Contents Foreword Preface Acknowledgements Chapter 1. General Knowledge 1.1 Introduction of NDT Metheds 1.2 Most Commonly Used NDT Methods 1.2.1 Visual Testing 1.2.2 Dye Penetrant Testing 1.2.3 Magnetic Panicle Testing 1.24 Eddy Current Testing 1.2.5 Radiography 1.2.6 Ultrasonics 1.3 Defects in Materials 1.3.1 Definitions 1.3.2 Metallurgical Processes and Defects Chapter 2. Terminology, Physical Principles and Fundamentals of Ultrasonics 2.1 The Nature of Utrasonic Waves 2.2 Characteristics of Wave Propagation A 2.3 Fundamental Wave Equations 24 Ukrasonic Waves, 255 Acoustic Impedance 2.6 Acoustic Pressure and Intensity 2.7 Types of Ultrasonic Waves 2.7.1 Longitudinal Waves 2.72 Transverse or Shear Waves 2.73 Surface or Rayleigh Waves 2.74 Lamb or Plate Waves 2.8 Velocity of Ultrasonic Waves 29 Behaviour of Ultrasonic, Waves 2.10 Magnetostriction an ic Bier 2.10.1 Magnetostriction 2.10.2 Piezoelectric Effect ; 2103 Types of Piezoelectric Transduce’s 2.104 Piezoelectric Crystal Transducers 2.11 The Characteristics of Ultrasonic Beam 2411 Beam Profile of Beam Fath 2.11.2 Near Field 2.113 Calculation of Near Field Lengeh 2.114 Par Field or Far Zone 2.11.5 Determination of Beam Spread Angle 2.11.6 Transducer Beam Profiling ” vit x Gauveswunnene2.12 Energy Losses in Different Media Interaction of Ulrasound with Material 2.1241 Beam Shape 2.12.2 Attenuation 2.12.3 Blfect of Anisotrophy 2.12.4 Metallurgical Histon’ of Materials and Attenuation 2.13 Couplants Chapter 3. Test Methods and Techniques 3.1 Basie Ultrasonic Test Methods 3.1.1 Through Transmission Method 3.1.2 Pulse Echo Method 3.1.3 Resonance Method 3.1.4 Pulse Echo Testing Techniques 3.1.5 Applications of Contact Type Normal Beam Probes 3.1.6 Angle Beam Techriques 3.1.7 Surface Wave Techniques 3.1.8 Immersion Testing Techniques 3.1.9 Thickness Measurement By Pulse-Echo Methods Chapter 4. Pulse Echo Type Ultrasonic Flaw Detector and Sensors 4.1 Ubrasonic Flaw Detectors 4.1.1 Working Principle of Flaw Detectors 4.1.2 Equipment Controls 4.2 The Pulser Controls 43 The Amplifier Controls 44 Suppression Control 4.5 Monitor and Gate Controls 4.6 Frequency or Bandwikth Selector Control 4.7 Time Corrected Gain (TCGY/TVG 4.8:Wave Form Presentation Control . 4.9 Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF) Control 4.10 Filtering Control 4.11 Damping Control 4.12 Interface ‘Trigger Control 4.13 Sensors (Probes) 4.13.1 Construction of Probes 4.13.2 Probe Characteristics Chapter 5. Calibration of the Test System and Test Blocks 5.1 Calibration and Reference Test Blocks 5.2 Commonly Used Test Blocks 5.3 Checking Equipment Characteristics 5.311 Linearity of Time Base 5.3.2 Linearity of Amplifier 5.3.3 Resolution of the Flaw Detector 5.34 Assessment of Dead Zone 5.3.5 Maximum Penetrative Power 5.4 Special Reference Blocks 5.4.1 Institute of Welding (LOW) Beam Profile Block 5.4.2 ASME Reference Blockxii 5.4.3 Area-Amplitude Blocks 89 5.4.4 Distance-Ampliude Blocks 90 5.45 ASTM Blocks 91 Chapter 6. Ultrasonic Inspection of Various Products 94 6.1 Testing of Castings 94 6.2 Testing of Forgings 95 6.3 Testing of Semi-finished products: Rods & Billess 96 : 6.3.1 Billets 96 { 64 Inspection of Bonded Joints 97 6.4.1 Loss of fiack Echo Method 98 } 6.42 Increase in Interface Echo Amplitude Method 98 6.4.3 Phase-reversal Method 98 | 6.5 Inspection of Weld Joints 98 | ‘65.1 Typical Test Procedure 10 Evaluate a Weld foiat 102 | 6.5.2 64B Drop Method 104 | 6.5.3 20dB Drop Method 105 ; 6.6 Problems Faced During Ukrasonie Testing of Welds of Cerain Materials 106 6.6. Weld Suructure 106 6.62 Ultrasonic Examination of Austenitic Sinless Steel Welds 107 6.63 The Solutions 107 6.7 Test Report 108 ! ‘Chapter 7. Codes, Standards, Specifications and Procedures 120 7.1 Codes 110 7.2 Standards 110 73 Specifications no 74 Procedures m : 75 ASME Boller and Pressure Vessel Code m1 4 7.5.1 Constitution of ASME Code m 4 75.2 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code m : \ and Ameriean National Seandard 5 ' 7.6 Rules Concerning Ulrasonic Examination 12 3 \ 7.6.1 Anicle 4 m2 6 1 7.62 Antcle 5: Vitrasonic Examination m2 6 7.633 Anicle 23: Ultrasonic Standards 12 6 7.7 Acceptance Criteria n3 1 i 78 Standards 13 6 { 7.9 Commonly Used Ultrasonic Standards 14 é 7.10 Witten Procedure Requirements (T-522) 14 é 7.11 Useful Specifications related to Ultrasonic Testing 5 2 TAL BIS Standards nS 2 | 7.11.2 British Specifications 15 2 | 7.113 Aerospace Series 16 3 | 7.12 American Standard 116 4 i 7.42.1 ASTM 116 5 { 7.12.2 ASME Boiler Specifications 47 3 i 7.13 French Specifications 9 3 | 7.14 German Specifications 9 3 7:5 imemational Standard Organisation no |xiv Chapter 8. Recording and Evaluation of Test Results 8.1 Defect Location 8.2 Defect Sizing 8.2.1 6 dB Drop Method 8.2.2 20 dB Drop Method 8.3 Determination of Type of Defect 83.1 Isolated Pore 83.2 Porosity 8.3.3 Slag Inclusion 8.3.4 Planar Defects 8.4 Ultasonic Test Report Chapter 9. Special Techniques in Ultrasonics 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Use of Signal Processing and Analysis in Uteasonics 9.2.1 Auto-cortelation Function Analysis 9.2.2 Auto-power Spectrum Analysis 9.23 Ultrasonic Spectroscopy in 2-Dimensions 9.2.4 Cepstral Analysis 9.25 Cluster Analys's Techniques 9.26 Patter Analysis Techniques 9.3 Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD) Technique ‘944 Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique (SAFT) 9.5 Acoustic Microscopy 96 Split Spectrum Processing 9.7 ALOK 9.8 Acousto-Ultrasonics 9.9 Projection Scan (P-scan) Technique 9.10 Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT) Technique Selected Questions ‘Appendix. General References Index 120 120 121 122 122 124 124 125 125 126 128 331 BI 131 132 132 132 133 133 133 134 135 2B 137 138 138 139 139 140 142 147\ Chapter 1 : General Knowledge 1.1 Introduction of NDT Methods Non-destructive testing is the technology of assessing the sound- | hess and acceptably ofa actual component wiht aflecing I the functional properties of the component. Nondestructive test. | NDT : i ing technique is the technology in general, whereas Non-destruc. | Testing @ component Sve inopeton i the we of technology for poring mah | tou affecting ts ' { 2 known standard. Non destructive evaluation is the art of deve!- | /uetional properties, : ! oping NDT techniques and arsiving at acceptance standard for oe : ‘ components for which, acthing will be availble to san wih. | NDP isa branch of i NDT is basically a branch of material science coming under the | Material science : category of physical testing 5 Material Testing i Destrcive Non-deanuciive ; ! "Tensile texting Tadiogaphy , , Compression iesting Uieasonic Testing 3 ! Impact Testing ‘Magnetic Panicle Tesing : | Fatigue Testing Tiguid Penerant Tesing ; > | Gicep esting Eddy Current Testing , | Bend Testing ‘couse Emission : i “Micro/Macro Testing ‘Neutron Radiography : Chemical Testing, ete Holography Thermograph ‘Measure accurate or specific Monitoring and maintaining material quality, characteristics of materials by ‘components reliability & systems safety i destroying the specimen ‘without destroying component. { 1. Ukimate Tensile Suength, 1, Surface/Imemal defecss \ 2. Proof stress 2. Coating/pating thickness | 3. % Elongation 3. Sorting 4. Reduction of area 4, Velocity/Thickness Monitor 5. Young's Modulus 5. Suuctural/Assembly t 6. Fatigue Strength Evaluation 7. Creep Strength 8, Fatigue properties ete,2 1.2 Most Commonly Used NDT Methods ‘Most commonly used conventional NDT methods are Visual, Dye Penetrant, Magnetic panicle, Eddy Curent, Radiography and | Six common NDT Ultrasonics. Principle of each technique is discussed in brief in the | methods. following section. Visual, DPT, MPT, 1.2.1 Visual Testing ECT, RT, UT. ‘The most widely used of all NDT techniques is Visual Testing (V1) | DPT: and it is the oldest of them. Although itis not possible to quantify the observations made, it is very important that all inspections | Princyple- include a preliminary visual check during which abnormal —} Capiary action conditions such as high wear, corrosion, erosion, impact damage, distortion, discoloration, missing patts, etc. can be noted. Based on | Only surface defects these findings, the course of further inspection is generally | can be dovected. decided, 1.2.2 Dye Penetrant Testing ‘his is an aided visual technique. In this method a bright coloured liquid which penetrates into cracks and fissures open to surface is used. Fist the surface is thoroughly cleaned and wiped clean. A penetrant is sprayed onto the surface. The bright coloured penetrant seeps into all surface flaws. The surface is now carefully wiped clean to remove all the excess dye on the surface. & developer is applied to the surface. White coloured developer has a blotting action fon the dye and draws it up to the surface. A bright coloured indication of the flaw is presented to the inspector. Dye penetrant Testing principle is shown in Fig. 1 se RANT =a ae \AEIYYY (©) povnescen ok yon (t) cee rewoves BREST SUREACE PENETRANT wi esonosD i warns (PSS Ns ae i ) © puma (9 Wogan wen worn see { a tale at Oe BAK Loar Fig. 1.1 Sequence of Liquid Penesrant testing1.2.3. Magnetic Particle Testing Magnetic Particle Testing is a very useful method for detection of surface and sub-surface cracks {in ferrous material components. In this method, when the part being inspected is fst magne- tized, there isa flow of magnetic ines of force on the portion under test, At this stage, magnetic powder is sprayed on to the surface. If there is any discontinuity or flaw in the surface Or just below it, the flow of magnetic lines is interrupted and intermediate poles are induced 2t elther side of the discontinuity. These interpoles attract the sprinkled magnetic powder. This forms an ‘exact image of the flaw (Fig. 1.2). The image is more sharp if the flaw is closer to the surface. ‘One thing to be kept in mind duting magnetic particle testing is the discontinuities parallel to the lines of magnetic force will not show any indication, MAGNETIC PART stot BUILDUP Fig. 1.2 Magnetic Particle Testing Principle 1.2.4 Eddy Current Testing ‘When a moving or changing magnetic field passes through 2 conducting material, it induces a current in it. A magnet [MPT polled across a sheet of copper or aluminium will produce imegular current flow, inducing whirlpools very similar to | For surface and subsurface those found in the wake of a ship. These turbulent and | defects. ieregolar electrical currents are called eddy currents, Though these currents are random in nature they produce their own | Defect causes leakage flux in sugnetic fields Which creates a dragging force between the | the magnetic field. plate and the magnet. This phenomenon is used for non- destructive inspection of non-magnetic but conduetive mtate- | Magnetic powder forms an fial, In this technique an altemating current Grequency | exact image of the flaw. ranging from a few kHz to several MHz) is sent through a Zoil. This coil is moved along the test surface. The current | Principle flowing through the call induces eddy currents in the | Magnetic permeability. test object. These eddy currents have their own magnetic fields which are picked up by a sensor probe moving along the exciter probe. As the probe transverses the surface, cracks, etc. result in the distortion of eddy current which are reflected and displayed on chart or cathode ray tube screen, (Fig, 1.3). This NDT technique is the only one where the depth of a crack can be read off a screen, This technique is applied not only in crack detection but also for material sorting, thickness determination of conductors, paint coating thickness check and surface roughness gruging. rere ereseerrereeemnde arte Fig. 1.3. Block diagram of ECT Instrument 1.2.5 Radiography Radlography is a NDT method based on the prin- Ciple of differential absorption of penetrating 13- Gation by the object under test. Owing to the varying characteristics or composition of the sructure of the test object, different portions absorb different amounts of penetrating radiation. The radiation passing through without being absorbed is recorded on film and viewed con an illuminated screen, The picture thus seen Js used (0 locate defects in the test object. Principle of radiography is shown in Figure 1.4 oer ance Fig. 1.4 Principle of Radiography inspection In this inspection technique, high frequency sound waves ate sent into the object under test. The sound wave travel through the material. During their path of travel they suffer loss of en- ergy and are reflected at interfaces. A receiver probe picks up the reflected wave and an analy- sis of this signal is done to locate flaws in the object under inspection. Sound waves follow the laws of | BCT: optics in their propagation, Further the velocity of propagation of sound in various metals has been very accurately determined. The time taken by sound pulse 10 travel through a material is a dicect For electrically conducting materials. To detect surftce and sub-surface measure ofthe length of path taveled by i Inula | 2 sonic inspection, bath through transmission and pulse-echo techniques are used. Principle of pulse | RT: cho test technique, most widely used technique in Principle: ultrasonic testing is shown in Fig. 15, Ultrasonics can. detect cracks, laminations, shrinkage, cavities, | PWerential absorption of flakes, pores and other discontinuities, inclusions, | Penetrating radiation etc. in plates, pipes, welds, castings and forgings. In | 4 volumetric method service defects detection such as fatigue cracks, | Wideh) used in weld inspection.6 for the NDT inspector to be able to locate the source of the problem when it exists, or even ‘when a fault is not located, know that the possibilty of one exists. An understanding of the materials, the processes, and the possible interactions between them is a "MUST". Let us now 40 through in brief the most commonly adopted primary meullurgical processes and the nature and type of discontinuities which can be expected in the material at each stage. Since the causes for discontinuities in all metals are similar, we can consider the processing of steel. 1.3.2 Metallurgical Processes and Defects Casting Defects: Casting is the process of causing liquid metal to fill a cavity or a mould and solidify into a useful shape. It is a basic method of producing shapes. With the exception of 2 very small volume of a few metals produced by electrolytic or pure chemical methods, all ‘materials used in metal manufacturing are cast at some stage of processing, Castings of all kinds ‘of metals, in sizes from a fraction of an ounce up to many tons, are used disectly with or without further shape processing. Even those materials considered to be wrought , start out as cast ingots before deformation work in the solid state puts them in their final condition. The solidification from liquid at pouring temperature to the solid at room temperature, in the casting process, occurs in three stages: (1) contraction of liquid steel; (2) liquid to solid contraction; (3) contraction of the solid to room temperature. The flaws which may be formed during the above solidification process can be classified as follows: (a) Non-metallic inclusions: The non-metallic inclusions within the molten metal, which are caused by the impurities in the starting material, are lighter than the molten. metal and rise towards the surface. Most of the non-metalics manage to rise to the top of the ingot but some are trapped within because they did not have the time to reach the surface before the molten ‘metal above them hardened. These inclusions are irregular in shape. (b) Porosity Its spherical or nearly spherical shaped and is caused by the entrapped gas in the molten material (© Shrinkage flaws: Shsinkage flaws are cavities formed during liquid-to solid contraction ‘These flaws are not normally associated with gas formation but high gas content will increase their extent. The shrinkage flaws may occur in these different forms @ Macro-shrinkage (piping): Liquid solidification and contraction in the mould will cause the formation of shrinkage cavities (piping). The molten material, after it is poured into the mould, starts 10 cool and solidify. The solidification process starts from the surface and travels towards the metal contracts. Since the center of the ingot is the last to cool and solidify, most of the shrinkage is absorbed in the ‘center. This results in the cavity called the “pipe” By properly | Non-meallic designing the mould and by adequate hottopping, piping can_| inclusions be restricted to the top or to the feeder head. Piping may extend from the top towards the interior of an ingot along the | Lighter rban molten metal GO Contre-ine Shrinkage (filamentary shrinkage). | Irregular in shape Wherever solicification cannot be correctly controlled and is not directional, a coarse form of shrinkage may occur. These | Porosity | flaws may extensive, branching, dendritic and interconnected. | Caused by entrapped gases. Filamentary shrinkage should theoretically, occur on. the centerline of the cast section but due to temperature gradients_| Shrinkage during solidification, the aw may extend fo the cast surface, | Cauites formed during Especially, in alloys with a broad freezing range (uch as | SHidification bronze). shrinkage is more dispersed than centerline(itt) Micro sbrinkage: Shrinkage cavities may also be produced on a micro-scale, During the later stages of solidification, the channels to liquid metal between the growing dentrite arms become progressively narrower. In some places the dentnite arms may-bridge over and restrict the supply of liquid stee! to the now isolated pools of tiquid. The cavities that result are in very fine form and are called “microshrinkage”. These occur between the dentrite interdentrtic) or 3 grain boundaries (intercrysalline). (@) Gold shut: Cold shot is formed when molten metal is poured over solidified metal. When the metal is poured, it hits the mould too hard and spatters small drops of metal. When these drops of metal hit higher up on the mould they stick and solidify. Witen the rising molten metal reaches and covers the solidified drops of mecal, a crack like discontinuity is formed. Cold shuts can also be formed by the fack of fusion besween (wo intercepting surfaces of molten material of different temperatures. (©) Hot tear (Shrink crack): Hoot tear is caused by unequal shrinking of light and heavy sec- tions of a casting as the metal cools. In a casting having light and heavy sections, the light sec- tions, being smaller, solidify faster; they shrink faster pulling che heavier sections, which are hotter and not shrinking as fast, towards them. These cracks are discontinyous and generally in ragged form. (J) Gold or stress cracks: These cracks are formed when the metal is completely solid and are weil defined and approximately stright. They are the result of lange contraction stresses and are more likely to occur on large complicated shapes of castings. The cast analysis may be another factor for the stress cracks. Extreme care must be saken when cooling and heating cast- ings which have a carbon content ix excess of 0.3% and when alloying elements such as nickel, chromium, vanadium and molybdenum are added to increase the hardenabilty of the alloy ‘These alloys affect the manensitic transformation temperature and may give rise to high stresses uring the cooling cycle @) Blow holes: Blow holes are small holes on the surface of the casting and are caused by external gas emanating from the mould itself. Centerline shrinkage Inclusionsoa pide si ET tide f {bubs Shrinkage Inclusions Fig. 1.6 Typical cast defects Forging Defects: Forging is the working of metal into a useful shape by hammering or pressing Most forging operations are caried out het, although cerain metals can be cold forged. TW major classes of equipment are used for forging operations. The forging hammer or drop ham- mer, delivers rapid impact blows ta the surface of the metal, while the forging press subjects the mest! to a slow-speed compressive force. The two broad categories of forging processes are open die forging and closed die forging. Open-die forging is carried out between flat dies ‘dies of very simple shape. The process is used mostly for large objects or when the number of pans produced is small. tis also used when the work piece is deformed between two die Iialves which carry the impressions of the desired final shape. Precision forging with close &i- ‘mensional tolerances can be produced by closeddie forging, The defects that can occur during forging are given below: (@) Forging lap: A forging lap is a discontinuity caused by folding of metal into 2 thin plate ‘on the surface of the forged material. It is due to the mismatching of mating surfaces of the two forging dies in “closed-die forging” or abrupt changes in grain direction. It is always open to the surface. () Forging bursis or cracks: 1 \6 quite possible to forge a sound steel ingot and produce ross axial cavities in the forging by using an incorrect technique. Bursts can Occur as a result of insufficient soaking time or temperature prior to forging. They can occur internally or on the a Cracks Flat discontinuitiesCentral forging fault Circular non-metallic inclusions Slag inclsuions Shrink holes . Fig. 1.7 Typical forging defects Hot tear Caused by unequal shrinkage of light and| beau sections. Blow holes: Small boles on the surface caused by, external gas emerging from the mould. Forging lap: Folding of metal into 4 thin plate on the surface of the mate- rial Forging bursts: Occur as a result of insufficient soaking lime or temperature prior to forging Exirusion defects: Extrusion is the process by which block of metal is reduced in cross section by forcing it to flow through a die orifice under high pressure. In general, extrusion is used to 4u (a) Seams: Seams sesult from lack of fusion at the longitudinal welding in the tubing. The seam may appear on the inside or outside of the pipe. This comes from faulty welding. (®) Laminations: The laminations present in the plate stock will be carried over in the pipe made out of that plate stock, Seamless Pipe and Tubing Defects: Scamless pipes and tubes are mate from bar stocks or billets. Extrusion is an excellent method of producing seamless pipe and tubing, especially for metals which are dificult to work. However, there are other well established processes for producing seamiess pipe and tubing which generally are more economical than extrusion for easily workable materials. In one such method, the bar stock is hested to rolling temperature and a hole is pierced through it lengthwise forming a seamless tube. The piercing machine has two barrellike rolls. Between the rolls is a long bullet-shaped piercing mandrel, As the bar ‘moves through the rolls, the piercer goes on through the length of the bar forming a rough pipe ‘without any seam. As isthe case with welded pipe, the seamless pipe is put through sizing rolls to reduce it © proper size and make it perfectly round. Seamless pipes and tubes may have the following defects (a) Seams: & crack originally present in the billet, if used for the production of the seamless tube, will result in a “Seam (b) Slug: Seamless pipe can have discontinuities on the inside of the pipe caused by the piercing mandrel. As the white-hot bar stock is spun and rolled over the piercing mandrel, oc- casionally, some of the metal pieces may stick to the mandrel. At some stage, the metal build- up on the mandrel may be tom from the mankirel and fused back inic the pipe gouging a rough pression on the inside of the tube. The pieces of metal fused in to the pipe in this manner are called slags. (©) Gouging: This is caused by the friction between the sizing mandrel and the inside surface of the pipe or tube. Drawing Defects: Drawing operations involve pulling a metal through a die by means of a tensile force applied Con the exit side of the die. Most ofthe plastic flow is eaused by compressive force which arises from the reaction of the metal with the die. The reduction in diameter of a solid bar or tube by successive drawing is known as "bar or wire of tube” drawing, The drawing defects are as fol- lows: G@) Seams: Sears" can occur in tod oF wise ifthe Starting rod from which the drawn prod- vcs are produced has defects such as seams, silvers or pipe. () Centre-burst: The most common type of drawing defect is *center-burst” or “chevron, cracking’. This is also called “cupping” Welding Defect: Welding is the process of joining metals in which the pieces to be joined are bound with alloy- ing taking place at the interface, Tovo basic types of welding are used: fusion welding and pres- sure welding Fusion welding is essentially « casting process in which @ metal is melted and cast i the joint and is supplied by filler rods, which are generally of a composition similar to the metal being welded. There are cases in which no filler rod is used - for example, in thin sheet, where part of the shect is melted to produce the filer metal. The same principles underlying the produc- ‘ion of sound castings apply to welding also. Care must be taken to ensure complete fusion ‘without excessive over heating. Gas absorption and oxide inclusions must be feduced to a minimum and the effect of shrinkage and stresses in cooling must be compensated. Fusion ‘welding processes are classified by thermal sources for melting, shielding methods for screen-ing the weld pool from oxidation and other contamination and operating methods such as ‘manual, semi-automatic or automatic. Some of the well-known Tungsten inert gas Metal insert gas Shield metal arc Elecron beam processes are: In addition, there are various other techniques and variations of each them, In pressure welding both pressure and heat are applied to the pieces to be welded. The pressure produces plastic deformation; the heat then produces re- ‘erystalisation across the boundary, resulting in the formation of new crystals which are integral part of both pieces, thus the welding takes place. Since little or no melting takes place and the time at high temperature is generally very short, oxidation is very limited and the pressure applied is sufficient to break through the fllm of oxide that is present, Gas absorption is, practically non-existent because of the low solubility of gases in Solid metal. Shrinkage is also limited and hence the possibility of internal suesses and consequent cracking is reduced. The heat necessary for the welding may be generated by passing electric current through the pieces (0 be joined which are brought in contact at the weld area. Such type of resistance welding is best suited for mass production. Welding: Process of joining metals. ‘Two methods Fusion and Pressure welding. iin pressure welding both pressure and beat are applied. “The general sources of weld defects include: improper design, poor joint preparation, defects in parent material, improper welding technique, faulty solkificaton of molten metal, and heating and ‘cooling effecs on both the base metal and weld metal. Some depreciating faults such as decreased strength of cold rolied sheet due to recrystalsation of the base metal in the heat affected zone, are inherent in the process and essentially become design problems. if somewhat broad assumption is made that the design is proper, many defecs are the result of improper welding technique. I follows then that an experienced, knowledgeable operator using care and good equipment should tum out the work containing the fewest defects. Even under the best of conditions, however, perfect results should never be ‘expected, There are too many possible reasons for defects to occur All critical welds require NDT for assurance of quality or as a ‘means (0 enable repairs io be made. The possible defecs that ‘can occur in fusion weldments are listed below: (@) Crater eracks: Crater cracks are cxused in the weld bead by improper use of heat source either when a weld is stared ‘or stopped: A crater crack can also occur at the temporary Nop of the weld. Crater cracks are primarily of three types — twansverse, longitudinal and multiple star-shaped. (0) Stress cracks: The cracking of weil metal and base metal in or near the weld zone is usually caused by high stress set up by localized dimensional changes. Such changes are caused by the large thermal gradients established during heating and cooling of 4 weld joint. Stress cracks are most likely to occur ‘when weldments are heavy sections. These cracks usually occur transverse 10 the weld in a single pass weld and longitudinal in a multiple pass weld, (Crater cracks: ‘Appear in weld bead by inmproper use of heat source, ‘Stress cracks: Comman in heavy section of weldments. Slag inclusions Generally knear. Tungsten inclusion Occur in tungsten are welding process Lack of fusion Failure of adjacent weld metal and base metal 1 fuse together completely. Undercut: A small groove parallel to the tweld at its edge3 © Porosity: Poresity is the verm for the gas pockets or voids free of any solid material that are frequently found in weld metals. Porosity can come from gases released by the cocling weld metal and from gases formed by chemical reaction in the weld metal. Porosity may be scattered uti formly throughout the entire weld, isolated in small areas or concentrated at the root. Gas pores are woually spherical in shape, although they may also occur as non-spherical pockets along grain boundaries. Most welds contain some amount of porosity which may be micro or macro in size. ‘d) Slag inclusions: This term is used wo describe the oxides and other non-metallic solid ma- terials that are entrapped in the weld metal or between weld metal and base metal. Slag inclu- sions may be caused by contamination of the weld metal by the atmosphere but in most cases they are generally derived from electrode covering materials or flaxes employed in arc welding operations. In multilayerd welding operations, failure to move the slag beoween passes will result in slag inclusions in these zones. Slag inclusions are generally linear and may occur either as short particie or long bands. (@) Tungsten inclusions: In the gas tungsten arc-welding process, the occasional touching of the electrode to the work or to the molten weld metal, particularly in manual operation, oF ex- cessive currents during arc welding may transfer particles of the Tungsten into the weld mec. ‘These are called “tungsten inctusions" (P Lack of fusion: Lack of fusion or incomplete fusion, as it i frequently termed, describe the failure of adjacent weld metal and base metal or interweld passes to fuse together com- pletely. This failure to obtain fusion may occur at sidewall or in the inter-pass region. Lack of fusion is usually elongated in the direction of welding and may have either rounded or sharp edges depending on how it is formed. (2 Lack of penetration: Lack of penetration is lack of fusion between both base metals due to failure of weld metal to extend into the root of the joint, which must originally fuse together ‘completely. The most frequent cause for this type of defect is the unsuitable groove design for the selected welding process or for the conditions of fabrication ©) Undercut This discontinuity occurs when the welder has melted and flushed out some of the parent meta) in. the line of fusion. An undercut therefore, is a small groove running parallel to the weld ar its edge and it may be comvinuous or intermittent. Undercut can be inspected visually [Di rere EZ} retemr ELT} sur vtener (CZF coum nn cme {OD} tarevenn nce {TZ} conton ce egctaae ET] tartrate Tp [LZ] momen {Zp atest FLT} Omron (irr CS ames, OZ etn GZ roomy LF] rte rcey fT] sto {GZ} rover cmc FZ} te [XZ] emencmen FLT] mom vain {LZ} corm £7} enna Fig. 1.8 Various types of weld defects,4 Grinding Cracks Grinding cracks can be caused by stresses which are built up from excessive heat generated between the grinding wheel and metal. These cracks occur on the surfaces of the metal at right angles to the direction of rotation of the grinding wheel. Grinding cracks have no relation t0 the direction of grains in the metal Heat treating cricks: Heat eating is basically the process of hardening or softening metals by controlled heating and cooling. It is a process by which desired mechanical properties can be introduced into metals. In each of these steps which produce desired qualities in the metal, there is also the possiblity of causing undesirable side effects. For example, unequal cooling between light and heavy sections of a part Which is being heat treated, can result in cracking, ‘These are called “heat-treating cracks’ Material Defects 6 Failure in Service ‘The response of metalic materials to various steps of manufacture, construction or service life can vary widely as a function of chemical composition, thermal treatment, mechanical workis service conditions, presence of discontinuities and other material characteristics, NDT personnel need famiasty with these many material characteristics in order to evaluate their suitability for service. Products more likely to need careful testing and evaluations are those used in load canying applications where failure may involve loss of use, expensive repair or danger to other products, structures and hhuman life. ris important (0 know the types of failures in order to know what and how to inspect, how to eliminate the fault and how 10 assess the tisk of failure. Causes for Material fashure: Products and structures snay be subject 0 a number of service conditions, Imposed loads may be static (stationary ‘or fixed) or dynamic (varying). The environment may ‘cantribute corrosion, vibration or temperature and pressures higher or lower than normal. The protact may also be subjected 10 abuse. Mechanical fulure iS always a resukt of stresses, above some critical value for each material, that cause deformation or fracture, Such excessive stresses are set up by some combination of material defect, excess load, improper toad. application or design error. AAs far as failure is concerned, static loads sometimes in- ‘lude dyremic loads that are slowly applied. The principal reasons for failure under static loads include large discontinuities (both internal and externa, ‘poor dimensional conttol during manufacturing, massive overloading during use, and unsatis factory original design or combination of these factors. Dynamic loads are varying loads that can be uni-lirectional or multi Acoustic impedance X Amplitude of particle vibrationa Z=pv 26) Table A-1 gives acoustic impedances of some common materials 2.6 Acoustic Pressure and Intensity Acoustic pressure is the term most often used to denote the amplitude of alternating stresses on a material by a propagating ultrasonic wave. Acowstic pressure 'P? is related to the acoustic impedance ‘2’ and the amplitude of particle vibration ‘a’ as: Poza 20) Where P = acoustic pressure, Z = acoustic impedance, a = amplitude of particle vibration. ‘The transmission of mechanical energy by ultrasonic waves through a unit cross-section area, ‘which is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the waves, is called the intensity of the ultrasonic waves. Intensity of the ultrasonic waves is commonly denoted by the letter I. Intensity 1 of ultrasonic waves is related to the acoustic pressure F, acoustic impedance Z and the amplitude of vibration of the particle as: P we 28) and 7 29) Where 1 = intensity, P = acoustic pressure, Z = acoustic impedance and a = amplitude of vibration of the particle. 2.7 Types of Ultrasonic Waves Unrasonic waves are classified on the basis of the mode of vibration of the particles of the ‘medium with respect to the direction of propagation of the waves, namely longitudinal, trans- verse, surface and Lamb waves. ‘The major differences of these four types of waves are discussed below, 2.7.1. Longitudinal Waves “These are also called compression waves, In this type of ul- | TYPES of waves: trasonic wave, alternate compression and rarefaction zones | Longitudinal ate produced by the vibration of the pareles parallel o the | Transverse direction of propagation of the wave. Figure 2.5 represents schematically @ longitudinal ultrasonic wave. ee ee For a longitudinal ultrasonic wave, the plot of pamicle | Lonetudinal waves: displacement versus distance of wave travel along with the | j2_,POpMgae, / solids, resultant compression crest and rarefaction trough is sh liquids and gases. in Figure 25. peer eee rome | v= 5900 mis/sec in steel<—AMPUTUDE—> DIRECTION OF PROPAGATION ——> p— COMPRESSION [CRAREFACTION 2 }DIRECTION OF : PROPAGATION Fig. 2.5. Schematic representation of a longitudinal wave Because of is exsy generation and detection, this type of ultrasonic wave is most widely used in ulimsonic testing. Almost all of the ultosonie energy used for the testing of materials originates in this mode and then i converted to other modes for special test applications. Tis ‘ype of save can propagate in solids, liquids and gases 2.7.2. Transverse or Shear Waves ‘This type of ultrasonic wave is called a transverse or shear wave because the direction of par- tice displacement is at right angles or transverse to the direction of propagation. It is schemati- cally represented in figure 26. “Transverse/ shear Waves: Can propagate only in solids 5096 of V, Surface waves: Fig. 2.6 Schematic representation of a wansverse wave Velociye0.9 of V, k2B For such a wave to travel through @ material, i is necessary that each particle of material is songly bound to iis neighbours so that, aS one particle moves it pulls its neighbour with it thus causing the ultrasound energy to propagate through the material with a velocity which is about 50 per cert that of the longitudinal velocity. + For all practical purposes, transverse waves can only propagate in solids, This is because the distance between molecules or atoms, the mean free path, is so great in liquids and gases that she attraction between them is nok sufficient t0 allow one of them to move the other more than, 2 fraction of its own movement and so the waves ate rapidly attenuated. The transmission of this wave type through @ material is most easily illustrated by the motion of @ rope as it is shaken, Each particle of the rope moves only up and down, yet the wave moves along the rope from excitation point, 2.7.3 Surface or Rayleigh Waves Surface waves were first discovered by Lord Rayleigh and that is why they are also called Rayleigh waves, These type of waves can only travel along a surface bounded on one side by the strong elastic forces of the solid and on the other side by the nearly nonexistent elastic forces between gas molecules. Surface waves, therefore, are essentially nonexistent in a solid immersed in a liquid, unless the liquid covers the solid surface only as a very thin layer. The waves have a velocity of approximately 90 percent that of an equivalent shear wave in the same material and they can only propagate in a region no thicker than about one wave length beneath the surface of the material. At this depth, the wave energy is about 4 percent of the energy at the surface and the amplinide of vibration decreases sharply 10 a negligible value at greater depths. In surface waves, panicle vibrations generally follow an elliptical orbit, as shown schematk cally in figure 2.7. The major axis of the ellipse is perpendicular to the surface along which the ‘waves are taveling. The minor axis is parallel to the direction of propagation. DIRECTION OF WAVE TRNEL—— Fig. 2.7. Schematic representation of a surface wave Surface waves are useful for testing purposes because the attenuation they suffer for a given ‘material is lower than for an equivalent shear or longitudinal wave and because they can flow around comers and thus be used for testing quite complicated shapes. Only surface or near surface cracks or defects can be detected by using surface waves.4 2.7.4 Lamb or Plate Waves a surface wave is introduced into a material that has a thickness equal to three wavelengths r ‘F less of the wave then a different kind of wave, known as a plate wave, results. The material begins to vibrate as a plate i.e., the wave encompasses the entire thickness of the material These waves are also called Lamb waves because Horace Lamb developed the theory describ- ing them in 1916. Unlike longitudinal, shear or surface waves, the velocities of these waves through a material are dependent not only on the type of material but also on the material thickness, the frequency and the type of wave. ' Plate or Lamb waves exist in many complex modes of panicle movement. The two basic forms of lamb waves are: a) symmetrical or dilational: and b) asymmetrical or bending. The form of the wave is determined by whether the particle motion is symmetrical or asymmetrical ‘with respect to the neutral axis of the test piece. In symmetrical Lamb (dilational) waves, there is a longitudinal particle displacement along neutral axis of the plate anid an elliptical panicle displacement on each surface. 2.8 Velocity of Ultrasonic Waves ‘The velocity cf propagation of longitudinal, wansverse and sur- [Lamb waves/ Plate waves: face waves depends on the density of the material, and inthe [if a gurface wave is same material it is independent of the frequency of the waves | introduced in a material and the material dimensions. that has ‘t '= 34 or less, it Velocities of longitudinal, transverse and surface waves are |hecomes plate waves. aiven by the following equations, y= vee 2.10) y= 1G/ ean yr 09 xv, a2 Where ¥/~Velocity of longitudinal waves, V;=Velocity of transverse waves, Vi=Velocity of sur face waves, E=Young’s modulus of elasticity, G=Modulus of rigidity, p =Density of the material i For steel we ye 7055 13) The velocity of propagation of Lamb waves, as mentioned earler, depends not only on ma- terial density but also on the type of wave itseif and on the frequency of the wave. 2.9 Behaviour of Ultrasonic Waves Normal incidence at an interface: reflection and transmission: ‘When sound is incident normal to (ue. perpendicular to) an interface between two media, itis partly REFLECTED and partly TRANSMITTED. The ratio of sound energy reflected (EP) to the sound energy incident (Ei) is called the reflection factor R. The ratio of the transmiaed sound i ‘energy (ED to tvhe energy incident (Ei) is called the transmission factor T. These factors depend. upon a property of the material called ‘ACOUSTIC IMPEDENCE’ (Z). Acoustic impedance of a material is the product of its physical density (p) and the velocity (V) of sound in the medium. ‘Thus 2 = Vp. These factors are given by the following formulae, TTPeanag 25 R= B/E = (21 ~ Z2P ZINDF T= B/E = AZ1Z2AZ 1422" Tt-can be seen that large reflection occurs ifthe difference between the acoustic impedances is large. Oblique teldence reflection ransmision ond mode COM acon sion. angle of tongitudinal wave is When the ultrasonic beam is incident obliquely (ie. at an | greazer than that of shear weaves angle) to the interface, the reflected wave is also at an angle to the surface. The angle of incidence is equal 10 the angle of ‘reflection. However, the transmitted wave undergoes an abrupt change in direction and this phenomenon is known as REFRACTION (Fig, 28) ermal [reer For angle beam scanning the incident angle sbould be benween the first and second critical angles. Ie is difficult to detect defects smaller in size than the wave- length Mode Conversion: Conversion of one mode of waves into another due 10 reflection or refraction. = Angle of incidence of longitudinal wave. @, ~ Angle of reflection of transverse wave B, ~ Angle of refraction of transverse wave. B, = Angle of refraction of longinudinal wave, Fig. 2.8 Refraction and mode conversion for an incident longitudinal wave ‘The angle of refraction is given by the formula (known as Snell's law): Sin of angle of inci- dence/Sin of angle of refraction = VI/V2 where Vi and V2 are the velocties of the sound waves in the first medium and the second medium respectively ‘This phenomenon with respect to light is well known. However the reflection and refraction of sound waves are not as sample as mentioned above. It is observed that the reflected wave consists of two components, one of longitudinal mode and the other of shear mode. The trans- ‘ited (or refracted) wave also similarly consists of two components. The angles of reflection ‘and refraction are given by the same Snell's law provided the appropriate pair of velocities is substituted. This phenomenon of conversion of one mode of waves into another due to reflec tion or refraction is called Mode Conversion. For angle beam inspection the longitudinal sound beam from a crystal is incident through a plastic Perspex) wedge at an angle to the material surface. Since mode conversion will6 intcoduce two waves of different velocities and angles into the test material, the results will be confusing, Hence, itis essential to eliminate one of them. Since the velocity of longitudinal waves is greater than the velocity of transverse waves, the refracted angle of longitudinal waves is always greater than that of transverse waves. Now if the incident angle is increased, the refracted angles (of both refracted waves) will also increase and at a particular incident angle the refracted angle of iongitudinal wave will be 90 degrees and thus only shear waves (transverse waves) will be present in the second (refracting) me- dium. The corresponding incident angle is called the FIRST CRITICAL ANGLE. On further in- crease of the incident angle, refracted angle of shear wave will continue to incsease and will reach 90 degrees. The corresponding incident angle is called the SECOND CRITICAL ANGLE. ‘The shear waves traveling at right angles to the normal (ie. traveling along the surface) are called the surface waves or Rayleigh waves For angle beam scanning, the incident angles should be between the first and second critical angles. The corresponding refracted shear wave angles in steel are 32 degrees (approx.) and 90 degrees. Due to beam spread, surface waves may be generated even when the refracted angle fot shear waves ig about 80 degrees. Therefore beam angles of 35 degrees to 70 degrees are recommended. 45 degree beam is the ideal one. It should also be noted that due to the phenomena discussed above, shear waves are (almost) exclusively used in angle beam testing and many times angle beam testing and shear wave testing are used as equivalent words, The partition of eneray between the four beams (two reflected and two refracted) cannot be expressed by simple formulae. Mode conversion can give raise to unexpected results. A shear beam of 30 degree (approx) gets strongly mode converted into longitudinal waves. Mode con- version can also occur because of the beam angle charging duc to geometry. Reflection by ‘large and ‘small’ reflectors: The interface phenomena of reflection etc. discussed above are true for interfaces much larger than the wavelength. When the |Atenuation: reflector, such as a defect, which is of the order of the |4&soPHan + scaster ‘wavelength, is encountered, the sound beam does not get reflected geometrically. Rather the sound beam is reflected as a | *AMleriuation increases wide divergent beam. ss the defect size decreases, the | with frequency. divergence of the reflected beam increases. Therefore the amount of energy returning in the direction of the incident beam | *Depends on material and (or in the expected direction in the case of angular incidence) s | is metallurgical small, Thus it becomes difficult to detect defects smaller in size | srructure. than the wavelength, To detect a defect few millimeters in siz, the wave lengjh of the ultrasonic wave should also be of the same order. Hence sound waves whose frequency isin he range of MHz, and not lower Frequencies have to be used, Thus we need “ULTHA’ sonic waves and not audible frequencies for testing Passage through matier: Absorption, scatter and attenuation: ‘Beam divergence is not the only reason for the reduction in intensity of the beam as the dis- tance increases. In a real material, a sound wave also continuously looses a part of its enemy through conversion into heat and this is called (pure) ABSORPTION. In addition, a part of the sound wave is scattered from microscopic interfaces in the material and this is called SCATTER. ‘The combined loss of energy due to absorption ancl scatter is known as ATTENUATION. In UT, it is common to use both the terms absorption and attenuation, to refer to the combined effect.2 ‘The sound attenuation increases with an increase in frequency. Attenuation also depends ‘upon the material (absorption is different for different materials) and its metallurgical structure (this affects scattering). Intensity reduces exponentially with distance due to attenvation, ‘The net decrease in intensity with distance is a combination of decrease due to beam diver- sence (which follows inverse square law) and that due to attenuation (which follows an expo- ‘ential law). 2.10 Magnetostriction and Piezoelectric Effect 2.10.1 Magnetostriction It is observed in ferromagnetic materials like Fe, Ni and Co that the length can be varied by the application of a magnetic field. This is a reversible effect. In these materials, there are domains ‘of magnetization that can be a small part of the grain or extending beyond it. There is a ten- dency for the magnetization to be more favourably cxisting along certain crystallographic axes, ‘which accordingly are called directions of easy magnetization; the directions along which it is more difficult to magnetize are called hard directions. To magnetize a erystal to saturation in hard direction requires more energy than that required to magnetize it in easy direction. "his difference is called anisotropic energy. Now in magnetostrition, the change in length gives rise to a net elastic energy. Physically one may think of the magnetostriction to arise from the de- pendence of the crystalline anisotropy energy on the state of strain of the latice. Thus it- may be energetically favourable for the crystal to deform slighty, in doing so, will lower the anisot- ropy energy by more than the rise in the elastic energy. Pure nickel is useful where large magnetostrictive effect is required at moderate field strength. The magnetostrictive effect in Ni is independent of field direction. In consequence, the application of magnetic cycles causes double the number of excursions for mean position ie, the rod vibrates at double the frequency of applied field. The application of steady biasing field of sufficient strength eliminates this frequency doubling effect. Certain ceramics made by sintering together an equivalent mixture of Fe and Ni oxides to form ferrites have good magnetostrictive properties. Consider a bar of Ni, 250mm long placed in a field varying from 0-0.02 webers/m. The alteration of length with each half cycle will be approximately 0.0002Sinches. By adjusting the lengthfrequency so that the bar vibrates at its natural frequency, maximum amplitude can be obiained. The natural frequency of a bar re- strained at center will be aE7p Pr E ° Fe 204 x 10° Kg/mm? 7.96 Ni 21.1 x 10" 88 Co 21x10" a7 Magneto-stiction: [An ultrasonic hardness tester marketed by M/s. Branson Kraulkramer utilizes magnetostrictive property. A diamond | Length of ferro magnetic indentor (Vickers) is fixed to the rod at the end. By a coil | material can be varied by the wound round the rod, it is made to vibrate at its resonance | application of magnetic field. frequency when it is free. For measuring the hardness, the ee NA a BHTB indentor is pressed against the job with pre-arranged force. This loading of the rod changes its frequency. The instrument utilizes the change of frequency for measuring the hardness. 2.10.2 Piezoelectric Effect A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into another. Ultrasonic wansducers convert electical energy into vltrisonic energy and vice versa by utilizing @ phenomenon ‘xnown as the piezoelectric effect. The materials, which exhibit this propemy, are known as piezoelectric materials In the direct piezoelectric effec, first discovered by the Curie brothers in 1880, a piezoelec- ‘tic material, when subjected to mechanical pressure, will develop an electrical potential across it (Fig29). th the inverse piezoelectric effect, fest predicted by Lippman ia 4881 and latee confirmed! experimentally by the Curie brothers in the same year, mechanical deformation and. thus vibration in piezoelectric materials is produced whenever an electrical potential is applied to them (Fig2.10), The direct piezoelectric effect is used in detecting and the inverse piezoelectric effect in the generation of ultrasonic waves. Direct Piezoelectric Efleet Expansion 9° f Alt ® eee © Figs. 2.9 & 2.10 Direct and Inverse Piezoelectric effect 2.10.3 Types of Piezoelectric Transducers Piezoelectric transducers can be classified into two groups, The classification is made based on the type of piezoelectric material which is used in the manufacture of the tansducet. If the ‘wansducers are made from single crystal material in which the piczoelectrc effect occurs natu- rally, they are classified as piezoelectric crystal tasdhicers . On the other hand the transducers which are made from polycrystalline materials in which the piezoelectric effect has to be in- duced by polarization, are termed polarized ceramic transducers 2.10.4 Piezoelectric Crystal Transducers Some of the single crystal materials in which the piezoelectric effect occurs naturally are quartz, tourmaline, lithium sulphate, cadmium sulphide and zine oxide. Among these, quartz and lituum sulphate are the most commonly used in the manufacture of ultrasonic transducers.2104.1 Quartz Naturally or artificially grown quart crystals have a certain definite shape, which is described by crystallo- gvaphic axes, consisting of an X-, Y- and Z- axis. (See Fig.2.11) The piezoelectric effect is a propery of the crystal structure associated with a particular lack of symmetry characterised through what are called polar axes. These are crystal axes in which one direction differs from the opposite direction so that any rotation ‘of the crysial in Which the front and back ends of such an axis are inter changed, never give the same posi- tion of the exystal. In the case of quartz, which occurs ‘in nature in the form of hexagonal prisms, there are these such X axes X1, X2 and XS, each of which passes through tWo opposite edges. In addition there are three Y axes Yl, Y2 and Y3 - normal to the X1, X2 and X3 axes respectively. The Z ~ axis of the crystal is parallel to the axis of the prism. Fig. 2.11 system coordinates ‘The piezoelectric effect in quartz can only be achi Piezoelectric materials: Materals, which exbibit piezoelectric effect. Piezoelectric transducers: Two groups: Piezoelectric erstal Transducers Polarized ceramic transducers Quart Natural occurring crystal Its bard and bighly resitant to wear but least efficient generator of tutrasonic energy. ¥-cut quart fr in a Quanz crystal ieved when small plates perpendicular ci- ther to the X-axis or Y-axis are cut out of the quartz crystal, These are called X-cut or Y-cut quanz crystals of transducers. X-cut crystals are used for the production and detection of lon- gitudinal ultrasonic waves while Y-cut crystals are used for the generation and reception of transverse ultrasonic waves, Transverse and surface ws raves can also be easily produced from an XXcut crystal by taking advantage of the phenomenon of mode conversion which occurs at an interface of two media of different acoustic impedances when » longitudinal ultrasonic wave strikes the interface at an angle. Y-cut crystals are seldom used in industry. Some of the advan- tages and limitations of quartz when used as an ultrasonic transducer are as follows:¥- 3 Advanteges ‘G) 1€is insoluble in water and is not affected by humidity (2) thas high mechanical and electrical stability. () 1 can be operated at high temperatures (up to 500%C) () It has a marked resistance to ageing 6) tis hard and highly resistant to wear Limitations G) It is comparatively expensive. 2) Iis the least efficient generator of ultrasonic energy (de2:3). But its receiving efficiency 's better than the ceramic transducers (H = 49 and g = 57). @) It suffers from mode conversion, When an X-cut quar is used, besides generating longitudinal waves, it also generates transverse waves. Transverse waves are generated because X-cut crystal when compressed, elongates in the Y-direction also. Production of transverse waves gives rise to spurious signals afer the main pulse. (@ It sequires high voltage for its operation. 2.10.42 Lithium Sulphate Lithium sulphate is another piezoelectric crystal, which is commonly used for the manufacture of ultrasonic transducers. Some of the advantages and limitation of lithium sulphate transducer fe as Follows: Advantages @ It is the most efficient receiver of ultrasonic energy iD It can be easily damped because of its low scoustic impedance (i) Te does not age. Gv) Ie suffers very litle from mode conversion. Limitations a) Iis very fragile (b) Its soluble in water (©) It's limited in use to temperature below 75°C 2.10.43 Polarized Ceramic Transducers Polarized ceramic tansclucets have nearly completely replaced [thium sulphate quartz and are on their svay to replacing artificially grown |" % tbe most efficient caysaals as wansducer elements. Polarized ceramic wansducer |72Cetter of lirasonic materials consist of many “domains” each of which includes |" It ts soluble in large number of molecules, and each of which has a net electric |[Her arid bence cannot be charge. When no voltage gradient exists in the material, these |“? # immersion testing domains are randomly oriented. If a voliage is applied, the domains tend to line up in the direction of the field. Since a |7 ' Hmtted in use domain's shape is longer in its direction of polarization than in [4P"0 75 degrees tempera. dis thickness direction, the material as a whole expands. 1 the |/™7® voltage is reversed in direction, the damains also get reversed in ditecion and the material again expands. This is in contrast to the piezoelectric crystal Iaterials, which contract for a voltage in one direction and expand for a voltage in the opposite directionTeansducer Fig. 2.13, Pressure variation along wave propagation direction “Two distinct region of the beam exist and are classified as the “near field” region or Frenel zone and “far field” region o1 Frauahaufer zone (Fig. 2.1. In the neat field region, vltasonic beam converges and in the far field it diverges. Fig. 2.14 Two distinct regions of the beam ‘The beam profile shown in Fig. 2.14 is very much “theoretical” In this, beam boundary” de- fines the limits of the beam to the point where the disturbance ceases t0 exist oF fills below a threshold value (Figs. 2.15 and 2.16). It is often convenient to define the beam to-an edge boundary) were the intensity of sound has fallen t0 one half (6 dB), or sometimes one tenth 0 GB) of the intensity at the beam axis, ore 2 5 (a8) Fig. 2.15 Sound beam limitation for 6 dB echo decreaseSOUND BEAN LINTATION FOR 248 £090 OFCREASE — east seman Fig 2.16 Sound beam limitation for 20 dB echo decrease 2.412 Near Field poet Ulteasonic beam: The region in which ultrasonic waves are propagated from a wansducer. [A piezoelectic tansducer can be considered to be a collection of point sources, each of which is emitting spherical ultrasonic waves t© the surrounding medium . These spherical waves interfere with each ‘other and result in a system of maxima and minima in intensity in the region close to the shape of the wave front in the near field region. ‘The intensity variation along and across the axial distance for a typical wansducer are shown in Figs, 2.17 and 2.18 respectively. Flaws | Two distinct regions: appearing in the near field must he carefully interpreted because 2 | * Near field flaw occurring in this region can produce multiple indications and the Ne DAL amplitude of the reflected signal from the flaw can vary considerably |g 6 gy if the effective distance from the probe varies 1 Far zone Noa zone N= 08a Fig. 2.17 Intensity variation along the avial distanceEE Sere ‘Traneducer ie Fig. 2.18 Intensity variation across the axial direction Far fold 2.11.3 Calculation of Near Field Length ‘The length N of the near field depends upon the diameter of the transducer and the wavelength of the ultrasonic waves in the particular medium. The near field length for a probe increases ‘with increase in its diameter and frequency and can be calculated approximately from: D_DE “a a Where WN ~ Near field length, D = Diameter of transducer, A = Wavelength in the material, FeTransducer frequency, V~ Velocity of sound in material For angle probe with circular transducer DPV» we 2 a Y, For angle probe with rectangular transducer _BKLXW a Where D ~ Transducer crystal diameter, A = Wavelength in the material, d, = Perspex depth, Vp= Longitudinal velocity in Perspex, V,,nTransverse velocity in material, L'= Transducer crys- tal length, WeTransducer crystal width : It is seen that intensity varies irregularly upon near field and then decreases regularly. Thus, defects of same size will give different echo amplitudes within near field and the flaw evalua- tion in the near field can lead to errors N 2414 Far Field of Far Zone ‘The region beyond the near field is known as far field of Fraunhaufer zone. The wave front of ultrasonic waves in the far feld beyond a distance of three field lengths from the transducer is fein35 The region beyond the near fel 18 far field or franbaufer ‘zone. spherical as compared to the wave front in the near feld [Fay paid: which is planar. In the far field, intensity varies as the square of the distance Gnverse square law), If the intensity across the beam (ie. perpendicular to the beam axis) is plotted, one observes irregular variations in the near field and smooth variation in the far feld. Since the intensity across the beam is noe uniform, all eo the poins within the beam are not scanned ith same in- | (mune of he wlimsontt beam tensity. Therefore, during testing, itis customary to overlap | tynce scan areas between successive scans. It must be noted that the above discussion cannot be strictly valid for any individual transducer, In general, beam profile (intensity variation of the beam along and across the axial direction within the boundary) of a transducer depends on many factors such as transducer crystal diameter, transducer element, backing material, tans- ducer housing etc. Therefore, it is important follow experimental procedures to obtain the beam profile of an individual transducer, if needed. In the far fleld, the 2.11.5 Determination of Beam Spread Angle |As we have already noted, spreading of the ultrasonic beam (beam divergence) always take place as the waves travel from the transducer The angle of spread or the divergence angle (Fig. 2.19) can be calculated from the following equation: 68 OR 2008 Fig. 2419. Uirasonic beam divergence and angle of divengence O= sin") Where 2 is the wavelength of the ultrasonic waves, Dis the diameter in case of circular trans- ducer and Kis a constant which depends on: @ the edge of the beam (beam boundary) which is considered, Gi) the method (pulse echo/through tansmission) which is used to determine beam spread and id the shape of the transducer ie,, whether circular or rectangular.Table 1: Values of K for circular and rectangular wansducers as determined by through twansmission technique Edge i K K % ab Circular Rectangular 10% @o dB) 1.08 0.60) 50%6 4B) 054 O91 ‘Table 2: Values of K for circular and rectangular transducers as determined by pulse echo techniques Edge x x % dB Circular Rectangular 10% (ea) __087 074 SOmK6 a8) ost 044 | 2.11.6 Transducer Beam Profiling ‘Beam Profiling: : Throe methods: ‘The following rocedures are adopted to casi the beam prt of an Pint method ithe tough tanamison ectnigue nti cise, a| ate echo very small diameter probe is moved over the back wall surface of severat plane-parallel specimens of different thickness and 2 record is made of the amplitudes of the CRT screen indications, The beam spread is then plotted by joining together those points, which have the same indication amplitudes. The sound beam thus obtained is also re- ferred t0 as the “free field” In the second method, the beam spread is measured by making use of the pulse echo tech- nigue. In this method, small reflectors of constant size at diferent depths are used to plot the beam. The plot of the beam made by this method is known as the “echo field”. Visualisation of the ultrasonic beam is possible through the third method. However, this could be achieved only in optically transparent media such as water, glass, etc. The method ‘was first introduced by Schlieren and make use of the phenomenon viz, "Interaction of light with ultrsonic waves’. Ultrasonic wave propagation in the medium cause minute variation in the medium's index which are, nevertheless, sufficient to refract light waves. The refracted light waves give visual presentation of the ultrasonic beam. 2.12 Energy Losses in Different Media Interaction of Ultrasound with Material 2.121 Beam Shape A= V/E Therefore, for a given frequency of ultrasonic vibration, wavelength is different in different materials. We already know that wavelength affects beam shape. (Since near field N = D'/44 and divergence angle 8 Sin'(KA/D). Thus beam shape is a function of the material for a given probe (ic. for a given diumeter and frequency of transducer)a 2.12.2 Attenuation ‘We already know that attenuation (both absorption and scatter) is a material characteristic. Any inhomogeneity in a material increases scatter. Scatter may arise due to large grain boundaries, grain boundary precipitations, segregations, distributed porosity and inclusions, coring of the Brains, etc. Scatter becomes significant when grain size exceeds 2/10. CThis is only a thumb- rule.) 2.12.3. Effect of Anisotrophy Anisotropy is a property due to which the velocity is different in different crystallographic di rections. In a randomly oriented grain structure, when sound enters from one grain to another, there is a change in velocity and a change in acoustic impedance. This means, more scatter due (o reflection and refraction ir, grain boundaries. More the anisotropy more is the scatter 2.12.4 Metallurgical History of Materials and Attenuation 21241 Castings Usually have large grain size, porosity, segregations, cored grains, grain boundary preciptations, inclusion, etc. Hence castings generally scatter more and hence one has to use lower frequen ies. High seater and use of lower frequencies reduce achievable sensitivities 2.12.4.2 Wrought Products ike rolled/forged/drawn/extruded products) have tower grain size; casting defects get re- duced or eliminated in wrought products; inhomogeneities in compesition also get reduced Consequently, the scatter is less and wrought products can be tested! to higher sensitivities. ‘The working process may elongate the grains in one direction. Thus scattering will be more When ultrasonic beam is perpendicular to these elongated grains, and scatter will be less when the team is parallel to the elongated axis of the grains. 21243 Welds ‘Typically should show cast swucture, However, due to the small volume of molten metal and due to fast cooling, the grains in weld are sufficiently small. Hence, scater in a weld (such as carbon stee! welds) is not significant However, there are certain materials like austenitic stainless steel and Ni-based alloys whose welds show large grain size. Added to this, they have high anisotropy. Hence, welds of these material (unless section [ Anisotropy: thickness is very low, a few mm) scatter heavily and UT may | It & @ property due 10 sometimes become impossibic. which the velocity of sound i different in 2.13 Couplants aierent exsalograpbic lirections. In ultrasonic testing, a couplant in the form of a liquid or paste is used to eliminate air between the probe and the specimen ‘surface. If there is air between the probe and the specimen, no transmission of ultrasonic waves into the specimen will take place because of the very Iw acoustic impedance of air as Castings: Have large grain size. Hence they scatier sound more. Use of low Compared to the acouse mpedances of the specimen and the | PAAlency Probe aeQuestions: 38 Commonly used couplants in ultasonic testing are glycerin, water, oll, petroleum greases, silicons grease, wallpaper paste and various commercial pastes Like substances. For the selection of a suitable couplant for a particular ultrasonic inspection task, zhe follow ing points should be taken into consideration. @ Surface finish of the test specimen GD Temperature of tue test specimen Gil) Possibility of chemical reactions between the test specimen and the couplant Gv) Cleaning requirement—some couplants are difficult to remove. 1, What is the waveform developed when the shear wave mode is refracted at 90 degrees? a. Longitudinal wave Surface wave ¢, Transverse wave di. Transitional wave 2. The higher the frequency of a transducer, the ‘a, Greater the beam spread and depih of the penetration - 'B: Less the beam spread and the greater the sensitivity and resolution less the sound beam attenuates thus increasing penetration ._ Less the sensitivity and the greater the penetration 3. Angle beam transducers are used 10 a. Locate and evaluate discontinuity lying parallel to the surface of the test specimen bb, Locate and evaluate discontinuities that lie other than parallel to the surface of the tex specimen Detect discontinuities thaf are parallel to the sound beam d. Detect discontinuities in immersion testing 4. In a two transducer testing system, the best transducer combination is a Na: Polarized ceramic wansmitter and « lithium sulphate receiver 5, Lithium sulphate transmitter and a polarized ceramic transmitter © Polarized ceramic transtnitter and seceiver 4. Uthium sulphate transmitter and receiver 5. The best surface resolution can be obtained using a a, Short focal length transducer . Long focal length transducer . Collimator d. Cured shoe 6. What would be the "Beam Spread” if the following conditions existed? a. 1" diameter 2 MHz transducer 'b. Velocity in steel = 0,585 x 10° cm/sec SE10, u 2 “e. Sing = 1.224D d. Wavelength ( = velocity/frequency . One inch = 254 centimeter The time taken by 10 MHz shear wave to travel 100 mm of Perspex is closest to 14 microseconds b. 27 microseconds 37 microseconds & 0 microseconds s. A piven angle beam probe generates 2 MHz shear waves at angle of 45 degrees to the ‘normal in stéel. The same probe when applied 10 copper aill prexluce in copper a a. 45 degrees, 2 MHz shear wave beam Lv Erte b. 45 degrees, 1.6 MHz shear wave beam rat +c. 30 degrees, 2 MHz shear wave beam . 63 degrees, 1.6 MHz shear wave beam For industria) metallic material, attenuation of ultrasonic energy is primarily determined by ‘a. The atomic number of the material +b. The physical density of the material ¢. The grain size of the material 4. The surface roughness of the material Sensitivity of UT is defined as the stnallest flaw detectable. Sensitivity can be improved by a. Increasing the wavelength Dp. Increasing the frequency . Increasing the amplifier gain . Only b and ¢ An incident angle of 12 degrees in warer would procluce a refracted longitudinal wave in ‘steel at an angle of a. 27 degrees ob, 58 degrees <8 degrees 48 degrees ‘The divergence angle of a 20 mm dia,@MHz probe in a certain material is 6 degrees ‘Therefore, the divergence angle of a 10mm dia, 8 MHz probe in the same material will be a. 3 degrees f b 6 degrees 1&2 degrees 4. 24 degrees eeChapter 3 Test Methods and Techniques 3.1 Basic Ultrasonic Test Methods Ultrasonic waves arriving at an interface between two ‘media are partially reflected into the medium from } Though transmission method: which they are incident and partially transmitted into the | Method, which ttilizes transmitted other medium. The method of ultrasonic testing which | P47! af the ultrasonic wave. utilizes the transmitted part of the ultrasonic waves is the | Does not give the size and through transmission method while that which make use | /ocation of the defect. Of the reflected portion of the waves is classified as the | Pulse echo method: pulse echo test method, Another method that is used for | Mefbod, which makes use of the ulttasonic testing of materials is the resonance | "flected part of the ultrasonic method. energy. Location (depth) of the 3.1.1 Through Transmission Method defect is known. In this method, two ultrasonic probes are used. One is the transmitter probe and the other the receiver probe. These probes are situated on opposite side of the specimen as shown in figure 3.1. Transmitter Receiver probe i | ~ IW ig if it ie | Fig. 3.4. Postion of ransmiter and receiver probe Tn this method, the presence of an internal defect is indicated by a reduction in signal ampli- i tude, o: in the case of gross defects, complete loss of the transmitted signal. The appearance of i‘ the CRT screen is as illustrated in Figure 3.2 (a), (b) and (6).a Fig. 3.2 CRT pattem: (a) defect free specimen, (b) specimen with a small defect and (©) specimen with a large dafect “This method is used for the inspection of large ingots and castings particularly when the attenu- ation is high and gross defects are present, The method does not give the size and location of the defect. In addition, good mechanical coupling and alignment of the two probes is essential. 3.1.2 Pulse Echo Method ‘This is the method most commonly utilized in the ultrasonic testing of materials. The transmitter and receiver probes are on the same side of the specimen and the presence of a defect is indicated by the reception of an echo before that of the ‘back wall echo. The CRT screen is calibrated to show the separation in distance between the time of arrival of a defect echo as against that of the back wall echo of the specimen, therefore, the location of a defect can be assessed accurately ‘The principle of the pulse echo method is dlustrated in Figure 33 @), (b) and ©. Pulse echo method ts most ‘commonly used im UT. Transmitter and Receiver probes are on the same side of the specimen.2 Transmission Back wall pulse ‘echo Dofoct echo Back wall echo DDefect echo Large tr] Detect No Back o keg walecto Fig. 3.3 Pulse echo method: (a) defect free specimen, (b) specimen with small defect and ©) Specimen with a large defect 3.1.3 Resonance Method. A condition of resonance exists whenever the thickness of 2 material equals half the wavelength of sound or any multiple thereof in that material, Control of wavelength in | Resonance method: ultasonics is achieved by control of frequency. If we have | A condition of resonance exists a transmitter with variable frequency control, it can be | when ¢=A/2 of sound or any tuned © create a condition of resonance for the thickness | mutiple hereof. of plate under test. This condition of resonance is easily recognized by the increase of received pulse amplitude. Knowing the resonance of fundamental frequency f° and veloctty *¥” of ultrasound in the specimen, the thickness ‘t" of the specimen under test can be calculated from the equation:- v F t a 3.1.4 Pulse Echo Testing Techniques ‘Techniques of ultrasonic testing are cither of the contact type oF the immersion type. In the contact type, the probe is placed in direct contact with the test specimen with a thin liquid film used as 2 couplant for better transmission of ultrasonic waves into the test specimen. In the immersion type, a waterproof probe is used at some distance frotn the test specimen and the ultrasonic beam is transmitted into the material through a water path or water column. ;si 43 3.1.4.1 Contact Type Techniques Contact techniques are divided in to three types. These are normal beam technique, angle beam technique and surface wave technique. Normal Beam Technique In the normal beam technique, the ultrasonic beam is projected perpendicularly in to the test specimen. This technique may use either single, double or T-R normal beam probes. With the single probe, the transducer of the probe acts as both transmitter and receiver. In this technique an ultrasonic beam pulse is projected into the specimen and echoes from the flaws within the specimen and from the back wall of the specimen are received (Figure 3.4). The occurance of a large transmission pulse when using single transducer probes renders the single probe technique ineffective for the detection of near surface flaws and for thin wall thickness measurements. ‘Transducer Se } ‘Sound reflected back nt tw transducer from jit discontinuity and back ' surface ' ! 1 UU Fig. 3.4. Single transducer- Pulse-echo technique Double normal beam probe techniques are useful when the speci men shape is irregular and the back surface is not paralle! with the —— front surface. One probe transmits the ultrsonic beam into the speci- | Testing techniques: Contact: ‘men and the other receives the echoes from the flaws and back wall eas the echoes from the flaws ank pene ieee ona | probe, double probe. ‘Transmitting unt. Receiving unit Immersion: SZ ss Normal , angle sound retected to) "2 TR probes, wis bash possible 10 measure wall receiving unit | thickness down to Imm TR probe calibration 1s done with the belp of stepped reference block Ww Fig 3.5 Double transducer pulse-echo techniqueIn TR. normal beam probe technique, the to transducers are in the same case, with one of the transducers acting as a tansmiter and the other as a receiver, With these techniques, thin ‘wall thickness measurements and near surface flaw detection are possible because of the elimi- nation of the transmission pulse. 3.1.5 Applications of Contact Type Normal Beam Probes 315.1 Thickness Measurement @ Using Single Crystal Probes (One of the most important uses is that of thickness measurement. When a normal beam probe is placed on a plate like test specimen, the CRT screen displays a transmission pulse and one ‘or more tack wall echoes corresponds to the thickness of the test object. Consequently, by calibrating the CRT screen in millimeters using a calibration block, itis possible to have a direct reading of the thickness of the unknown test specimen. ‘The thickness of the test specimen can be read by using either a single back wall echo ot for better accuracy using multiple echoes. In the case of the single echo technique, the thickness of the specimen is determined from the point where the left hand edge of the first back wall echo. rises from the base line, while in the case of the multiple echo technique, the thickness of the last multiple echo is read and then the thickness of the specimen determined by dividing this «hickness by the total number of back wall echoes. The multiple echo technique is used for thinner specimens. The limit to the multiple echo technique is the merging of the first back wall echo into the transmission pulse and the consequent difficulty in determining the total ‘number of back wall echoes. With good resolution probes, the smallest wall thickness that can, bbe measured with the multiple echo method is about 3 mm. To be able to measure smaller thicknesses, T-R. probes are used W Using T-R Probes With T-R probe, itis possible to measure wall thicknesses down to [Taminations: 11mm, Although the design of T-R probes results in a very good | Laminations in plates can near surface resolution, it also calls for a special calibration proce- | de detected by T-R dure to obtain accurate thickness measurements. The special cali- | probe. bration block for T-R probes is a stepped reference blockVW (Fig- ture 3.6) having 8 or 10 steps from either 1 mm to 8 mm or from | Multi Back echo tech Jen to 10 mm. nique for detection of eee: (Ae tan rn ic Fig. 3.6 cease eee Fig. 3.7 Fig. 58 Figs. 3.6 to 3.8 Stepped calibration block and CRT patter from different thicknesses45 ‘To calibrate the CRT sereen for a TLR probe, two suitable steps of the VW block which are in . the desired range are chosen. The probe is first coupled to the thinner step and using the delay contro, the back wall echo is brought to the corresponding scale position. The probe is then coupled to the thicker step and using the cesting range control, the back wall echo is brought to the conesponding scale position. These two adjusting steps are repeated until both echoes stand on the right scale positions. Figure 3:7 and 38 illustrate the two calibration steps for the 4 mm and 8 mm steps of the YW calibration block. The two additional echoes between the first and second back wall ech- : es in the case of the 4 mm step are because of the mode conversion effect at the back wall “The error in the measurement of thickness due to the V shaped path of the ultrasonic beam becomes negligibly small ifthe thickness of the test specimens lies berween the two step thick- ness used for the calibration of the CRT screen and if the difference in thickness between the two steps is not too large. 3.1.5.2 Velocity correction If the calibration block used for the time base calibration is a different material than that of the material of the specimen, then the measured thickness of the specimen has to be corrected for the difference in velocities in the calibration block and the test specimen. ‘The correction is made as follows: Longitudinal velocity in Specimen ‘Thickness of specimen = Indicated thickness x Longitudinal velocity in Specimen __ eet Tongitudinal velocity in calibration Block BASS Testing for laminations Standard Procedure The standard procedure which is used to test for laminations in plates and pipes, which are to be welded or machined, is given below: (@ Calibrate the time base to allow at least two back wall echos are at full screen height Pigce probes on the test specimen and adjust the gain control so that the second back wall echo is at fll screen height, Gi) Scan the text specimen looking for lamination indications which will show up at hal speci- men thickness together with a reduction in back wall echo amplitude. In some cases, a reduction in the amplitude of the second back wall echoes may be noticed without a lamination echo being present. Care must be taken to ensure that this reduction in ampli- tude is not due to poor coupling o surface conition. Multiple Echo Technique Lamination testing of plate or pige less than 10 ma in wall thickness may be difficult using the standard procedure because multiple echoes are so close together that it becomes impossible te pick out lamination echoes between back wall echoes. In such cases, 2 technique called the ‘multiple echo technique, using a single exystal probe can be used. The procedure is as follows: ‘ ( Place the probe on a lamination free postion ofthe test specimen or on the Calibration bloc Se eR CR6 i) Adjust the time base and gain controls to obrain 2 considerable number of multiple echoes in a decay pattern over the first half of the time base (Fig. 3.9). 4 Gd Scan the test specimen. The presence of a lamination will be indicated by 2 collapse of the decay pattern such as the one shown in Figure 3.10, The collapse occurs because each of the many multiple echoes is closer to its neighbour in the presence of a lamination. THAT VUNG eee er ASAE Tt tT A UATAPTL FL Hedi \ WATE Hp QUEL fui : octet italia Fig. 3.9 Back echoes in a decay patter ‘Steeper decay pattern T eco T T 4 5 6 7 & 9 10 Fig. 3.10 Collapse of the decay patter | |a 3.1.54 Examination of Brazed and Bonded Joints Brazed Joints If the wall thickness permits clear separation between back wall echoes, brazed joints can be examined using the standard procedure for lamination testing. However, since the brazed metal separating the two brazed walls will have a slightly different acoustic impedance to that of the brazed. ‘walls, a small interference echo will be present for a good braze. The technique is, therefore, to look for increase in this imerface echo amplitude (Figure 3.11 a, b, © cc SSS (2) Technique lt (6) Good braze (0) Bad braze ‘Bond evaluation: ‘Two methods: ‘Multi back echo decay technique Enbancement of interface ecbo amplitude if the interface is a highly reflecting interface. Fig. 3-11 Increase in interface echo amplitude technique IF the two brazed wall thicknesses aze too thin to permit clear back wall echoes, a multiple echo, as described for lamination testing, can be used Bonded Joints These may include metal to metal glued joints and metal to non meta glued joints (eg, Rubber blocks bonded to steel plaies). The technique used is a multiple echo technique. Each time the pulse reaches a bonded interface; 2 portion of the energy will be transmitted in to the bonded layer and absorbed, Each time a pulse reaches an unbonded layer, al the energy will be re- flected. The decay of the muliple echo patterns for a good bond would, therefore, be shor because of the energy loss at each multiple echo transmitted in to the bond. However, for an uunbonded layer each multiple echo will be slightly bigger because there is no interface loss, and the decay pattern will be significantly longer. 3.1.6 Angle Beam Technique ‘The angle beam technique is used to tansmit ultrasonic waves into a test specimen at a prede- termined angle to the test surface. According to the angle selected, the wave modes produced in the test specimen may be mixed longitudinal and transverse, transverse only, or surface wave