MAT214A

Monday 4/29
Spring 2019 10:00am – 10:50 am
 Homework 11-3 #2, 3, 10, 11, 14, 15, 16
 Final Exam –Friday 5/3 at 11 am – 1 pm
Calculator, 3 inch by 5 inch note card both sides

A) Clean up details on 11-3 Boolean Algebra

Boolean algebras: B = (S, +, ⋅, ‘, 0, 1)
Duality Principle: All of the properties occur in pairs. This is due to duality.
Given a property, the property is still valid whenever the + and . operators, and identity elements 0 and 1,
have been interchanged. Both statements MUST be true.

Example - Absorption laws

x + xy = x and x(x+y) = x
Note that the dual for x + xy = x is x ∙ x + y = x. Order of operations would tell us to compute x ∙ x then add y.
This would not create a true statement. To maintain the priority of the binary operation on xy and x+y we
need to use parentheses.
Prove each dual:
Prove x + xy = x  Prove x(x + y) = x 
x +xy = x + xy x(x + y) = x(x+y)
x + xy = x(1) + xy identity x(x + y) = xx + xy distributive
x+ xy = x(1+y) distributive x(x + y) = x + xy idempotent
x + xy = x(1) bound x(x + y) = x(1) + xy identity
x + xy = x identity x(x + y) = x(1 + y) distributive
done x(x + y) = x(1) bound law
x(x + y) = x identity
done

Example from previous class:

Write the dual of (x∙ (x + y ∙ 0))’ = x’ and then prove it is true.
Dual: (x + (x∙ y + 1))’ = x’
Now, inside the parentheses of (x∙ (x + y ∙ 0))’ = x’ the y∙ 0 has precedence, then we add x. Our dual statement
must be true, because the original is true (we proved this last class). We may need to add parentheses to
preserve the order.
Dual: (x + (x∙ (y + 1)))’ = x’
Proof 
(x + (x∙ (y + 1)))’ = x’
(x + (x ∙ 1))’ = x’ bound law
(x + x)’ = x’ identity
x’ = x’ idempotent law
Done
Ex: Prove x = x + x (idempotent law)
x=x+0
x = x + xx’ complement
x = (x + x)(x + x’) distributive
x = (x + x) 1 complement
x=x+x identity
done

OR

x=x+x
x = (x + x) 1 identity
x = (x + x)(x + x’) complement
x = x + xx’ distributive
x=x+0 complement
x=x identity
done

Example: Prove the bound law that x + 1 = 1

x+1=x+1
x + 1 = (x + 1)(1) identity
x + 1 = (x + 1)(x + x’) complement
x + 1 = x + (1)x’ distributive
x + 1 = x + x’ identity
x+1=1
done

B) Discuss Final Exam

Chapter 1 Sets and Logic

Sections 1.1-1.3, 1.5, 1.6

Chapter 2 Mathematical Systems, Direct Proofs, Counterexamples

Sections 2.1, 2.2, 2.4
Section 2.1
 Direct Proof: Assume hypothesis and derive the conclusion
 Proving “for all” statements”: try to prove, otherwise present a counterexample why false.

Section 2.2 More Methods of Proof

Proof by Contradiction: To prove p q, assume p and ¬q and derive a contradiction r ∧¬ r

Example: for every nϵZ, if n2 is even, then n is even.

Assume n2 is even and the for the sake of contradiction that n is odd.
If n is odd, then n = 2x + 1, x ϵ Z
We have assumed that n2 is even, but n2 = (2x + 1)2 = 4x2 + 4x + 1 is odd given the +1 term.
We have a contradiction.
Conclusion: if n2 is even, then n is even.

Proof by Contrapositive: To prove pq, assume ¬q and show ¬p. Recall that pq and ¬q  ¬p are logically
equivalent.
Example: For all x ϵ R, if x2 is irrational, then x is irrational.
Proof by Contrapositive:
We will assume ¬q and show ¬p
Assume if x is rational, then x2 is rational
a
If x is rational, then let x = , where a, b ϵ Z
b
2 2
a a
Then x2 = ()b
= 2 and a2, b2 ϵ Z by set closure and x2 is a rational number.
b
¬q  ¬p and pq are logically equivalent and so we have shown by contrapositive that for all x ϵ R, if
x2 is irrational, then x is irrational.
QED

Proof by Cases: You can sometimes prove a statement by:

1. Dividing the situation into cases which exhaust all the possibilities; and
2. Showing that the statement follows in all cases.
It's important to cover all the possibilities. And don't confuse this with trying examples; an example is not a
proof.

Example: For every real number x, prove that x ≤ |x|

Proof by cases: either x ≥0 or x < 0
If x ≥ 0, then x = |x|
If x < 0, then x < |x|
In either case, x ≤ |x| done
Proofs of Equivalence is also a proof by cases
This is a direct proof of the biconditional “p if and only if q”
Recall that p↔q is logically equivalent to (p q) ∧ (q  p)
We must prove two cases are true: pq and qp

Section 2.4 Mathematical Induction

Mathematical Induction is a special way of proving things. It has only 2 steps:
Step 1 (Basis Step): Show P(n) is true for the first one
Step 2 (Inductive Step): Assume that if P(n) is true for any arbitrary element, then prove it is true for the next
element.
Then all are true
Statements proved by math induction all depend on an integer, say, n. We are proving through induction that
a sequence of objects/elements continues in some pattern.
Example: Let P(n) denote the sum of the first n positive odd integers.
n∈Z+, n is an arbitrary integer
P(n)= 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2n - 1) = n2

P(1) = 1 = 12 True
P(2) = 1+3 = 22 True
etc….

1. Prove that P(1) is true.

We already showed this above.

2. Assume that P(n) is true for some n. Derive from here that P(n+1) or “the next one” is also true.

Assume that, for an arbitrary n, P(n) is true.

P(n)= 1 + 3 + ... + (2n-1) = n2. 

From our assumption that P(n) = n2 is true, we will show that P(n+1) = (n+1)2 is also true.
1+ 3 + 5 + . . . + (2n-1) + (2n + 1) = n2 + (2n+1)
= n2 + 2n +1
= (n + 1)2
Which exactly means that P(n+1) holds. Therefore P(n) is true for all n starting with 1.
Chapter 3 Functions
Sections 3.1, 3.2, 3.3
3.1 Functions
Define function
One to One Functions
A function f: X Y is said to be 1-1, or injective, if f (x 1 ) = f (x2) then x1 = x2 for all x 1 , x 2 ∈X
[ ∀ x1 , x 2 ∈ X , if f (x1 ) = f (x2) then x1 = x2]

To prove that f is one to one, use a direct proof to show that if f (x1 ) = f (x2) then x1 = x2

Onto (Surjective) Functions

A function f: X  Y is said to be “onto Y” if for every y ∈Y, there exists x ∈X such that f(x) = y
∀y ∈ Y, ∃x ∈ X, f(x) = y
at We Need
To prove that f is onto, show that a map from y to x exists. The inverse function should map every y from the
codomain to an x in the domain, that is: f-1 (y) = x for f (x) = y.

Bijection: a function that is one to one and onto

3.2 Sequences and Strings

Summation of Sequence (or Series)
When we have an ordered list of elements, we have called them sequences.
When we add or multiply those elements, we have a series.
Definition
∞
∞
Let { sn } n=0 be a sequence. Then ∑ sn = s 1 + s2 + s3 + . . . is the sum of the terms in the series.
n=0

Product of a Sequence
∞
∞
Let { s }
n n=0 be a sequence. Then ∏ sn = s 1 * s2 * s3 * . . . is the product of the terms in the series.
n=0

3.3 Relations
. Partial Order: A relation R that is asymmetric (order matters), transitive and reflexive.  

Example: If A is the set Z of integers, and the relation R is defined by xRy = {(x,y) | x ≤ y}, this relation is a
partial order:
• Reflexive: yes, x ≤ x always.
• Antisymmetric (or not symmetric): yes, order matters. if (x,y) ∈ R, then (y,x)∉ R unless x = y.
• Transitive: yes, if x ≤ y and y ≤ z then x ≤ y ≤ z and thus x ≤ z as needed.
This relation is a partial order relation in the set of integers.

Example: Let R be the relation on ZxZ defined by R = {(a, b) such that a | b}

(a | b means a divides b with no remainder)
 This relation is a partial order relation in the set of integers.
 Reflexive: yes, a∣a.
 Transitive: yes, if a∣b and b∣c then a∣c.
 Asymmetric:  yes, 4∣12, but 12∤4
This relation is a partial order relation in the set of integers
.
Equivalence Relation: A relation R that is symmetric (order does not matter), transitive and reflexive.
Example: Parity in math means even or odd.
R is a relation on ZxZ. R = {(x,y)| x and y have the same parity}
That is, (x,y) are either both even or both odd.
 Reflexive: yes, x∈Z has same parity as itself (x,x) ∈ R
 Symmetric: yes, if (x, y) ∈R, then (y, x) ∈ R If x and y have same parity, then y and x have same parity.
 Transitive: yes, if (x, y) ∈R and (y, z) ∈R, then (x, z) ∈ R If x and y have same parity, if y and z have the
same parity, then x and z have the same parity.
This is an equivalence relation on the set of integers.

Chapter 6 Counting Methods and Pigeonhole Principle

6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.8
Some definitions:
A permutation is an ordering of n distinct objects
A combination is an unordered selection (subset) of n distinct objects
Disjoint or mutually exclusive events cannot occur at the same time
Selecting without replacement means you can select or count the object only once.

 Rule of Sum
 Rule of Product – also called Multiplication Rule, Fundamental Counting Rule
 Inclusion-Exclusion Rule
 Factorial Rule
 r-Permutations P(n,r) or nPr
 r-Combinations C(n,r) or nPr
 Adjust Permutation Rule (some items are identical)
n!
 If there are n1 alike, n2 alike, n3 alike, etc., then the number of permutations is: n1 !n2 !...n k !
 Adjusted Combination Rule (some items identical)
 In general, if X is a set containing n types of elements, the number of unordered r element selections from
X, repetitions allowed, is
 C(n-1 + r, r) = C(n – 1 + r, n - 1)

Pigeonhole Principle: If k is a positive integer and n objects are placed into k boxes where n > k, then at least
one of the boxes will contain two or more objects