit was thought to be
extracted by squeezing it out of the middle
finger with chopsticks (Figure 2). Images of the
traditional demon expeller Zhong Kui, or some-
times of Mao Zedong who was identified with
him, were used as protection against the evil
spirits.
In India, a few sporadic cases of koro symptoms
with underlying psychopathology have been
reported [51,52]. However, in the summer of
1982, an epidemic of “genital disappearance”
attracted a great deal of attention in India through
its rapid spread through Assam, West Bengal, and
Meghalaya; over a thousand people were involved
[53–56]. Another koro epidemic occurred in the
northern region of West Bengal in 1985 [57,58].
These epidemics of primary koro in India affected
individuals of diverse ethnic and religious
background—Hindus of all castes, Moslems, and
animistic tribespeople. Women were represented
in all areas, social and ethnic groups, and were the
subject of a special study [59]; they complained
J Sex Med 2007;4:1509–1515
1512
mainly of retraction of the nipples and flattening
of the breasts. The koro epidemics in India came at
times of heightened social and interethnic tension
in the stricken regions and were brought about by
the collective fear of the rural population that they
would be inundated with land-hungry immigrants
[60].
Koro in Africa
In Africa, “genital disappearance” is attributed to
acts of malignant magic. In Nigeria, the affected
males were convinced that they had been robbed
of their genitals through magical means by persons
suspected of sorcery, who somehow touched them
when meeting at the marketplace. Even when the
“loss of the genitalia” was belied by inspection,
many affected individuals nonetheless believed
that their life was threatened due to genital
damage, at least that their sexual function and
reproductive ability had been jeopardized by
magical powers [61–63]. In addition to sporadic
cases, there have also been small-scale epidemics
of “magical robbing of genitals” in West Africa. In
Nigeria, such assaults were believed to have been
organized by unscrupulous politicians or bankers
in order to exploit the magical forces residing in
the genitals for the enhancement of their own
power or wealth [63]. In his recent overview of
the koro phenomenon, Mattelaer [64] cited news
reports from Ivory Coast, Ghana, and Senegal,
where in 1977, a number of persons were killed by
furious crowds for allegedly making male genitals
shrink or disappear. Prinz [65] reported on the
kaza basolo syndrome among the Azande in the
northeastern Congo, which is assumed to lead to a
painful death after magical theft of the clitoris or
penis by members of a secret society who rob these
parts through handshake, then burn them and
apply the ashes to their hunting gear for success in
the hunt (Figure 3).
Koro in Europe [64]
Modern Europeans to whom such notions appear
bizarre, should be reminded that in the late Middle
Ages, it was commonly assumed that a man could
easily lose his membrum virile and his virility as
the result of magical attacks by witches, making
penis-loss a real fear for men. In an edition of
the “Somnia Danielis” issued by Bartholomeus
Guldenbeck in Roma (1475) [66] occurs the dream
interpretation perdere virgam virilem significant
J Sex Med 2007;4:1509–1515
Mattelaer and Jilek
Figure 3 The sorcerer of the Zande people in the Demo-
cratic Republic of Congo wraps the removed penis of a boy
into a leaf. (Drawing by Aly, a young Congolese boy, with
permission of Prof. Armin Prinz, Department of Ethnomedi-
cine, Vienna, Austria).
perdere connationem (to dream that you have lost
your virile member signifies the failure of an
undertaking) [64].
There is interesting evidence that penis-loss
was a real fear for men in the Middle Ages in
Europe, and the medium suspected was witchcraft.
In the fatally treatise on witchcraft, the learned
Dominicans Sprenger and Kraemer (1487)
devoted an entire chapter of their legal treatise
Malleus Maleficarum (Witches’ Hammer) [67] to
this complaint, then not infrequent among Euro-
pean gentlemen.
Those witches who . . . sometimes collect male organs
in great numbers, as many as 20 or 30 members
together, and put them in a bird’s nest, or shut them up
in a box, where they move themselves like living
members, and eat oats and corns . . . a certain man tells
that, when he had lost his member, he approached a
known witch to ask her to restore it to him. She told the
afflicted man to climb in a certain tree and that he might
taken whichever he liked out of a nest in which there
were several members. And when he tried to take a big
one, the witch said: “you must not take that one,
because it belongs to our parish priest.”
Such phallus trees of Medieval times are found
in contemporary manuscript margins, on pilgrim
insignias (Figures 4 and 5) and on mural paintings.
Conclusion
The psychological disappearance of the penis is a
universal syndrome that was described recently in
Asia and Africa, and already in medieval times in
Europe [64].
Koro—Psychological Disappearance of the Penis
Figure 4 A phallus tree with a copulating couple and
woman (witch?)—(lead and pewter, 14th century, collection
P. Van Wanzeele, Belgium).
Figure 5 Medieval woodcut where a witch is taking the
phallus of a man and will put the purloined penis in her box
at the right. (Woodcut [detail] from Pluemen der tugent,
Augsburg, 1486 [Bayrische Staatsbibliothek, Munich]).
1513
Corresponding Author: Johan J. Mattelaer, MD,
FEBU, Past Chairman and Member of the History
Office of the European Association of Urology, Albijn
van den Abeelelaan, 12; 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium. Tel:
00-32-56-211792; Fax: 00-32-56-212822; E-mail:
johan.mattelaer@skynet.be
Conflict of Interest: None declared.
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