Professional Documents
Culture Documents
This publication was made possible through the initiative and support of
the International Copper Association – South East Asia and
administered, executed, and implemented by the Institute of Integrated
Electrical Engineers of the Philippines
iii
iv
Table of Contents
v
Motor Efficiency
6.1 Repair-Replace Decision Model 246
6.2 Premium Efficiency Motors 262
Installation, Testing, and Maintenance
7.1 Installation and Maintenance 273
7.2 Description of Routine Tests 309
7.3 Recommended Winding Tests 321
7.4 Other Tests 322
7.5 Motor Starting Capabilities and Considerations 323
7.6 Maintenance and Reliability 328
7.7 Maintenance Programs 332
7.8 Machinery Condition Monitoring 334
7.9 Maintenance Planning 338
vi
Motor Specifications
1.1 Nameplate
The NEMA and IEC standards are quite similar, although they
sometimes use different terminology. Thus, if one understands the IEC
nameplate, it is fairly easy to understand a NEMA nameplate, and vice-
versa as shown in Fig 1.1A and B.
1
Fig. 1.1B – Typical NEMA Motor Nameplate
2
The following paragraphs explain some of the other nameplate
information for this motor.
Base speed is the speed, given in RPM, at which the motor develops
rated horsepower at rated voltage and frequency. Base speed is an
indication of how fast the output shaft will turn the connected equipment
when fully loaded. This motor has a base speed of 1765 RPM at a rated
frequency of 60 Hz.
Service Factor
NEMA
3
assuming the motor has been stopped long enough. Temperature rises in
the motor windings as soon as the motor is started. The combination of
ambient temperature and allowed temperature rise equals the maximum
rated winding temperature. If the motor is operated at a higher winding
temperature, service life will be reduced. A 10° C increase in the
operating temperature above the allowed maximum can cut the motor’s
insulation life expectancy in half.
4
Table 1.2A – Reduction of Rated Output at Higher Ambient Temperature
of Altitudes
Ambient Temperature, OC 40 45 50 55 60 70
Permitted output, % of rated output 100 96.5 93 90 86.5 79
Altitude above sea level 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Permitted output, % of rated output 100 97 94.5 92 89 86.5 83.5
Insulation classes
5
For class F, for instance, the temperature rise must not exceed 105 K,
provided that the ambient temperature does not exceed +40°C. This
applies if the resistance measuring method is used. This involves first
measuring the resistance of the winding at ambient temperature, then
running a temperature-rise test of the motor to determine the temperature
in the winding at rated power, then measuring the resistance of the
winding at the end of the test.
Where:
t2 = temperature of winding at end of temperature-rise test
t1 = temperature of winding before temperature-rise test
ta = temperature of cooling medium at end of temperature-rise
test
R2 = resistance of winding at end of temperature-rise test
R1 = resistance of winding at temperature t1
Constant = 235 for copper winding: 225 for aluminum winding
What this method determines is the mean temperature rise. This is why
an extra thermal margin of 10 K, for example, is reserved between the
mean temperature of the winding and the temperature at its hottest point.
6
Fig.1.2.C - Effect of Winding Temperature on Life of Insulation
Frame Size
7
The numbers used to designate frame sizes have specific meanings based
on the physical size of the motor. Some digits are related to the motor
shaft height and the remaining digit or digits relate to the length of the
motor.
In addition to having a short shaft, the motor will have a small diameter
shaft (“U” dimension) and the bearing in the drive shaft end of the motor
will be somewhat smaller than the equivalent long shaft motor. Short
shaft motors are intended for use only on direct coupled centrifugal
pumps and other direct coupled loads where there will not be a side pull
(overhung load) exerted on the shaft by “V” belts.
8
Table 1.2C – Suffixes to NEMA Frames
TEFC MOTORS – GENERAL PURPOSE
3600 1800 1200 900
NEMA
RPM 1964 RPM 1964 RPM 1964 RPM 1964
PROGRAM ORIG. ORIG. ORIG. ORIG.
1952 RERATE 1952 RERATE 1952 RERATE 1952 RERATE
HP
RERATE RERATE RERATE RERATE
1 — — — 203 182 143T 204 184 145T 225 213 182T
1.5 203 182 143T 204 184 145T 224 184 182T 254 213 184T
2 204 184 145T 224 184 145T 225 213 184T 254 215 213T
3 224 184 182T 225 213 182T 254 215 213T 284 254U 215T
5 225 213 184T 254 215 184T 284 254U 215T 324 256U 254T
7.5 254 215 213T 284 254U 213T 324 256U 254T 326 284U 256T
10 284 254U 215T 324 256U 215T 326 284U 256T 364 286U 284T
15 324 256U 254T 326 284U 254T 364 324U 284T 365 326U 286T
20 326 284U 256T 364 286U 256T 365 326U 286T 404 364U 324T
25 365S 324U 284TS 365 324U 284T 404 364U 324T 405 365U 326T
30 404S 326S 286TS 404 326U 286T 405 365U 326T 444 404U 364T
40 405S 364US 324TS 405 364U 324T 444 404U 364T 445 405U 365T
50 444S 365US 326TS 444S 365US 326T 445 405U 365T 504U 444U 404T
60 445S 405US 364TS 445S 405US 364TS* 504U 444U 404T 505 445U 405T
75 504S 444US 365TS 504S 444US 365TS* 505 445U 405T — — 444T
100 505S 445US 405TS 505S 445US 405TS* — — 444T — — 445T
125 — — 444TS — — 444TS* — — 445T — — —
150 — — 445TS — — 445TS* — — — — — —
* When motors are to be used with v-belt or chain drives, the correct frame size shown but with suffix letter S omitted.
Note: “D” dimension (shall height) of a motor or generator in these frame sizes
equals 1 /4 the value of the first two digits in the frame number.
9
G — Gasoline pump motors. (See NEMA MG 1-2006, 18.91.)
H — Indicates a small machine having an “F” dimension
larger than that of the same frame without the suffix
letter “H”. (See NEMA MG 1-2006, 4.4.1 and 4.5.1.)
HP or HPH — Type P flange-mounted, vertical sotid-shaft motors
having dimensions in accordance with NEMA MG 1-
2006, 18.252. (The letters “HP” and “HPH” are considered
as one suffix and should not be separated)
J — Jet pump motors. (See NEMA MG 1-2006, 18.132.)
JM — Face-mounted, close-coupled pump motor having
antifriction bearings and dimensions in accordance with
Table 1 of MG 1-2006, 18.250. (The letters “JM” are
considered as one suffix and should not be separated.)
JP — Type C face-mounted, close-coupled pump motor having
antifriction bearings and dimensions in accordance with
Table 2 of MG 1 -2006, 18.250. (The letters “MP” are
considered as one suffix and should not be separated.)
K — Sump pump motors. (See NEMA MG 1-2006, 18.78.)
LP or LPH — Type P flange-mounted, vertical solid-shaft motors
having dimensions in accordance with MG 1-2008, 18-
251. (The letters “LP” and “LPH” are considered as one
suffix and should not be separated.)
M — Oil burner motors. (See NEMA MG 1-2006, 18.106.)
N — Oil burner motors. (See NEMA MG 1-2006, 18.108.)
P or PH — Type P flange-mounted, vertical hollow-shaft motors
having dimensions in accordance with NEMA MG 1-
2006, 18.238.
R — Drive end tapered shaft extension having dimensions in
accordance with NEMA MG 1-2008, 4.4.2.
S — Standard short shaft for direct connection.
T — Included as part of a frame designation for which standard
dimensions have been established.
U — Previously used as part of a frame designation for which
standard dimensions had been established.
V — Vertical mounting only.
VP — Type P flange-mounted, vertical solid-shaft motors
having dimensions in accordance with NEMA MG 1-
2008, 18.237. (The letters “VP” are considered as one
suffix and should not be separated.)
10
X — Wound-rotor crane motors with double shaft extension.
(See NEMA MG 1-2006, 18229 and 18.230.)
Y — Special mounting dimensions, (Dimensional diagram
must be obtained from manufacturer.)
Z — All mounting dimensions are standard except the shaft
extension(s). Also used to designate machines with
double shaft extension.
Note: Manufacturers may use any letter preceding the frame number, but
such a letter will have no reference to standard mounting dimensions.
Example: “T” frame motor with a “C” face mounted vertically with a
nonstandard shaft extension; (Sequences 2.4.8 and 7) 184TCVZ.
The enclosure of the motor must protect the windings, bearings, and
other mechanical parts from moisture, chemicals, mechanical damage
and abrasion from grit. NEMA standards MG1-1.25 through 1.27 define
more than 20 types of enclosures under the categories of open machines,
totally enclosed machines, and machines with encapsulated or sealed
11
windings. The most commonly used motor enclosures are open
dripproof, totally enclosed fan cooled and explosionproof.
12
When the degree of protection is specified by only one numeral, the
omitted numeral is replaced by the letter X. For example, IPX5 or IP2X.
FIRST SECOND
CHARACTERISTIC CHARACTERISTIC
NUMERAL DEGREE OF PROTECTION NUMERAL DEGREE OF PROTECTION
0 Non-protected machine 0 Non-protected machine
1 Machine protected against solid objects 1 Machine protected against dripping
greater than 2 inches (50 mm) water
2 Machine protected against solid objects 2 Machine protected against dripping
greater than 0. 5 inches (12 mm) water when tilted up to 15o
3 Machine protected against solid objects 3 Machine protected against spraying
greater than 0.1 inches (2.5 mm) water
4 Machine protected against solid objects 4 Machine protected against splashing
greater than 0.04 inches (1 mm) water
5 Dust-protected machine 5 Machine protected against water jets
13
Classification According to Environmental Protection*
IP CODE CLASSIFICATION IP CODE CLASSIFICATION
IP 00 Open Machine IP 22 Dripproof guarded machine
Totally enclosed pipe-ventilated
IP 10 Semi-guarded machine IP 44
machine
Totally enclosed non-ventilated
IP 12 Dripproof machine IP 54
machine
IP 13 Splash-proof machine IP 55 Water-proof machine
* Reference: NEMA Standards MG-1 2006, 1.25, 1.26, and 1.27.
14
Open Dripproof.
The open dripproof motor (ODP) has a free exchange of air with the
ambient. Drops of liquid or solid particles do not interfere with the
operation at any angle from 0 to 15degrees downward from the vertical.
The openings are intake and exhaust ports to accommodate interchange
of air. The open dripproof motor is designed for indoor use where the air
is fairly clean and where there is little danger of splashing liquid. Refer
to Fig. 1.3A – Open Dripproof (ODP)
This type of enclosure prevents the free exchange of air between the
inside and outside of the frame, but does not make the frame completely
airtight. A fan is attached to the shaft and pushes air over the frame
during its operation to help in the cooling process. The ribbed frame is
designed to increase the surface area for cooling purposes. There is also a
totally enclosed non-ventilated (TENV) design which does not use a fan,
15
but is used in situations where air is being blown over the motor shell for
cooling, such as in a propeller fan application. Refer to Fig. 1.3B –
Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled (TEFC) Motor.
Explosionproof
16
for the substance creating the hazard. The format used to define this
information is a class, group, division and temperature code structure.
Class II (Dusts)
Group:
E - Metal Dust (Special Seals)
F - Carbon Black, Coal or Coke Dust
G - Flour, Starch or Grain Dust
Division I:
Hazard is always present due to normal conditions. (Dust
suspended in the atmosphere.) Motors must be explosionproof
construction with Underwriter’s label.
Division II:
Motors may be TEFC or externally ventilated:
(A) Where dust deposits on electrical equipment prevent safe
heat dissipation.
(B) Where deposit or dust might be ignited by arcs or
burning material.
17
Converting from NEMA enclosure classifications to IEC enclosure
classifications
The table below can be used to convert from NEMA Enclosure Types to
IEC Enclosure Types:
18
Continuation of …
19
Table1.4A - Temperature Class
20
Motors for Potentially Explosive Atmosphere
There are two main principles for explosion protection for electric
motors. One is to design the motor so that no dangerous heat or spark
occurs. This includes the increased safety version, EEx e. The other
method is based on isolating any dangerous heat or spark inside the
motor so as to prevent the ignition of any explosive mixture of gases
outside the motor. This includes the version with flameproof enclosure,
EEx d, and the version with pressurized enclosure, EEx p. These are the
three internationally standardized versions that are suitable for motors to
be installed in Zone 1.
The motor must not have any parts that, in normal service, produce arcs
or sparks, or reach a dangerous temperature. Special steps must be taken
in the design to prevent the risk of ignition by arcs or sparks or by
excessively high temperature as a consequence of poor contact,
overloading or the like. The temperature limitation applies to internal and
external surfaces.
The degree of protection of the terminal box must not be lower than IP
54 and any enclosure that contains only insulated parts must have at least
IP 44. However, in the case of motors installed in clean areas and
supervised by trained personnel, IP 23 is permitted for motors complying
with explosion group I, i.e. for use in coal mines, and IP 20 for explosion
group II, i.e. other areas. The requirements to be met by the terminal box
are unchanged, however. The limitation of the field of application must
be stated on the motor.
21
The air gap between rotor and stator is subject to certain minimum
dimensions. There are also minimum dimensions for creepage distance
and the air gap between winding leads and earth.
All connections between live parts must be secured so that they cannot
work loose. Cable bushings and the cable branch in the terminal box are
also subject to certain temperature limits. The motors must have both an
internal and an external earthing screw.
The motor need not be hermetically sealed; gas may therefore penetrate
the motor. The permitted temperature inside the motor is limited only by
the insulation class of the motor.
The rated output depends on how hot the outer surface of the motor is
permitted to be with regard to the relevant temperature class. Slip-ring
motors, commutator motors and brake motors can all be made in
flameproof versions.
The motors must have both an internal and an external earthing screw.
22
Monitoring of the winding temperature is recommended in cases where
the pressurization system is also responsible for cooling the motor.
Before the motor is started, it and its associated ducting for supply and
exhaust air must be flushed through with fresh air or a protective gas for
long enough to ensure that any explosive gas mixture has been reliably
removed. The amount of fresh air or protective gas flushed through must
in any case be equivalent to at least five times the total free volume.
The temperature of the outer surface of the motor must not exceed the
stated figures for the temperature class in question.
The motors must have both an internal and an external earthing screw.
23
Special requirements to be met by motors in increased safety version.
EEx e.
The degree of protection must be IP 54 for the terminal box and IP 44 for
those parts of the housing that contain only insulated parts. The motors
must have an internal earthing screw and, if requested, an external
earthing screw as well.
24
Only intrinsically-safe circuits of category EEx ia may be used in Zone
0. Motors are thus excluded.
Under certain conditions the equipment, motors for instance, need not be
of explosion-protected design. An example is shown in Fig. 1.4B. These
conditions are as follows; they must all be met:
25
Fig. 1.4B - Example of classification and the extent of the
hazardous areas in a ventilated tank
Temperature limits
26
Table 1.4B. – Temperature Class and Temperature Limit in 0C
The time tE is, also stated. This is the time taken for the stator or rotor
winding to heat up from normal operating temperature at the highest
permitted ambient temperature to the highest permitted limit
27
temperature, with the rotor locked and the stator winding loaded with the
starting current IA. In other words, the highest permitted surface
temperature for the temperature class or the insulation class of the
winding, the lower of the two being the limit.
Where:
0 = temperature 0 °C.
A = maximum ambient temperature, normally 40 °C.
B = temperature at rated output.
C = maximum permitted temperature at rated output for the
insulation class.
D = limit temperature at rated output for the insulation class or
the temperature class.
E = temperature rise at rated output.
F = temperature rise in locked-rotor test.
G = heating time during F.
Relationship between IA/lN. and tE
The time tE and the ratio IA/lN must be determined and stated so that
suitable current dependent protection can be chosen to protect the motor
from overheating. The value of tE must be such that, when the rotor is
locked, the motor is disconnected by a current-dependent protection
device before the time tE has expired. Generally this is possible if the
time tE for the motor is longer than the value indicated by the curve for
28
the corresponding IA/lN. Values below the curve are only permitted if
specially adapted current-dependent overload protection that has been
proved effective in tests is used. This protection must be identified on the
rating plate of the motor.
29
In no case must the time tE be shorter than 5 seconds, nor must the ratio
IA/IN be greater than 10. If some form of protection other than current-
dependent protection is used (temperature sensors built into the motor for
example), IA/IN and tE are not stated. The rating plate of the motor states
how it is protected against overheating.
1.5 Mounting
NEMA Dimensions
30
fractional horsepower motors are 42, 48, and 56. Integral horsepower
motors are designated by frame sizes 143 and above. A T in the motor
frame size designation for an integral horsepower motor indicates that
the motor is built to current NEMA frame standards.
Motors that have a U in their motor frame size designation are built to
NEMA standards that were in place between 1952 and 1964. The frame
size designation is a code to help identify key frame dimensions. The
first two digits are used to determine the shaft height. The shaft height is
the distance from the center of the shaft to the mounting surface. To
calculate the shaft height, divide the first two digits of the frame size by
4. For example, In Fig. 1.5A - a 143T frame size motor has a shaft height
of 3½ inches (14 ÷ 4).
The third digit in the integral T frame size number is the NEMA code for
the distance between the center lines of the motor feet mounting bolt
holes. The distance is determined by matching this digit with a table in
NEMA publication MG-1. For example in Fig. 1.5B, the distance
between the center lines of the mounting bolt holes in the feet of a 143T
frame is 4.00 inches.
31
FRAME Third/Fourth Digit In Frame Number
SIZE
SERIES D 1 2 3 4 5
140 4.00 4.50 4.50
160 4.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.00
180 4.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.50 5.50
200 5.00 4.50 5.00 5.50 6.50 6.50
210 5.25 4.50 5.00 5.50 6.25 6.25
220 5.50 5.00 5.50 6.25 6.75 6.75
250 6.25 5.50 6.25 7.00 8.25 8.25
280 7.00 6.25 7.00 8.00 9.50 9.50
320 8.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.50 10.50
IEC Dimensions
IEC also has standardized dimensions, but these dimensions differ from
NEMA standards. An example of the IEC dimensions are shown in the
following drawing.
32
IEC Mounting Dimensions Foot-Mounted AC & DC Machines
33
IEC Flange-Mounted AC & DC Machines Dimensions for Flanges
34
IEC Shaft Extension, Key and Keyseat Dimensions for Continuous
Duty AC Motors.
35
Dimensions for AC Machines – Millimeters NEMA Frame
36
37
38
39
Mounting Positions
40
referred to as the F-1 mounting. The conduit opening can be placed on
any of the four sides of the box by rotating the box in 90° steps.
Typical wall and ceiling mounts are shown in the following illustration.
Wall mounting positions have the prefix W and ceiling mounted
positions have the prefix C.
41
Mounting Faces
C-face
The face, or the end, of a C-face motor has threaded bolt holes. Bolts to
mount the motor pass through mating holes in the equipment and into the
face of the motor.
42
43
44
D-flange
The bolts go through the holes in the flange of a D-flange motor and into
threaded mating holes of the equipment.
45
46
47
JM Face Mounted
BF
BOLT
TAP
FRAME BD NUMBER PENETRATION
SIZE
DESIGNATIONS U AH* AJ AK BB MAX ALLOWANCE
143JM and 145JM 22.21 108 149.25 114.30 3.5 168 4 3/8-16 14
182JM and 184JM 22.21 108 149.25 114.30 3.5 168 4 3/8-16 14
213JM and 215JM 22.21 108 184.15 215.90 7 228 4 1/2-13 19
254JM and 256JM 31.73 134 184.15 215.90 7 254 4 1/2-13 19
284JM and 286JM 31.73 134 279.40 317.5 7 355 4 5/8-11 24
324JM and 326JM 31.73 134 279.40 317.5 7 355 4 5/8-11 24
EN KEYSEAT
TAP
DRILL BOLT
FRAME TAP DEPTH PENETRATION EP ER ES
DESIGNATIONS EL EM SIZE MAX ALLOWANCE MIN EQ* MIN R MIN S ET*
143JM and 145JM 29.35 25.40 3/8-16 28 19 30 16.0 108 19.5 42 4.80 73.0
213JM and 215JM 31.75 25.40 3/8-16 28 19 45 16.0 108 19.5 42 4.80 73.0
254JM and 256JM 44.45 34.92 1/2-13 38 25 45 16.0 134 28.2 65 6.40 76.5
324JM and 326JM 44.45 34.92 1/2-13 38 25 54 16.0 134 28.2 65 6.40 76.5
48
JP Face Mounted
BF
BOLT
TAP
FRAME BD NUMBER PENETRATION
SIZE
DESIGNATIONS U AH* AJ AK BB MAX ALLOWANCE
143JP and 145JP 22.21 186 149.25 114.30 3.5 168 4 3/8-16 14
182JP and 184JP 22.21 186 149.25 114.30 3.5 168 4 3/8-16 14
213JP and 215JP 31.73 207 184.15 215.90 7 228 4 1/2-13 19
254JP and 256JP 31.73 207 184.15 215.90 7 254 4 1/2-13 19
284JP and 286JP 31.73 207 279.40 317.5 7 355 4 5/8-11 24
324JP and 326JP 31.73 207 279.40 317.5 7 355 4 5/8-11 24
364JP and 366JP 41.26 207 279.40 317.5 7 355 4 5/8-11 24
EN KEYSEAT
TAP
DRILL BOLT
FRAME TAP DEPTH PENETRATION EP ER ES
DESIGNATIONS EL EM SIZE MAX ALLOWANCE MIN EQ* MIN R MIN S ET*
143JM and 145JM 29.35 25.40 3/8-16 28 19 30 40.0 186 19.5 42 4.80 151.0
182JM and 184JM 31.75 25.40 3/8-16 28 19 32 40.0 186 19.5 42 4.80 151.0
213JM and 215JM 44.45 34.92 3/8-16 38 25 45 60.5 207 28.2 65 6.40 149.5
254JM and 256JM 44.45 34.92 1/2-13 38 25 45 60.5 207 28.2 65 6.40 149.5
284JM and 286JM 44.45 34.92 1/2-13 38 25 54 60.5 207 28.2 65 6.40 149.5
324JM and 326JM 44.45 34.92 1/2-13 38 25 54 60.5 207 28.2 65 6.40 149.5
324JM and 326JM 53.95 44.45 1/2-13 38 25 54 60.5 207 35.9 65 9.55 149.5
49
Mounting arrangements
IEC Publication 34—7 lays down two ways of stating how a motor is
mounted.
Code I covers only motors with bearing end shields and one shaft
extension.
The table below includes the designations for the most commonly
occurring mounting arrangements according to the two codes.
50
The electric motors execution and assembly type can be seen here
This model and/or catalog number is used to establish motor identity and
age for replacement parts and warranty.
51
Bearing Part Numbers.
Boundary Dimensions
The ID (d), OD (D) and width (B) of bearings are standardized metric
dimensions with the last two digits in the bearing nomenclature
representing the bore size. Beginning with a 20 mm bore, the last two
digits equal the bore in mm divided by 5. The smallest internal diameter
interval is, therefore, 5 mm. This permits the two-digit value to span a
bore range from 20 (04) to 480 mm (96). This system is used on all types
of rolling element bearings.
52
Tolerance Classes
ABEC Parameters
ABEC standards do not address many other factors that affect bearing
performance and life, including:
Materials
Ball complement – number, size and precision
Raceway curvature, roundness and finish
Cage design
Lubricant
53
Bearing Manufacturer Numbering Systems
54
Example: 50BC03JPP3 – 50 mm bore diameter whose
bearing last two digit is 50/5 = 10, standard Deep
Groove Ball Bearing (BC), medium series (03), standard
steel cage (J), double shield (PP), and loose internal fitup
– ABMA 3 or C3. The equivalent SKF bearing no. is
6310 ZZ/C3.
55
Example: 50RU03K30 – 50 mm bore diameter whose
last two digit is 50/5 = 10. RU – cylindrical roller
bearing with prefix of NU, medium series (03), brass of
bronze cage (K), internal clearance greater than normal –
C3 with standard tolerance. This is equivalent to NU 310
ECJ/C3 for SKF brand. EC - Optimized internal design
incorporating more and/or larger rollers and with
modified roller/end flange contact, J - Pressed steel cage,
roller centred, unhardened and C3 - Radial internal
clearance greater than Normal.
56
Bearing Designation based on ISO
IEC Publication 34-8 lays down that the stator winding, parts of it and
the terminals of A.C motors must be designated with the letters U, V and
57
W. External neutral terminals are designated N. The letters used for the
rotor winding are K, L, M and Q.
1. End points and intermediate points of a winding are indicated by a
digit after the letter, e.g. U1, U2 etc.
2. Parts of the same winding are designated by a digit before the
letter, e.g. 1U1, 2U1 etc. If there is no possibility of confusion, the
digit before the letter, or both, may be omitted.
58
The switch in the auxiliary winding circuit has been omitted from this
diagram. The connections to the switch must be made so that both
auxiliary windings become de-energized when the switch is open
The direction of shaft rotation can be determined by facing the end of the
motor opposite the drive.
(NEMA Standards MG 1-2006, 2.41. Note: May not apply for some
definite-purpose motors.)
59
Three-Phase Motors – Part-Winding Start
60
61
Three-Phase Motors – Reduced-Current Starting
62
Three – Phase Motors Single Speed
63
64
Three-Phase Motors – Two Speed, Single Winding
65
Dahlander Motors
66
1.8 Motor Design
Changes in motor windings and rotor design will alter the performance
characteristics of induction motors. Motors are designed with certain
speed torque characteristics to match the speed torque requirements of
the various loads. To obtain some uniformity in application, NEMA has
designated specific designs of general purpose motors having specified
locked rotor torque, breakdown torque, slip, starting current, or other
values. The following graph shows the relationship between speed and
torque that the motor produces from the moment of start until the motor
reaches full load torque at rated speed.
67
Locked rotor torque, or starting torque, is developed when the rotor is
held at rest with the rated voltage and frequency applied. This condition
occurs each time a motor is started. When rated voltage and frequency
are applied to the stator, there is a brief amount of time before the rotor
turns. At this instant, a NEMA B motor develops approximately 150% of
its full load torque.
The magnetic attraction of the rotating magnetic field will cause the rotor
to accelerate. As the motor picks up speed, torque decreases slightly until
it reaches pull up torque. As the speed increases the torque increases
until it reaches it’s maximum at about 200%. This is called breakdown,
pullout or stall torque.
68
NEMA Design A, B, C, D
NEMA design A
69
NEMA design B
Has maximum 5% slip, low starting current, high locked rotor torque,
normal breakdown torque, suited for a broad variety of applications,
normal starting torque - common in HVAC application with fans,
blowers and pumps.
NEMA design C
Has maximum 5% slip, low starting current, high locked rotor torque,
normal breakdown torque, and suited for equipment with high inertia
starts - as positive displacement pumps.
NEMA design D
Has maximum 5% slip, low starting current, very high locked rotor
torque, and suited for equipment with very high inertia starts - as cranes,
hoists etc.
IEC Design
Design N
Design NY
Motors similar to design N, but intended for star-delta starting. For these
motors in star-connection, minimum values for Tl and TU of 25% of the
values of design N as shown in Table 1.8A may be expected.
70
Table 1.8A – Minimum Values of Torque for
Design N Starting Performance
Design H
Design HY
Motors similar to design H but intended for star-delta starting. For these
motors in star-connection, minimum values for T1 and TU of 25% of the
values of Design H as shown in Table 1.8B may be expected.
71
Table 1.8B – Minimum Values of Torques for Design H
Notes:
1. The values of Tl are 1.5 times the corresponding values for design N
starting performance, but arc not less than 2.0.
2. The values of Tu are 1.5 times the corresponding values for design N
starting performance, but are not less than 1.4.
3. The values of Tb are equal to the corresponding values for design N
starting performance, but are not less than 1.9 and the values of Tu.
The starting torque is represented by the locked rotor torque Tl, pull-up
torque Tu and breakdown torque Tb, each expressed as a per unit value
of the rated torque TN, and shall be in accordance with the appropriate
values given in Table 1.8A. These values are minimum values at rated
voltage, with no tolerance. Higher values are allowed.
The starting torque at any speed between zero and that at which
breakdown torque occurs shall be not less than 1.3 times the torque
obtained from a curve varying as the square of the speed and being equal
to rated torque at rated speed.
Note. — The factor 1.3 has been chosen with regard to an undervoltage of
10% in relation to the rated voltage at the motor terminals during the
acceleration period.
72
Design N locked rotor apparent power
The locked rotor apparent power S1, is the apparent power input
expressed as a per unit value of the rated output PN. This value shall be
not greater than the appropriate value given in Table 1.8C. The values
given in Table 1.8C are independent of the number of poles and are
maximum values at rated voltage, with no tolerance.
Table 1.8C.
73
Table 1.8D
where:
P is the power in kW and
p is the number of pairs of poles.
74
Design H starting torque
The starting torque is represented by the locked rotor torque Tl, pull-up
torque TU and breakdown torque Tb, each expressed as a per unit value
of the rated torque TN, and shall be in accordance with the appropriate
values given in Table 1.8B - Minimum values of torques for Design H
starting performance. These values given are per unit TN. These values
are minimum values at rated voltage, with no tolerance. Higher values
are allowed.
75
1.9 Types of duty
Definitions
Various types of duty have been defined in terms of how the load, and
thus the output of the motor, varies with time. The rated output for each
type of duty is determined in a load test which the motor must undergo
without the temperature limits laid down in IEC Publication 34-1 being
exceeded.
76
S1 Continuous duty
S2 Short-time duty
Operation at constant load for a given time that is shorter than the time
needed to reach thermal equilibrium, followed by a rest and de-energized
period long enough to allow the motor to reach a temperature that does
not deviate from the temperature of the cooling medium by more than 2
K.
77
S3 Intermittent duty
A sequence of identical duty cycles, where each cycle is in two parts, one
at constant load and the other at rest and de-energized, in this type of
duty the starting current has no significant effect on the temperature rise.
The duty cycle is too short for thermal equilibrium to be reached.
78
S5 Intermittent duty with electrical braking
A sequence of identical duty cycles, where each cycle is in two parts, one
at constant load and the other at no-load. No rest and de-energized
period. The duty cycles are too short for thermal equilibrium conditions
to be reached.
79
S7 Continuous-operation periodic duty with electrical braking
80
Duty with non-periodic load speed variations
Direction of rotation
81
Braking
Mechanical braking
The mechanical brakes used for electric motors are shoe, multiple-plate
or disc brakes. ABB Motors brakes are disc brakes with asbestos-free
brake pads or linings.
82
Electrical Braking
Countercurrent braking
Where:
tb = braking time, s
K1 = constant depending on number of poles. See table
below.
Jm = moment of inertia of motor, kgm2
Jb = moment of inertia of load, referred to speed of motor,
kgm2
Mmax = maximum torque of motor, Nm
Mstart = starting torque of motor, Nm
83
For slip-ring motors the starting and braking times are both determined
by the dimensioning of the rheostatic starter. With countercurrent
braking there is no braking action in the event of power failure. The
technique is therefore unsuitable for use in plant where loss of braking
could cause danger.
Direct-current braking
When braking with this technique, the A.C. supply to the motor is
disconnected and the stator is excited with direct current instead; this
causes the motor to produce a braking torque.
Derating Factors
Voltage Variation
84
A small variation in supply voltage can have a dramatic affect on motor
performance. In the following chart, for example, when voltage is 10%
below the rated voltage of the motor, the motor has 20% less starting
torque. This reduced voltage may prevent the motor from getting its load
started or keeping it running at rated speed.
85
Frequency
Altitude
Standard motors are designed to operate below 3300 feet. Air is thinner,
and heat is not dissipated as quickly above 3300 feet. Most motors must
be derated for altitudes above 3300 feet. The following chart shows
typical horsepower derating factors, but the derating factor should be
checked for each motor. A 50 HP motor operated at 6000 feet, for
example, would be derated to 47 HP, providing the 40°C ambient rating
is still required.
Example: 50 HP x 0.94 = 47 HP
Ambient Temperature
86
Earthing of machines
Machines for rated voltages greater than 1 000 VAC or 1 500 VDC shall
have an earth terminal on the frame, for example an iron strap, and in
addition, a means inside the terminal box for connecting a conducting
cable sheath, if any.
87
Speed Control
General
88
Two-speed motors with pole changing winding
The Dahlander connection gives a pole number ratio of 1:2. The winding
of each phase is in two parts connected in series. These are two common
applications that use Dahlander pole-changing:
PAM
89
Multi-speed motors
If the load torque, and with it the rotor current, is kept constant, an
increase in the rotor resistance will lead to increased slip. However, the
motor speed will be highly load dependent. This type of speed control,
often called slip control, is therefore only used where there are small load
variations, for example with pumps, or where the speed can be
continuously monitored and the rheostat setting adjusted to suit the
torque, with cranes for example.
90
Thus the power supplied to the motor is always constant, regardless of
the speed, whilst the output of the motor decreases in proportion to the
speed. This means that the difference between the power output with the
rheostat fully in circuit and fully out of circuit is consumed in the
rheostat itself. Assuming for simplicity that the load torque is constant
and the speed is reduced by 25%, for example, the power output will be
75% and the remaining 25% is dissipated in the rheostat. This type of
speed control is therefore highly inefficient.
For small changes the slip (s) can be approximately defined as:
91
The basic principle of this form of speed control is that the rotor power is
taken out via the slip-rings and rectified in a conventional uncontrolled
rectifier. The voltage is then converted into alternating voltage in a
controlled inverter and fed back to the supply via a transformer. The
amount of power fed back to the supply can be varied by varying the
firing angle in the inverter.
Fig. 2.3A Typical torque/speed diagram for pump and fan duty
with speed control using a slip recovery system.
For accurate speed regulation, the motor is usually fitted with a tacho-
generator or pulse generator connected to the controller.
92
Converter control gives deviations from the normal sinusoidal shape of
the current in the rotor circuit. These results in additional thermal losses,
and these must be compensated for by choosing a slightly larger motor.
Reduced cooling due to constant load torque at reduced speed may also
need to be compensated for by choosing a slightly larger motor or using
forced cooling. There is no need to do this where the load torque follows
a square law.
Fig. 2.3B shows how the torque/speed curve varies when the frequency
is reduced and the primary voltage is changed in proportion to the
frequency. The maximum torque remains the same, and the motor can be
loaded at constant torque within the control range.
93
If the rated voltage of the motor corresponds to the supply voltage, the
motor cannot be controlled to a speed higher than the rated speed if the
load torque is to be maintained, since the inverter cannot provide a
voltage higher than the supply voltage.
One possible result of a wide speed range is that cooling of the motor
might be insufficient at low speed and high torque, making it necessary
to provide extra cooling. Alternatively, an over dimensioned motor must
be chosen.
Standard motors are generally used with frequency control, in any case
for the lower power ranges. Standard motors are dimensioned for a fairly
high starting torque. The shape of the rotor bars is often such that large
amounts of heat are produced at the top of the bars during starting, when
the rotor frequency is high. Because of the high harmonic losses, this
type of rotor bar design is a disadvantage in frequency converter
operation, in view of the high harmonic content of the supply voltage.
After all, there is no need for a high starting torque when starting with a
frequency converter and it may be preferable to use a different rotor bar
shape.
94
CTU On-load switch and contactor
LCU Rectifier
CBU Intermediate filter
INU Inverter
CP1 Control unit
Commutator Motor
A motor that has come to be widely used for uninterrupted speed control
is the commutator motor, also known as the Schrage motor, after its
inventor, in principle it is an induction motor with built-in control gear.
Unlike ordinary induction motors the commutator motor has its primary
winding in the rotor; the winding is fed from the supply via slip rings.
The rotor slots that contain the primary winding also contain a
commutator winding, essentially in the form of a D.C. winding. The
secondary winding is in the stator.
95
Common fields of application include printing presses, packaging
machines and ski-lifts.
96
Fig. 2.3F - Torque curves for three different brush positions
As the figure shows, the characteristics of the torque curves are such that
the change in speed for varying load is insignificant over the normal
speed range.
Both NEMA and the Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPAct) specify the
same process for testing motor efficiency. EPAct also specifies the
efficiency requirements for a large class of AC motors manufactured
after 1997. In 2001, NEMA established the NEMA Premium designation
for three-phase AC motors that meet even higher efficiency standards
than required by EPAct. Siemens High Efficient motors meet or exceed
EPAct efficiency standards and our NEMA Premium Efficient motors
with our new copper rotor technology exceed NEMA Premium
efficiency standards.
97
Fig. 2.4.A – Efficiency
98
99
100
101
102
General Characteristics
103
C84.1.2.4.3 Range “B” – Service and Utilization Voltages. Range “B”
includes voltages above and below Range “A” limits that necessarily
result from practical design and operating conditions on supply or user
systems, or both. Although such conditions are a part of practical
operations, they shall be limited in extend, frequency, and duration.
When they occur, corrective measures shall be undertaken within a
reasonable time to improve voltages to meet Range “A” requirements.
2.2 Voltage
104
Fig. 2.1A - Arrangement of windings and terminal
blocks for - Y- Connection
Voltage Deviation
If the supply voltage at constant output power deviates from the rated
voltage of the motor, the starting and maximum torques of the motor
vary approximately as the square of the voltage. The change in torque
will also result in a change in the speed. The efficiency and the power
factor are also affected.
105
Voltage deviations also affect the temperature rise in the winding of the
motor. If the voltage is low, the temperature rises in both small and large
motors; if the voltage is high the temperature may drop slightly in large
motors, but rises sharply in motors with small output powers. It is
therefore essential to dimension the windings generously enough to
ensure that there is no significant voltage drop in them on starting or in
service.
106
Unbalance Voltage
Far too many assumptions are made when dealing with the symmetry of
a voltage supply. In order to accurately assess the quality of the voltage
supply, it is necessary to verify it at a number of places within the service
and over a reasonable period of time and seasons. NEMA MG 1, 14.36
offers the following explanation of the effects of unbalance voltage,
along with a load derating curve.
When the line voltages applied to a polyphase induction motor are not
equal, unbalanced currents in the stator windings will result. A small
107
percentage voltage unbalance will result in a much larger percentage
current unbalance. Consequently, the temperature rise of the motor
operating at a particular load and percentage voltage unbalance will be
greater than for the motor operating under the same conditions with
balanced voltages.
When the derating curve as shown in the left figure, it is applied for
operation on unbalanced voltages, the selection and setting of the
overload device should take into account the combination of the derating
factor applied to the motor and increase in current resulting from the
unbalance voltages. This is a complex problem involving the variation in
108
motor current as a function of load and voltage unbalance in addition to
the characteristics for the overload device relative to Imaximum or Iaverage. In
the absence of specific information, it is recommended that overload
devices be selected or adjusted, or both, at the minimum value that does
not result in tripping for the derating factor and voltage unbalance that
apply. When unbalance voltages are anticipated, it is recommended that
the overload devices be selected so as to be responsive to Imaximum in
preference to overload devices responsive to Iaverage.
Unbalance Defined.
Example: With voltages of 460, 467, and 450, the average is 459, the
maximum deviation from average is 9, and the percent unbalance equals:
109
Full-Load Speed. The full-load speed is reduced slightly when the
motor operates with unbalanced voltages.
110
The increase in winding temperature causes additional I2R losses. The
rotor losses also increase because of the impact the “Negative Sequence
Component” has on the rotor. Therefore as shown in figure below, there
is a significant drop in motor efficiency.
111
2.3 Power factor
Phase compensation
112
motor can run as a generator, and this can lead to self-excitation. To
avoid complications, therefore, it is normal practice not to compensate
for more than the no-load current of the motor.
2.4 Efficiency
Electric motors are simply devices that convert electrical energy into
mechanical energy. Like all electromechanical equipment, motors
consume some "extra" energy in order to make the conversion.
Efficiency is a measure of how much total energy a motor uses in
relation to the rated power delivered to the shaft.
There are several ways to express motor efficiency, but the basic concept
and the numerical results are the same. For example:
or its equivalent;
113
Watts (output)
Efficiency, % = x 100
Watts (input)
Watts (output)
Efficiency, % = x 100
Watts (output) + Watts (losses)
or its equivalent;
Watts (input) – Watts (losses)
Efficiency, % = x 100
Watts (input)
"Losses" stands for all the energy "fees" the motor charges in order to
make its electrical-to-mechanical energy conversion. Their magnitude
varies from motor to motor and can even vary among motors of the same
make, type and size. In general, however, standard-efficiency motors
(pre-EPAct) have higher losses than motors that meet EPAct standards,
while NEMA Premium motors, or better, have lower losses still.
Types of Losses
114
Fig 2.4A. A typical NEMA Design B motor showing components
that can be modified to increase the motor's efficiency: (a) Stator
windings; (b) Rotor length; (c) conductor bars and end rings; (d)
air gap; (e) laminations; (f) bearings; (g) fan.
Power losses and stray load losses appear only when the motor is
operating under load. They are therefore more important — in terms of
energy efficiency — than magnetic core losses and friction and windage
losses, which are present, even under no-load conditions (when the motor
is running, of course).
Power losses, also called I²R losses, are the most important of the four
categories and can account for more than one-half of a motor's total
losses. Power losses appear as heat generated by resistance to current
flowing in the stator windings and rotor conductor bars and end rings.
Stator losses make up about 66% of power losses, and it is here that
motor manufacturers have achieved significant gains in efficiency. Since
increasing the mass of stator windings lowers their electrical resistance
(and therefore reduces I²R losses), highly efficient motors typically
contain about 20% more copper than standard efficiency models of
equivalent size and rating.
115
Fig 2.4B. Conductor bars, end plates and fan
in a typical squirrel cage motor. The steel rotor
laminations have been removed by etching.
116
The fact that high-efficiency motors tend to have less slip (run faster)
than standard-efficiency motors must be taken into account in certain
applications. For example, energy consumption by centrifugal loads such
as fans and rotary compressors is proportional to the cube of rotational
speed. If such loads are driven at the higher speed of a low-slip, high-
efficiency motor directly replacing a standard motor, energy
consumption can actually increase. This situation can sometimes be
resolved by lowering rotational speed with a variable-speed drive, gears
or pulleys. There are other parameters, such as torque or starting current,
that can vary among motors of the same nominal horsepower. It is
important to properly engineer the application of any motor to the
intended task.
Magnetic core losses arise from hysteresis effects, eddy currents and
magnetic saturation, all of which take effect in the steel laminations.
Magnetic losses can account for up to 20% of total losses. With proper
design, use of better materials and stringent quality control, these losses
can be reduced considerably.
117
The most effective means to reduce hysteresis and saturation losses is to
utilize steels containing up to 4% silicon for the laminations in place of
lower-cost plain carbon steels. The better magnetic properties offered by
silicon steels can reduce core losses by 10 to 25%. Reducing the
laminations' thickness also helps: substituting 26-ga or 29-ga steel for the
24-ga steel found in standard-efficiency motors lowers core losses by
between 15 and 25%. Lengthening the lamination stack, which reduces
the flux density within the stack, also reduces core losses. Eddy current
losses can be reduced by ensuring adequate insulation between
laminations, thus minimizing the flow of current (and I²R losses) through
the stack.
2.5 Speed
The speed of an A.C. motor depends on the mains frequency and the
number of poles of the stator winding.
118
The rules above apply to moderate changes in output and voltage. The
speeds of the motors when warm and at rated output are subject to a
tolerance of ± 20% of the slip. The normal testing speed for overspeed is
120% of the rated speed for two minutes.
119
The most commonly used method for rotating machines is called
vibration analysis. Measurements can be taken on machine bearing
casings with seismic or piezo-electric transducers to measure the casing
vibrations, and on the vast majority of critical machines, with eddy-
current transducers that directly observe the rotating shafts to measure
the radial (and axial) vibration of the shaft. The level of vibration can be
compared with historical baseline values such as former start-ups and
shutdowns, and in some cases established standards such as load
changes, to assess the severity.
What is vibration?
Benefits
120
faulty components, maintenance costs care are reduced leading
to a better bottom line.
4. Reduced Outage Costs - the cost of an emergency outage is ten
times greater than planned maintenance.
5. Reduce Spare Parts Inventory - with improved inspection
techniques giving advanced warning of failure, fewer spare parts
are required in inventory. What would it mean to the bottom line
if your spare parts inventory could be reduced by 10%?
6. Reduced Operational Costs - with the system up and running
for longer periods of time, the reduction and improvement of
inspections, maintenance, spare parts inventory and outages will
reduce the overall cost of operations.
Vibration is one of the best technologies that will help you determine the
root cause and health condition of your motor. Each rotating component
has its own defect frequency. There are machines whose vibrations had
reached the breakdown threshold (critical level) but still operational
because the bearing is still operational. However, long term-wise, it will
be damaged if such vibration is not addressed in a timely manner. There
are machines also who have an excellent vibration level but stop to
operate because it’s bearing failed.
121
Each manufacturer of vibration instruments has its own patented
technology in determining bearing defects. Such as: envelope
acceleration from SKF, spike energy from CSI or Entek IRD, shock-
pulse-method from SPM, Defect Factor from 01dB Metravibs of
AREVA, etc. In addition to vibration spectrum or time-waveform, it is
suggested to utilize the bearing parameters of the instrument in analyzing
the health condition of bearings.
Monitoring principle
122
Comparison of the change in the vibration magnitude to
acceptance criteria : Criteria 2
123
limited period in this condition until a suitable
opportunity arises for remedial action
Zone D : Vibration values within this zone are normally considered
to be of sufficient severity to cause damage to the
machine
ISO 10816-3: Industrial machines with nominal power above 15KW and
nominal speeds between 120 r/min and 15000 r/min when measured in
situ.
RMS velocity value VRMS and RMS displacement DRMS during
nominal and steady running conditions.
Broad band measurements [10-1000] Hz if speed > 600 RPM.
Broad band measurements [2-1000] Hz if 120 < speed < 600
RPM.
The zone limits are given according the machine group and
mounting type.
124
ISO 10816-3: Industrial machines with nominal power above 15KW and
nominal speeds between 120 r/min and 15000 r/min when measured in
situ.
Group 1: Large machine with rated power above 300kW and not
more than 50 MW ; electrical machine with shaft height H > 315
mm
125
Group 4: Pumps with multi-vane impeller integrated driver
(centrifugal, mixed flow or axial flow) with rated power above
15 kW
ELECTRICAL HEALTH BANDS FOR MOTOR DRIVES (AC, DC, VFD, LOW
FREQUENCY FAULTS
RANGE DRIVE 1x LF 2x LF 3x LF 4x LF 5x LF 6x LF
AC 0.080 0.040
Band Level
DRIVE ips ips
0.020
0.020 0.080 0.020 0.040 0.020
Band Level AC VFD ips
ips ips ips ips ips
DC 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.080
Band Level
FWR ips ips ips ips ips ips
0.020
DC 0.020 0.020 0.080 0.020 0.020
Band Level ips
HWR ips ips ips ips ips
Frequency 0.9-1.1x 1.8-2.2x 2.9-3.1x 3.8-4.2x 4.9-5.1x 5.9-6.1x
Range LF LF LF LF LF LF
FMAX = 24,000 CPM #FFT Lines = 6400 #Average = 2 Overlapping = 0% Window = Hanning
If Drive is DC Type:
Set SCR Bands to appropriate Control Type (Half Wave Rectified or Full Wave
Rectified).
126
Vibration Principles
127
Sinusoidal Vibration. The simplest vibration is the sinusoidal
movement. For example: the movement generated by a mass unbalance
128
In the case of the rotating machines, the period often corresponds to the
duration for one shaft rotation
Note: Unbalance is not the only problem that can cause vibration frequencies of 1
x RPM. Misalignment also causes high levels of vibration at 1 x RPM.
129
The units used for measuring unbalance are varied. It may be stated that
a machine is out-of-balance 6.5 mm/s RMS. This usually means that the
vibration amplitude is 6.5 mm/s and it has been determined that
unbalance is causing the vibration. Unbalance units can also be measured
in ounce-inches or gram-centimeters. To calculate these unbalance units
multiply the amount of unbalance by the radius at which it is acting. For
example, one ounce of unbalance at one-inch radius will result in one
ounce-inch of unbalance.
Causes of Unbalance
130
C1 (30 Hz, [0.14157 g, 7.36 mm/s, 39.09 μm])
[RMS]: PMP-VACO5 MOH S-2 Hz-200 Hz g 05/04/2010 23:21:00
131
2x rpm
1x rpm
Measured radial or axial
132
Misalignment changed the air gap between the stator and rotor resulting
to burnt motor winding due to stress on bearings.
There was a strong axial movement from the pump that damaged motor
bearings. The two bearings 7324 BEJ were mounted in pump outboard
bearing instead of 7324 BECBJ. The later is suitable for back-to-back
bearing arrangement that can handle axial load in any direction. While,
the former is suitable for single mounting and handles one direction of
axial load only.
133
134
Bearing Defects
on motor
Rotor Balancing
Why Balance to tight limits? There are many reasons why a machine
should be balanced to tight limits, some of which include:
135
Balancing
With most rotors, the shaft is stiff enough to resist the centrifugal forces
acting to deflect it. Special cases require additional care in balancing. In
general, the longer and/or more flexible the shaft, the more critical
balancing becomes as shown below.
136
ISO 1940/1 – 1986 (E) – Balance Quality Curve
Rotor Balancing
137
Vibration From Belt Drive Problems
Belt drives for power transmission are classed as friction drives. The belt
transmits power by friction contact between the belt and the driving and
driven sheaves.
Power transmission belts are available in several types and each has
specific characteristics from optimum load, speed and friction
performance. To obtain the best service from any particular belt
application, such as flat belt, V-belts, synchronous belts and multi-ribbed
belts, key considerations are:
Belts drives are popular for power transmission because they have a high
capacity for absorbing shock and vibration. V-belts are the most
commonly used power transmission belt. They offer relatively quiet
operation compared to chain or gear dives. However, V-belts can be
source of unwanted vibration, especially on machines where low levels
of vibration must be maintained. For example machines such as grinders,
drills, lathes, fans, and agitators.
V-belts are often taken as the source of vibration because belts whipping
and bouncing between the sheaves are more visible than vibration of the
other parts of a machine and are usually easy to change. Belt replacement
is one of the first activities for trying to correct vibration problems.
138
V-belts often are reacting to other disturbing forces in the machine.
Several of these forces include: unbalanced eccentric sheaves/pulleys,
misalignment, build-up on sheaves and mechanical looseness. All of
these examples can produce highly visible belt vibration. Is often just too
easy to blame the belt. In these cases, the belt is the indicator of a
vibration, but is not the actual problem. A complete vibration analysis of
the machine should be done before replacing the drive belts.
Belt Over-Tension
1x Fan RPM
1x Motor RPM
Measured at Motor NDE
139
Impact of over belt tension:
With multi-belt drives, it is important that all belts have the same tension.
If one or more belts are slack while other are under proper tension, the
slack belt can undergo excessive vibration even from very minor
disturbing forces. This condition, if continued, causes belts slippage and
brings on excessive belt and pulley wear.
Belt Slippage
140
lined marks on the belts under the strobe light. If the belts are slipping in
relation to one another, the marks will also appear to move relative to
one another (freeze one and watch the other).
2.7 Bearings
Rolling bearings, i.e. ball and roller bearings, are reliable, inexpensive
and easy to maintain. They are the only type of bearing used in small and
medium-sized three-phase motors. However, they have an upper size
limit that is a function of rotational speed.
This limit depends on bearing type, size, load, method of lubrication etc.
Sometimes sleeve bearings are preferred for larger motor sizes, even
where rolling bearings could be used.
Bearing Life
Nominal life is the number of running hours at a given speed for which
the bearing can rotate before signs of fatigue – scaling – appear on the
rings or rolling elements.
ISO definition L10 means the length of life that 90% of a large number
of identical bearings are expected to reach or exceed. Half of the
bearings achieve as much as five times the L10 life.
141
Internal Clearance
142
Illustration of Location of Shaft and Housing Tolerance Grades with
respect to Bearing Bore and O.D. Toerances (exaggerated).
Shaft and housing fits for metric radial ball and roller bearings
conforming to basic boundary plans have been established by ABMA as
Standard7.Shaft and housing fits (j5, k5 and H6) are listed in the
“Bearing Fit Tolerance” charts as shown below.
Example: Motor bearing no. 6310 ZZ/C3. The basic number 10. The last
two digit is 10 x 5 = 50 mm bore diameter. The maximum shaft
interference fit is 1.9690 “ or 50.012 mm. The minimum shaft diameter
is 1.9686” of 50.002 mm. The inner ring of the bearing will rotate against
the shaft if diameter is < than the minimum requirement. Or bearing will
hardly rotate if > than the maximum. Hence, its best to be within the
range for safe operation.
143
144
145
Sleeve bearings
At high speeds and/or for heavy loads sleeve bearings are used. Their life
is practically unlimited provided that the lubrication is uninterrupted and
that the lubricant is changed at suitable intervals. Another advantage is
that their noise level is lower than that of rolling bearings. It is also
important not to exceed the temperature limits of sleeve bearings. A
normal bearing temperature is 65 to 80°C.
The loads acting on the bearing can be calculated according to the laws
of mechanics, if the external forces are known. The values are calculated
according to ISO R 281-1 and they are quoted in product information
files for different types of machines. Axial forces are given separately for
horizontal and vertical machines.
146
Lubrication
43% of bearing failures is caused by lubrication. Proper lubrication will
also reduce your energy consumption.
147
a. Reduces friction and abrasion
b. Transports heat generated by friction
c. Prolongation of service life
d. Prevents rust (corrosion)
e. Keeps foreign objects (or contamination) away from rolling
elements and raceways
Grease Lubrication
Carefully examine the type and properties of the base oil, thickener and
additives of the grease, and select grease appropriate for the operating
condition of the bearing. The general relation between consistency of
grease and the application of the bearing is given in above Table. The
types and properties of greases can be provided by local lubricant
suppliers.
148
Grease Additives
Relubrication Interval
D = 130 mm
B = 31mm
GP = 0.005 x 130 x 31= 20 grams
149
The cost of lubrication maintenance
150
The alternative method…
When compared with the high cost of lubrication application labor, or the
hazards that can be associated with lubricating modern machinery,
automatic lubrication single point lubricators offer a cost effective
alternative to manual grease and oil application.
Oil lubrication
151
Use Table below to select oil with an adequate viscosity for the operating
temperature of the bearing.
152
Figure below shows the variation of viscosity with temperature for
several lubrication oils.
Oil Bath
153
Bearing Failures and Solutions
Flaking
Photo A – 1 Photo A – 2
Deep groove ball bearing. Outer ring of angular contact ball bearing.
Inner ring, outer ring, and balls are flaked. Flaking of raceway surface spacing equal to distances
The cause is excessive load. between balls.
The cause is improper handling.
Photo A – 3 Photo A – 4
Inner ring raceway of a deep groove ball bearing. Outer ring raceway of an angular contact ball bearing.
154
Photo A – 5 Photo A – 6
Inner ring of deep groove ball bearing. Inner ring of spherical roller bearing.
Flaking on one side of the raceway. Flaking only on one side of the raceway surface.
The cause is an excessive axial load. The cause is an excessive axial load.
Photo A – 7 Photo A – 8
Tapered roller bearing. Outer ring of double row angular contact ball bearing.
Flaking on 1/4 circumference of inner ring raceway with Flaking on 1/4 circumference of outer ring raceway.
outer ring and rollers discoloured light brown. The cause is poor installation.
The cause is excessive pre-load.
Peeling
Photo B – 1 Photo B – 2
Rollers of spherical roller bearing. Tapered roller bearing.
Peeling on rolling contact surfaces. Development of peeling to flaking on inner ring and rollers.
The cause is poor lubrication. The cause is poor lubrication.
155
Spalling
Photo C – 1 Photo C – 2
Inner ring of cylindrical roller bearing. Inner ring of cylindrical roller bearing.
Spalling on rib. Spalling on raceway surface and come back face rib.
The cause is excessive load. The cause is poor lubrication.
156
Smearing
Photo D – 1 Photo D – 2
Inner ring of cylindrical roller bearing. Roller of same bearing as that of the inner ring shown in
Smearing on raceway surface. Photo D-1.
The cause is slippage of rollers due to foreign objects Smearing on rolling contact surface.
trapped within. The cause is slippage of rollers due to foreign objects
trapped within.
Photo D – 3 Photo D – 4
Rollers of spherical thrust roller bearings. Inner ring of double row tapered roller bearing (RCT
Smearing at middle of rolling contact surfaces. bearing).
The cause is slippage of rollers due to foreign objects Smearing on raceway surface.
trapped within.
157
Stepped Wear
Photo E – 1 Photo E – 2
Outer ring of cylindrical roller bearing. Inner ring of cylindrical roller bearing (inner ring of which is
Stepped wear on raceway surface. shown in Photo E-1).
The cause is oor lubrication. Stepped wear on full circumference of raceway.
The cause is poor lubrication.
Photo E – 3 Photo E – 4
Outer ring of double row angular contact ball bearing Retainer of cylindrical roller bearing.
(hub unit bearing). Wear of pockets of machined high tensile brass casting
Wear on one side of the raceway. retainer (G1).
The cause is poor lubrication.
158
Speckles and Discoloration
Photo F – 1 Photo F – 2
Inner ring of double row tapered roller bearing (RCT Ball of deep groove ball bearing.
bearing). Speckled all over.
Raceway surface is speckled. The cause is foreign objects and poor lubrication.
The cause is electric pitting.
Photo F – 3 Photo F – 4
Outer ring of spherical roller bearing. Spherical roller bearing.
Partial oil deposition on raceway surface. Discoloration of inner and outer ring raceway surfaces.
The cause is deterioration of lubricant.
159
Indentations
Photo G – 1 Photo G – 2
Inner ring (cut off piece) of self-aligning roller bearing. Rollers of spherical roller bearing.
Dents on one side of the raceway. Dents on rolling contact surfaces.
The cause is trapping of solid foreign objects. The cause is trapping of solid foreign objects.
Photo G – 3 Photo G – 4
Rollers of tapered roller bearings. Inner ring of tapered roller bearing.
Dents all over rolling contact surfaces. (temper color at Dents on raceway surface.
two ends.) The cause is trapping of foreign objects.
The cause is foreign objects carried by lubricating oil.
160
Chipping
Photo H – 1 Photo H – 2
Cylindrical roller bearing. Inner ring of spherical roller bearing.
Chipping of guide ribs of inner and outer rings. Rib chipped.
The cause is excessive impact load. The cause is excessive impact load.
Photo H – 3 Photo H – 4
Inner ring of tapered roller bearing. Inner ring of double row tapered roller bearing.
Chipping of cone back face rib. Chipping of side face.
The cause is impact due to poor mounting. The cause is impact due to improper handling.
161
Cracking
Photo I – 1 Photo I – 2
Inner ring of spherical roller bearing. Fracture of inner ring shown in Photo I-1.
Split of raceway surface in the axial direction. Originating point is observed at the middle of the left
The cause is excessive interference fit. raceway surface.
Photo I – 3 Photo I – 4
Outer ring of four-row cylindrical roller bearing. Outer ring of angular contact ball bearing.
Split of raceway surface in the circumferential Split of raceway surface in the circumferential direction.
direction, originated from large flaking. The cause is slipping of balls due to poor lubrication.
The cause is large flaking.
162
Rust and Corrosion
Photo J – 1 Photo J – 2
Inner ring of tapered roller bearing. Outer ring of tapered roller bearing.
Rusting on raceway surface spacing equivalent to the Rusting on raceway surface spacing equivalent distances
distance between rollers. The cause is water in between rollers. The cause is water in lubricant. Some
lubricant. points are corroded.
Photo J – 3 Photo J – 4
Roller of spherical roller bearing. Inner ring (split type) of self-aligning roller bearing.
Rust as well as corrosion on rolling contact surface. Rust and corrosion of the raceway surface.
Ingress of water. The cause is ingress of water.
163
Seizing
Photo K – 1 Photo K – 2
Inner ring of double row tapered roller bearing. Rollers of double row tapered roller bearing.
Seizing-up discolours and softens inner ring producing Rollers of same bearing as that of the inner ring shown in
stepped wear at spacing equal to distances between Photo K-1. Discoloration, spalling, and adhesion due to
the rollers. seizing up on rolling contact surfaces and end faces of
The cause is poor lubrication. rollers.
Photo K – 3 Photo K – 4
Outer ring of spherical roller bearing. Inner ring of tapered roller bearing.
Stepped wear due to seizing up of raceway surface. Large end of the raceway surface and cone back face rib
The cause is poor lubrication. surface are seized up.
The cause is poor lubrication.
164
Fretting and Fretting Corrosion
Photo L – 1 Photo L – 2
Inner ring of cylindrical roller bearing. Inner ring of deep groove ball bearing.
Corrugated fretting along full circumference of Fretting along full circumference of raceway.
raceway. The cause is vibration.
The cause is vibration.
Photo L – 3 Photo L – 4
Outer ring of cylindrical roller bearing. Outer ring of tapered roller bearing.
Fretting rust on outside diameter surface. Fretting rust on the outside diameter surface.
165
Electrical Pitting
Photo M – 1 Photo M – 2
Inner ring of cylindrical roller bearing. Rollers of tapered roller bearings.
Raceway surface is corrugated by electric pitting. Electric pitting at middle of rolling contact surfaces.
166
Rolling Path Skewing
Photo N – 1 Photo N – 2
Spherical roller bearing. Outer ring of tapered roller bearings.
Contacts on inner ring, outer ring, and rollers are not Contact path on raceway surface strays.
even. The cause is poor mounting.
The cause is poor mounting.
Photo N – 3
Rollers of tapered roller bearing of which outer ring is
shown in photo N-2.
Contact marks on rolling contact surfaces are not even.
167
Damage to Retainers
Photo O – 1 Photo O – 2
Retainer of angular contact ball bearing. Retainer of spherical roller bearing.
Breakage of machined high tension brass retainer L1. Breakage of partitions between pockets of pressed steel
The cause is poor lubrication. retainer.
Photo O – 3 Photo O – 4
Retainer of tapered roller bearing. Retainer of cylindrical roller bearing.
Breakage of pockets of pressed steel retainer. Breakage of partitions between pockets of machined
high tension brass casting retainer L1.
168
Creeping
Photo P – 1 Photo P – 2
Inner ring of deep groove ball bearing. Inner ring of tapered roller bearing.
Bore wall glazed by creep. Spalling due to creep at the middle of bore wall.
Photo P – 3 Photo P – 4
Iner ring ring thrust ball bearing. Inner ring of tapered roller bearing.
Spalling and friction cracking due to creep on bore Spalling and friction cracking on width surface due to
wall. creep. Crack developed into a split reaching bore wall.
169
2.8 Torque
Torque is the turning force through a radius and the units is rated in - Nm
- in the SI-system and in - lb ft - in the imperial system.
The Locked Rotor Torque or Starting Torque is the torque the electrical
motor develop when its starts at rest or zero speed.
170
Pull-up Torque
When the motor starts and begins to accelerate the torque in general
decrease until it reach a low point at a certain speed - the pull-up torque -
before the torque increases until it reach the highest torque at a higher
speed - the break-down torque - point.
The pull-up torque may be critical for applications that need power to go
through some temporary barriers achieving the working conditions.
Break-down Torque
The Full-load Torque is the torque required to produce the rated power of
the electrical motor at full-load speed.
where:
T = full-load torque (lb ft)
Php = rated horsepower
nr = rated rotational speed (rev/min, rpm)
171
where:
T = rated torque (Nm)
PkW = rated power (kW)
nr = rated rotational speed (rpm)
NEMA Design
Accelerating Torque
Reduced Voltage Soft Starters are used to limit the starting current and
reducing the Locked Rotor Torque or Starting Torque and are common
in applications which is hard to start or must be handled with care - as
positive displacement pumps, cranes, elevators and similar.
172
Power versus torque and motor velocity in electric motors are
indicated below:
Motor Velocity (rpm)
3450 2000 1000 500
Power Torque
.5 .6 37 1 5 36 0 7 73 9 3 45 9 07
0 .5 83 5 1 15 6 6 30 3 1 260 05 42
5 1 74 3 1 73 9 3 45 9 07 891 58 14
0 5 65 0 1 30 3 1 260 05 42 521 10 85
5 9 57 8 2 88 6 9 576 31 78 151 63 56
0 2 48 6 2 45 9 07 891 58 14 781 15 27
173
Power versus torque (Continued):
Motor Velocity (rpm)
3450 2000 1000 500
Power Torque
00 98 307 09 26 2605 050 425 5210 101 850 0419 202 699
50 36 221 85 29 4180 182 603 8361 363 206 6722 727 412
50 10 0047 37 136 7332 444 959 4663 889 918 9326 777 837
00 48 0961 13 239 8907 576 137 7814 151 275 5629 302 549
174
Asynchronous Motor Starting Systems
Introduction
There are three methods for limiting the current and torque when
starting induction motors:
1. Reduction of terminal voltage by use of an auto-transformer,
resistors, reactors; or electronic soft starter.
2. Reconnection of the stator winding using the series-parallel,
why-delta or part-winding method.
3. Reduction in voltage and frequency by variable-frequency
drive.
This is the simplest mode, where the stator is directly connected to the
mains supply. The motor starts with its own characteristics.
175
When it is switched on, the motor behaves like a transformer with its
secondary, formed by the very low resistance rotor cage, in short circuit.
There is a high induced current in the rotor which results in a current
peak in the mains supply:
Star-Delta Starting
176
This starting system can only be used with a motor where both ends of its
three stator windings are fitted to a terminal board.
This can only be used if the machine has enough inertia to prevent too
much speed reduction during the time delay.
177
There is still a break, but the resistor in series with the delta-connected
windings for about three seconds lowers the transient current. This stops
the current from breaking and so prevents the occurrence of transient
phenomena.
This system, not widely used in Europe, is quite common in the North
American market (voltage of 230/460, a ratio of 1:2). This type of motor
has a stator winding divided into two parallel windings with six or twelve
output terminals. It is equivalent to two “half motors” of equal power.
The part winding starter reduces inrush current by using two different
sets of windings in the motor. Therefore, part winding starters can be
used only with motors having stator windings divided into two equal
parts with the terminals of each part available for external connection.
178
The part winding starter consists of two across the line starters and a
timer. The first starter is used to connect one winding of the motor across
the line. The starting current from one winding will be about 50% of the
starting current if both windings were connected. The starting torque is
correspondingly 50%.
Because the starting torque is so low and will not increase until the
second winding is connected, the motor may not begin to accelerate.
Therefore, the time delay for the second winding to be energized should
not be more than 4 seconds.
When the second winding is energized, the inrush current will increase
depending upon the speed of the motor when the second winding is
energized.
179
contacts open, and the resistors are shorted out by an additional set of
contacts. At this point, full voltage is supplied to the motor.
180
Autotransformer starting
181
When the setting time on the timer has expired, the autotransformer is
bypassed.
The 1S contactor drops out, the run contactor closes, and the 2S
contactor opens, proving full voltage to the motor. The ABB
autotransformer starter is a closed transition type, meaning that the motor
remains connected to the line during the entire acceleration period.
The transformer has three taps which provide 50%, 65% and 80% of full
line voltage. At delivery, the transformer is connected to the 65% tap; the
inrush current will be reduced to 42% of normal; and the starting torque
will be reduced to 42%.
Solid state starters use no bulky or moving parts. These devices consist
of self-contained electronic circuitry. The amount of current flow to the
motor is controlled by using solid state devices, known in general as
thyristor.
182
The function of these devices is to allow a smooth increase in starting
voltage into the motor once a predetermined starting current has been
reached. The values for different levels of the gating current can be set in
the device.
183
Soft Starter Starting/Slackening
Current limitation.
Torque adjustment.
1. One-way operation,
2. Two-way operation,
3. Device shunting at the end of the starting process,
4. Starting and slackening several motors in cascade, - etc.
Soft-Starter
184
Frequency Converter Starting
Variable or adjustable speed drives have been used for more than 20
years in a wide range of applications. Ranging from single motor driven
pumps, fans and compressors, to highly sophisticated multi-drive
machines, variable speed drives have the ability to change motor speed to
meet the needs of a driven load. Controlled speed allows more efficient
processing and reduces energy consumption.
Variable Speed Drives use solid state devices to vary supply voltage
frequency. They allow for a constant ratio of voltage to frequency.
185
Table 3.1 - Starting Characteristics of Induction Motors in Percent
of Full-Voltage Value
186
3.2 Single-phase motor starting
A single-phase motor cannot start on its own, so there are different ways
to run it.
In this type of motor, the stator has two windings geometrically offset by
90°.
When it is switched on, because the coils are made differently, a current
C1 crosses the main phase and a weaker current C2, noticeably shifted
by p/2, circulates in the auxiliary phase. The fields which are generated
are produced by two currents that are phase-shifted in relation to each
other, so the resulting rotating field is strong enough to trigger no-load
starting of the motor.
When the motor has reached about 80% of its speed, the auxiliary phase
can be cut off (centrifugal coupling) or kept running. The motor stator
thus becomes a two-phase stator, either on starting or all the time.
187
The connections of a phase can be inverted to reverse the direction of
rotation.
As the starting torque is low, it should be raised by increasing the offset
between the two fields the coils produce.
A resistor in series with the auxiliary phase increases its impedance and
the offset between C1 and C2.
Operation at the end of the starting process is the same as with the
auxiliary phase on its own.
This works in the same way as above, but the resistor is replaced by an
inductance in series with the auxiliary phase to increase the offset
between the two currents.
188
Starting purposes may require an extra capacitor of 16μF which is
eliminated when the starting process is over.
Only low-powered 4-pole motors of no more than 4kW are suitable for
this system.
189
Conclusion
190
Motor Protection and Coordination
Introduction
Motors that are designed for a specific relationship between the load,
start-up time and switch-off time can also be overload if the start-up time
is lengthened or the switch-off time is reduced while the current
consumption is kept constant. These kinds of time changes can also
change torque characteristics. If the torque increases, the current
consumption increases as well, leading to an increase in motor
temperature with every increase in current.
191
temperature above the permissible continuous temperature limit. As a
rough guide it can be assumed that the lifespan of a winding insulation is
reduced by 50% with every over-temperature of 100C.
Code Requirements
There are several basic requirement are typically specified for a motor
circuit. In the Philippines, Philippine Electrical Code has the
requirements that must be met. Most often the National Electrical Code
(NEC) is followed as the basis for most electrical installations.
192
4.1 Motors protection
Every electric motor has operating limits. Overshooting these limits will
eventually destroy it and the systems it drives, the immediate effect being
operating shutdown and losses.
Electrical
a. Power surges, voltage drops, unbalance and phase losses causing
variations in the absorbed current.
b. Short circuits where the current can reach levels that can destroy
the receiver.
Mechanical
a. Rotor stalling, momentary or prolonged overloads increasing the
current absorbed by the motor and dangerously heating its
windings.
These incidents can also have a serious impact on the safety of people in
direct or indirect contact with the motor.
193
Every starter motor unit should include
Ground fault protection, which covers personal protection and fire safety,
is not dealt with here because it is normally part of the electrical
distribution in equipment, workshops or entire buildings.
Overview
This can have a number of causes: damage to the varnish insulating the
conductors, loose, broken or stripped wires or cables, metal foreign
bodies, conducting deposits (dust, moisture, etc.), seepage of water or
other conducting fluids, wrong wiring in assembly or maintenance.
194
A thermal phenomenon
An electrodynamics phenomenon
195
Definitions and characteristics
Fuses
196
FLA. In today’s industrial facilities, short-circuit overcurrents can easily
reach 50,000A. If the short-circuit overcurrents are not interrupted within
fractions of a second, severe damage to the electrical installation can
occur including motor damage, conductor and controller damage or even
fires. In motor circuits, fuses best provide protection from damage
caused by short–circuit currents.
Throughout the world, many different types of fuses are used for short-
circuit protection in motor circuits. In North America, UL and CSA fuses
are most commonly used. In other parts of the world, DIN (German) and
BS88 (British) fuses are dominant. Even though the construction and
fastening means are quite different (See different types of fuses below),
all these fuses still perform the same essential function of short-circuit
protection.
BS88 Fuses
197
DIN Fuses
UL/CSA Fuses
UL/CSA Fuses
198
Operation: Dual-element, Time-delay, Current-limiting
199
Fuse Performance Requirements
200
Fuses perform phase-by-phase (single pole) protection with a high break
capacity at low volume. They limit I2t and electrodynamics stress
(Icrête). They are mounted:
The fuses used for motor protection are specific in that they let through
the overcurrents due to the magnetizing current when motors are
switched on. They are not suitable for protection against overload (unlike
gG fuses) so an overload relay must be added to the motor power supply
circuit.
In general, their size should be just above the full load current of the
motor.
201
International Circuit Breakers
Motor circuit protectors that meet IEC 947 requirements are most
common outside North America. The IEC type circuit protector
incorporates several functions within a single device including On-Off
push buttons for local control and motor circuit isolation, adjustable
bimetallic elements for overload protection, and magnetic trip elements
for short-circuit protection.
These circuit breakers protect plant from short circuits within the limits
of their breaking capacity and by means of magnetic triggers (one per
phase).
For low short-circuit currents, circuit breakers work faster than fuses.
202
Most magnetic circuit breakers for motor protection are current-limiting
devices and so contribute to coordination. Their very short cut-off time
breaks the short-circuit current before it reaches its maximum amplitude.
This limits the thermal and electrodynamics effects and improves the
protection of wiring and equipment.
Overview
203
The importance of proper protection against overload is easy to
understand:
204
Depending on the level of protection required, overload protection can be
provided by relays:
For this purpose, protection relays have a fault contact (NC) fitted in
series with the contactor coil.
Overview
These relays protect motors against overload but must sustain the
temporary overload of starting and only trip when starting lasts too long.
Depending on its use, motor starting can range from a few seconds (no-
load starting, low resistant torque, etc.) to a few dozen seconds (high
resistant torque, high inertia of the driven load, etc.).
Hence the necessity for relays adapted to the starting time. To meet this
need, the IEC 60947-4-1 standard has several categories of overload
relay each defined by its tripping time.
205
The relay size should be chosen on the basis of the motor’s rated current
and the estimated starting time.
Limits of use are characterized by curves based on the time and value of
the current setting (in multiples of Ir).
These relays have a thermal memory (apart from some electronic ones,
indicated by their manufacturers) and can be connected:
206
Bimetal thermal overload relays
These are linked to a contactor to protect the motor, the power supply
and the equipment against low prolonged overload. They are thus
designed to enable the motor to start normally without tripping.
However, they must be protected from strong over currents by a circuit
breaker or fuses.
As the current crosses them, the strips distort and, depending on the
setting, cause the relay contact to open suddenly.
The relay can only be reset when the bimetal strips have adequately
cooled down.
Thermal overload relays work with alternating and direct current and are
usually:
1. 3-pole.
2. Compensated, i.e. insensitive to ambient temperature variations
(same tripping curve from 0°C to 40°C on a standard gauge.
3. Graduated in “motor amperes”: current indicated on the motor
plate displayed on the relay.
207
They can also respond to a loss of a phase: this is the differential. This
feature prevents the motor from working in single-phase and complies
with standards IEC 60947-4-1 and 60947-6-2.
These relays have the advantages of electronic systems and build a more
detailed thermal image of the motor. Using a template with the motor’s
thermal time constants, the system continuously calculates the motor
temperature based on the current crossing it and operating time.
Protection is hence closer to the reality and can prevent inadvertent
tripping. Electronic overload relays are less sensitive to the thermal
conditions where they are installed.
208
Apart from the usual functions of overload relays (protection against
motor overload, unbalance and lack of phase) electronic overload relays
can include options such as:
Probes are imbedded into the motor and because they are small, their
thermal inertia is very low, ensuring a very short response time and
hence a very accurate temperature reading.
209
An electronic device
210
Electronic device for three thermistor probes
The choice of PTC probes depends on the insulation category and motor
structure. It is usually made by the motor manufacturer or winding fitter
who are the only ones with the requisite skills.
These two conditions mean that PTC probe protection really only applies
to high-end equipment with expensive motors or processes.
211
In addition to thermal protection by relays or PTC probe, these ensure
protection of the drive chain in the event of rotor locking, mechanical
seizing or inching.
These, unlike most overload relays, have no thermal memory. They have
a set operating time (adjustable current threshold and timing).
Features
212
This new generation of product allow to reduce the costs from the design
of the equipment, as PLC’s programming are made simple, to the
operation as maintenance cost and downtime are dramatically cut down.
Main functions are given in the table bellow. More in depth information
can be found in the manufacturer data sheets.
213
Protection relay selection guide
Main functions are given in the table bellow. More in depth information
can be found in the manufacturer data sheets.
Overload
relay
PTC probe Overtorque
Type of relays (thermorelay Multifunction relay
relay relay
or electronic
relay)
Segregated
Built in the Outside the
motor
starter starter
monitor
Type of control
Current
Protection classes 10 et 20 5 to 20 5 to 20 5 to 30
Overcurrent ++ +++ +++ +++
Ground Fault
Phase imbalance ++ ++ ++ +++
Mechanical locking
+ ++ ++ ++ +++
during/after starting
No load operation module module +++
Voltage and power
supply
Voltage imbalance +++
Phase loss +++
Phase inversion +++
Undervoltage +++
Overvoltage +++
Power in power factor +++
Temperature
PTC probes module module +++
PT100 probes module module +++
Numerical functions
Truth table 3 I/O 10 I/O 10 to 20 I/O
Timer ++
Starting mode
Direct on line +++ +++ +++
Reversing +++ +++ +++
Star delta +++ +++ +++
Part winding – two
+++ +++
speed motors
Operation/maintenance
Dignostics + + +++
Log module module +++
Links/communication
Local display + module module +++
Remote display
module module +++
(communication bus)
214
4.5. Motor circuit breakers
Overview
In all these circuit breakers, coordination (type II) between the thermal
elements and short-circuit protection is built into the device.
215
Moreover, in the open position, the insulation distance (between
contacts) in most of these units is adequate to ensure isolation. They also
have a padlocking device.
Tripping curves
216
Their limits are:
Conclusion
217
218
Motor Starter Co-ordination
5.1 Concepts
Under overload conditions, the overload protection will trip the supply to
the motor in a time which depends upon the current. The greater the
current, the faster the overload will trip, but in the event of a short
circuit. Its response time is still not fast enough to prevent damage to the
motor or starter. Separate protection against short circuits is, therefore,
necessary.
Standards
The current standards were introduced as the IEC 947 series for Low
Voltage Switchgear and Control-gear in the early 1990s. These were then
adopted by CENELEC in Europe and published as the EN 60947 series
of standards.
219
More recently the IEC has adopted the EN numbering system for
standards, with many standards now being developed in parallel by the
IEC and CENELEC and published at the same time. Thus IEC 60947-1
and EN 60947-1 are basically the same standard with possible minor
differences in the text.
5.2 Solutions
Three products
Two products
Single product
220
range are an ideal and economical choice. Integral Control and
Protection Switching (CPS) devices offer a true black-box solution, with
fit-and-forget performance, even after being subjected to short circuit
fault conditions. All products in the range are fully tested to IEC/EN
60947-6-2, and automatically offer total co-ordination under all
operating conditions.
IEC / EN 60947-4-1
This standard covers both contactors and motor starters. Provisions relate
specifically to motor starters assembled from separate components -
typically a set of fuses or magnetic-only MCCB, a contactor, and a
thermal overload relay. Starters comprising other combinations of
components are, however, not excluded.
The table below shows the tests which are required for Type '2' co-
ordination but it's important to note that only the “r” test is compulsory.
Manufacturers who have only carried out the "r' test can still claim Type
‘2' co-ordination - here is no obligation to carry out the subsequent
making and breaking tests to ensure that the starter is fit for further
service.
221
Test requirements
222
Control and protective switching (CPS)
IEC / EN 60947-6-2
223
SCPD (Fuse, circuit breaker or CPS device) selected to provide
an overload/SCPD crossover current value, which allows correct
motor starting, protection of the overload and contactor under
short circuit conditions, and is suitable for use at the prospective
short circuit current.
224
Several key benefits of using IEC circuit breakers include:
Type 2 Coordination
225
Figure 5.2 illustrates the results of a short-circuit if a motor branch
circuit was protected by current limiting device vs. a circuit without a
current limiting device. In circuits using a current limiting device, the let-
through energy is limited to less than 1/2 cycle. This limited level of let-
through energy allows the control components to survive a short-circuit
and continue operation with little or no maintenance required. In general,
fuses have had much better current limiting capabilities than do circuit
breakers, although some current limiting circuit breakers can provide
Type 2 Coordination results. It is best to consult the control manufacturer
for recommended short-circuit protection devices required to achieve
Type 2 Coordination. Control manufacturers can provide component
selection data (see Table 5.2) that has already been proven during Type 2
testing programs. By following the manufacturers’ guidelines, you can
be assured of achieving Type 2 Coordination in your motor branch
circuit installation.
226
Table 5.2 – Manufacturer Fuse Recommendation for Type 2
Coordination
227
Figure 5.2 - Let-through Heat and Current
228
5.3 Motor Overload Protection
Today three basic types of overload relays are available: eutectic alloy,
bimetal, and solid-state. Let’s take a closer look at each type of overload
relay and review the basic features of each.
Eutectic alloy overload relays are typically used with NEMA motor
starters. These overload relays utilize a solder type alloy within heater
elements. As current moves through the heater element, the solder is
heated until a predetermined melting point (trip point) is reached. At the
trip point, the solder is instantaneously changed from a solid to a liquid,
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allowing the ratchet mechanism to open a normally closed contact,
dropping out the starter coil circuit.
Tamper-proof
Not effected by nuisance tripping caused by vibration
Manual reset only
Single-phase “sensitive”
Selectable trip classes 10, 20, 30
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Two types of bimetal overload relays are available, NEMA and IEC.
The NEMA type bimetal overload relay utilizes replaceable heater
elements that indirectly heat bimetal strips. As the bimetal strips are
heated, they flex towards a trip point, at which time a normally closed
contact will open, dropping out the starter coil.
IEC bimetal overload relays are similar to the NEMA devices except that
the heater/bimetal are integral to the overload relay. To allow for added
flexibility, the overload trip setting is adjustable over a range of motor
full load current settings. The typical FLA setting range would be 1.0:1.5
(min. to max. setting). IEC bimetal overload relays are typically designed
to Class 10 trip characteristics. This means that the overload relay will
trip in less than 10 seconds at locked rotor current.
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Solid-state Overload Relays
232
Key features of solid-state overload relays:
Trip classes 10, 15, 20, 30
Ambient temperature compensation
Single-phase “protection”
Manual or automatic reset
Low power consumption (less heating and smaller panels)
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As a result of integrating a microprocessor or an application specific
integrated circuit (ASIC) as the brains of a solid-state overload relay, the
opportunity to add advanced protective functionality to the overload
relay becomes very practical.
Start/Stop
Reset
Restart limit
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Advanced Solid-State vs. Traditional OLRs
Advanced Protection
Solid-state OLRs Traditional OLRs
Feature
Jam/Stall protection Trips within 0.5 sec at Relays on overload trip
selectable 400% of FLA setting curve response
- I/O selectable Monitors phase vector None-rely on SCPD
Ground (earth) fault angles
protection selectable Trips at ower level prior
- I/O selectable to fault level
Trips within two se. on
Single-phase “protection” fully loaded motor “Sensitive” to single-
phase conditions
Dip switch setting
Trip setting accuracy increased accuracy Potentiometer or heater
±2.5% elements: ±10%
Repeat accuracy of trip Increased accuracy ±1% ±5% - 10%
setting Fault cause indication
LED trip indication - Jam/Stall None
- Ground earth fault
- Improper setting
- Comunication loss
- Test
- Phase loss
- Overload
Data acquisition
- % thermal capacity
used (trip warning)
- Trip frequency
- Phase unbalance
- FLA trip setting
- Average current
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Coordinated Motor Circuit Protection
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Short-circuit currents result from such problems as wiring errors,
insulation breakdown, and accidental contact with the circuit by tools or
other metal objects. Short-circuit protective devices must react quickly to
minimize damage.
The time/current curve for a short-circuit protective device shows its trip
time is also inversely related to current. You can see, however, that the
slope of the curve is very steep.
237
If, however, these curves do not intersect, or intersect well above the
motor locked rotor current, the overload protective device will react to
short-circuit currents in the gap between the overload range and short-
circuit protection, and probably be damaged.
238
If the curves intersect in the overload range below the locked rotor
current, the short-circuit protective device will nuisance trip on motor
start-up.
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Do I need to collect motor data and be warned of impending
fault?
Are fuses or circuit breakers preferred for short-circuit
protection?
240
Life of a 40 HP Motor
5.4 Terminology
241
Ampere Rating – The continuous current carrying capability of
a fuse or circuit breaker.
Ampere-squared Seconds (I2t) – An expression related to the
thermal energy associated with current flow.
Available Fault Current – The maximum possible short-circuit
current that can flow in an unprotected circuit.
BS88 Fuse Designations – British Standards Institute has
defined basic physical specifications (size, mounting dimensions,
labeling) and guidelines to fuse manufacturers for providing
maximum let-through current and energy for fuses (in a standard
format). Fuse designed to British Standards are described by
their dimension (e.g., Al, A2, A3, A4, B1, etc.) and continuous
current rating.
Circuit Breaker – A device designed to open and close a circuit
by non-automatic means and to open the circuit automatically on
a predetermined overload current.
Clearing Time – The total time measured from the beginning of
the fault to the interruption of the circuit.
Current Limiting Circuit Breaker – A circuit breaker that does
not employ a fusible element and that when operating within its
current limiting range, limits the let-through I2t to a value less
than the I2t of a ½ cycle wave of the symmetrical prospective
current.
Current Limiting Fuse – A fuse which will limit both the
magnitude and duration of current flow under short-circuit
conditions. The available fault currents a fuse will clear in less
than 1/2 cycle, thus limiting the actual magnitude of current
flow.
DIN Fuse Designations – DIN/VDE Standards specify physical
specifications as well as classes of operation for fuses. The class
of operation is identified by two or three letters (e.g., gL, aM,
gTr). The gL fuse is a general purpose fuse with characteristics
that are well suited for the protection of starters and associated
wiring. These fuses are described by their dimension (e.g., 00, 0,
1, 2, 3 and 4) and continuous current rating.
Dual-element Time Delay Fuse – A fuse of special design
which utilizes two individual elements in series inside the the
fuse casing. One element is a spring-actuated trigger assembly
that operates that operates on sustained overloads, but which
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ignores momentary surges. The other element operates without
intentional delay on currents of fault magnitude up to the
interrupting rating of the fuse.
Fast-acting Fuse – A fuse that opens very quickly on currents of
fault magnitude. This type of fuse is designed with no intentional
time-delay characteristics. Fast-acting fuses are commonly used
to protect solid-state electronic devices.
Fuse – An overcurrent protective device with a fusible link that
operates to open the circuit on an overcurrent condition.
High Level Fault – Short-circuit currents between the threshold
current of a fuse that would be used for the branch circuit
protection of a motor in a given application and the test current
for the controller of that motor, per the short-circuit test of UL
508.
Interrupting Rating – The maximum short-circuit current that
an overcurrent protective device can safely open or clear.
Let-through Energy (I2t) – A measure of thermal energy
developed within a circuit during the total clearing time of the
fault current.
Low Level Fault – Short-circuit currents that are less than the
threshold current of a fuse that would be used for the branch
circuit protection of a motor in a given application.
Overcurrent – A condition existing in an electrical circuit when
normal current is exceeded. Overcurrents occur in two distinctly
separate forms – overloads and short-circuits.
Overload – An overcurrent that exceeds the normal full-load
current of a circuit.
Overload Current – A level of current above the motor full
load current, but generally not greater than six times the full load
current. Overload currents are usually caused by overloading the
motor and are restricted to the normal current path. These
currents are typically detected by the overload relay.
Peak Let-through Current (Ip) – The maximum instantaneous
peak current passed through a short-circuit protective device
when clearing a fault current of specified magnitude.
RMS Current – The effective, root-mean square value of
current, and the measure of its heating effect. The RMS value is
calculated as the square root of the mean of the squares of all the
instantaneous values of the current throughout one cycle. RMS
243
alternating current is the value of an alternating current that
produces the same heating effect as a given value of direct
current.
Short-circuit Current – Excessive current caused by insulation
breakdown or wiring error. Short-circuit currents leave the
normal current carrying path of the circuit, such as line-to-line or
line-to-ground. Short-circuits are typically detected and cleared
by the branch circuit protective devices.
Single-phasing – The condition that exists when one phase of a
three-phase power system opens. Single-phasing results in
unbalanced currents and overheating in polyphase motors and
other three-phase inductive devices. Proper selection of dual-
element time-delay fuses and/or protective relays will help
protect motors from damage during single-phasing conditions.
Threshold Current – The magnitude of current which an SCPD
becomes current limiting.
Time-delay Fuse – A fuse with a built-in time delay that allows
temporary a harmless inrush currents to pass without opening,
but is designed to open on sustained overloads and currents
short-circuit magnitude.
UL Class of Fuse/CSA Fuse Designations – Underwriters
Laboratories and the Canadian Standard Association have
developed basic physical specifications (size, rejection features,
labeling) and electrical performance requirements (interrupting
rating, maximum Ip and I2t) for fuses with voltage ratings of 600
volts or less. If a fuse meets these requirements, it can be
designated by a UL class of fuse or a CSA fuse designation.
Typical UL fuse classes are K1, K5, RK1, RK5, J, T, and CC.
Typical CSA fuse designations are HRCI-T HRCI-R, HRCI-J,
and HRCII-C.
Voltage Rating – The maximum value of system voltage in
which a fuse can be used and safely interrupt an overcurrent.
Exceeding the fuse voltage rating impairs its ability to clear an
overload or short-circuit safely.
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Motor Efficiency
Introduction
Experienced users long have known and complained that having motors
repaired or rewound by a service center reduces capital expenditures
while assuring reliable operation. Rising energy cost in recent years,
however, have led to questions about the energy efficiency of
repaired/rewound motors.
245
There are also many cases where repairing the existing motor is the best
choice. This is especially true if an upgrade is required to address the
cause of failure, or in some cases, where cost, availability or unique
performance is an issue. The motor service center is in an excellent
position to make this assessment.
Quite often when a motor fails, the procedure is to remove the damaged
motor from service and replace it without thorough evaluation of the
“root cause” of the failure. Depending on the motor size and the amount
of damage, the old motor may be repaired and placed into spares
inventory or even scrapped.
The problem with this approach is that the replacement motor, whether
new or rebuilt, may fail again for the same reason. If a root cause failure
analysis is conducted, it is often possible to identify and correct the
underlying cause. All that may be required is to modify the motor, driven
equipment or system to extend the mean time between failures (MTBF)
significantly.
The decision whether to repair or replace an electric motor has been one
of economics. Replacement of an older electric motor with a more
efficient model often makes sense for a motor operating continuously.
However, in most cases the decision is more complex (Refer to figure
below). A motor that operates infrequently, a motor with special
mounting or design features, an EPACT motor or a motor larger than
those covered by EPACT are all examples where the repair option may
be the better choice.
246
247
When comparing the cost to replace or repair an electric motor, the
equation should include not only operating cost and payback period, but
also downtime and associated factors such as capital depreciation, lost
opportunities and customer good will. A replacement EPACT motor that
fails within a year or two may have significantly higher cost than a repair
that optimizes the motor for its unique application.
Annual energy savings of several million pesos are quickly wiped out by
unscheduled downtime when a motor fails unexpectedly.
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Much today’s literature emphasizes efficiency and the cost of energy as
stand-alone factors in the repair-replace decision matrix. Frequently, the
cost of the motor – or its repair – is a small fraction of the total cost of
downtime when lost production is factored in.
It makes economic sense to identify the weak link in any process, and to
detect imminent failure before it occurs. When link is strengthened, the
entire process becomes stronger. A motor subject to harsh environment
should be of a suitable enclosure, and can be modified to further protect
the motor from this hazard.
10% of motor losses are caused by friction and windage loss, thereby
reducing motor efficiency. The pictures on the right side are typical
examples of improvement after the repair.
249
More than 50% of electric motor failures start as bearing failures, bearing
temperature detectors or vibration probes are logical options in many
cases, or implementation of predictive maintenance program to prevent
any catastrophic failures. Vibration analysis is one of the best tools for
predictive maintenance that can detect bearing problems.
250
Examples of upgrades and modifications
Once a cause of failure is determined, the service center can work with
the equipment owner to identify specific remedies to extend MTBF. The
following are but a few examples of frequent problems – and solutions –
service centers encounter.
Voltage Optimization
251
same low line voltage. The solution then is to redesign the motor to
optimize performance at the actual applied voltage. It is common to
apply a 230 volt motor to a 200 or 208 volt application. Compounding
the problem, the utility supplying 208 volts is allowed to deviate and
may supply even lower voltage.
252
Corrosion Resistance
253
The exploded view of an open motor below illustrates the ease with
which various degrees of weather protection can be accomplished by the
addition of covers, filters or guards. While an open motor is ill-suited to
outdoor operation, the upgraded WPII enclosure was designed for
outdoor service.
There are occasions when rewinding a motor where the opportunity may
exist to enhance the motor performance and reliability by modifying the
winding configuration and copper content. For many designs, the copper
loss (I2R) is the largest loss component as shown in the right side picture.
In some cases, this loss can be reduced by converting from a concentric,
machine-wound configuration to a traditional, hand-inserted lap winding.
In many cases, the copper content (slot fill) can also be increased. Figure
below (Example of slot fill) shows the contrast between a relatively low
slot fill (40 to 50% where the wire is PD2/4) and one of a much higher
percent slot fill (60 to 64%).
254
255
Mean length of turn (MLT). Allowing the MLT to increase will
increase stator I2R losses and therefore decrease motor efficiency.
Conversely, decreasing the MLT where possible will reduce stator I2R
losses to help maintain or even improve efficiency. The goal is to reduce
the straight section of the coil where it exits the slot to the minimum
required to avoid mechanicals train on the slot cell. Whatever coil shape
is used, make sure the coil end turns are no longer than those of the
original winding.
Avoid reducing the MLT too much. Doing so could make the stator
difficult or even impossible to wind. It may even affect cooling, in
extreme cases causing winding temperature to rise.
The table below contains the results of an earlier EASA study that show
the impact on efficiency of a 10% change in end turn length (about a 5%
change in MLT) for typical TEFC (IP54) motors. Where it was feasible,
reducing the MLT improved the efficiency over the nominal value. From
this it is clear that end turn length and MLT are critical to motor
efficiency.
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Effect of Changes to the End Turn
Length on Typical TEFC/IP54, 460V Designs
Full load Change in
End turn Total losses
HP/kW Poles efficiency total losses
length (watts)
(%) (%)
4 10% short 93.1 2746 -2.8
50/37 Nominal 93.0 2825
10% long 92.8 2911 3.0
4 10% short 94.9 4020 -2.6
100/75 Nominal 94.8 4129
10% long 94.6 4243 2.8
4 10% short 95.6 6921 -2.5
200/150 Nominal 95.5 7099
10% long 95.3 7278 2.5
2 10% short 92.7 2935 -2.9
50/37 Nominal 92.5 3024
10% long 92.3 3122 3.2
2 10% short 93.9 4881 -3.3
100/75 Nominal 93.7 5047
10% long 93.5 5212 3.3
2 10% short 95.1 7697 -2.3
200/150 Nominal 95.0 7975
10% long 94.9 8075 2.5
This modification will improve heat transfer, reduce the copper loss and
winding temperature and improve motor efficiency. There will be less
coil movement, and increased resistance to moisture, due to better
varnish retention. Even though these improvements are difficult for the
service shop to quantify, they are none the less real and will usually
improve motor performance and reliability. With this modification, the
motor’s service factor will be improved and it will be able to withstand
wider variations in voltage, ambient and starting conditions.
257
Information on original winding data of motor is available from
Electrical Apparatus Service Association’s Rewind Software as shown
right side corner. The latest technology for rewinding of motors is now
available using SAMATIC Computerized Coil Winder.
258
259
Table below shows the possible efficiency improvements that can be
made for a generation of T frame motors produced during the 1970s and
80s. Not all motors offer this opportunity, but for those that do this
option should be considered as a possible product improvement.
260
Conclusion
The economics of the repair or replace decision process are complex. All
variables must be considered in order to select the best option.
There is a capital investment that can repay many times its original value
over the next 20 years. At the same time, it can improve equipment
reliability, reduce downtime and repair costs, and result in lower releases
of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.
The rule applies to all motors, although this article is limited to the
widely used motors that fall under the requirements of the Energy Policy
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Act of 1992 (EPAct) and to those that additionally meet or exceed the
National Electrical Manufacturers Association's NEMA Premium™
efficiency ratings. We'll explain what the ratings mean in a moment.
Background
Until the energy crises in the 1970s, most general-purpose motors were
designed to provide rated output and operating characteristics at
reasonable cost, period. Efficient operation was at best a secondary
consideration. As energy prices began rising, however, manufacturers
began promoting improved motors they called "high-efficiency" and
"energy-efficient", although the terms were not specifically defined at the
time.
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efficiency, Congress enacted the Energy Policy Act of 1992, which
granted the USA Department of Energy (DOE) the authority to set
minimum efficiency standards for certain classes of electric motors.
EPAct rules for motors became effective Oct. 24, 1997. All covered
motors sold in the USA after that date are required to have efficiency
ratings equal to or better than those listed in NEMA MG 1-1993, Table
12.10. EPAct covers general-purpose motors rated from 1 to 200 hp; 2-,
4- and 6-pole (3600, 1800 and 1200 rpm); horizontal; T-frame; single
speed; continuous duty, 230V, 460V or 230/460V; NEMA Designs A
and B. Efficiencies of these so-called "EPAct motors" are from one to
four percentage points higher than the previous "standard-efficiency"
motors.
EPAct was a step in the right direction, but its requirements were based
on minimum efficiency levels that industry and the DOE agreed were
reasonable at the time. In fact, many motors that were available before
EPAct became law exceeded the statute's minimum requirements, and as
motor manufacturers continue to improve their products, they are now
able to offer significantly more efficient motors, sometimes at little if any
cost premium, model for model.
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Many motors exceed NEMA Premium efficiency ratings; however, some
such motors are manufactured by companies that are not members of
NEMA and who may therefore not use the NEMA premium trademark.
Other manufacturers, while they may be NEMA members, voluntarily
choose not to apply the label to their products. The point is that, while
the NEMA Premium label assures the buyer of a certain minimum yet
high level of efficiency, lack of the label does not necessarily imply that
the motor doesn't meet the high standards. It therefore pays to check
nameplate efficiencies and use tools such as MotorMaster+, MotorSlide,
or other free publications from Copper Development Association to help
identify those motors that do offer high efficiency, possibly even
exceeding that of NEMA Premium.
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electricity sold in the USA. Motors used in industrial space
heating, cooling and ventilation systems use an additional 68
billion kWh. Process motor systems account for 63% of all
electricity used in industry.1
It is estimated that the NEMA Premium™ motor program could
save over 5,800 GWh (5.8 billion kWh) of electricity and
prevent the release of nearly 80 million metric tons of carbon
into the atmosphere over the next 10 years. That would be the
equivalent of keeping 16 million cars off the road.2
Many business owners hesitate to replace old motors because the capital
cost of a new motor usually exceeds the cost of repairing the old one.
This is a valid concern, but it is important to recognize that motors
themselves may be quite inexpensive compared with the cost of power
they consume.
To illustrate that point and also compare the true cost of owning motors
of several efficiencies, we'll use software called MotorMaster+, which
was developed for the DOE by engineers at Washington State
University. (MotorMaster+ can be obtained free of charge from the
Copper Development Association by calling 1-888-480-MOTR.)
265
For this example, assume you have a serviceable standard-efficiency
(pre-EPAct), 5-hp, 1800-rpm, 208-230/460-V, general-purpose, T frame,
TEFC, NEMA Design B motor, one that might have been produced until
not too many years ago. Assume the motor operates 8000 hours (11
months) per year at 75% of full load, and that power costs $0.075/kWh,
the national average. Such motors have an average efficiency rating of
84% at full load. (Efficiency ratings for motors of this type at 75%
loading range from 81% to 88.8%, averaging 84.06%.) Millions of old
motors like this remain in service today, most of them having been
rewound several times. Unfortunately, rewinding cannot and does not
improve a motor's efficiency beyond the motor's original nameplate
rating.
MotorMaster+ can compare that motor with one that just meets EPAct's
minimum efficiency requirements (87.5% at full load for this size and
type of motor). A motor of this type would cost around $233 after a
typical 35% discount from list price. Operating continuously for 8000
h/y at 75% load, and at 88.2% efficiency (efficiency usually peaks near
75% of full load), the annual cost to operate the EPAct motor would be:
This is $95 less per year ($1,900 less over 20 years) than the standard-
efficiency model it replaces. MotorMaster calculates a simple payback
period of 2.44 years.
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If on the other hand we upgrade to a NEMA Premium motor that has an
efficiency of 90.5% at 75% of full load, annual energy and cost savings
rise to 1914 kWh and $144, respectively, over the standard model. One
such motor would cost approximately $302 after discount, and it would
pay back its purchase price in only 2.10 years.
The table below lists comparisons made by MotorMaster+ for the cost of
owning and operating motors of various sizes against keeping a standard-
efficiency motor in service. For each size, comparisons are made using
average efficiency values for standard-efficiency motors, and nameplate
efficiency values for commercial motors that meet EPAct efficiency
requirements and for motors that qualify for the NEMA Premium
designation, respectively. All motors listed are 208-230V/460V, general-
purpose, 4-pole, TEFC, T-frame, NEMA Design B types. Cost
comparisons are based on 8000 h/y at 75% of rated power, and a
$0.075/kWh utility rate.
267
Std Efficiency
Motors,
Average Efficiency Replace with NEMA Premium Motors
Annual Annual
Energy Purchase Energy Annual
Eff. at Use Price % Eff. at Use Saving
75% (kWh), (35% 75% (kWh), kWh, Payback
HP load cost disc) load cost $ Period
5 84.0% 26,644 90.5 24,729 1,914 2.10 5
$1,998 $1,855 $144
10 86.75 51,653 92.2 48,547 3,106 2.22 10
$3,874 $3,641 $233
15 87.55 76,771 92.6 72,815 3,955 2.11 15
$5,758 $5,461 $297
20 89.3% 100,206 93.4 95,846 4,360 2.52 20
$7,515 $7,188 $327
25 89.9% 124,457 94.0% 119,043 5,415 2.62 25
$9,334 $8,928 $406
50 91.6% 244,211 94.5 236,825 7,386 2.42 50
$18,316 $17,852 $464
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any event, so only the difference in initial cost between motors that meet
EPAct requirements and ones that meet or exceed NEMA Premium
standards enters the equation. For the operating parameters used above
(8000 h/y, 75% load, $0.075/kWh), paybacks can be achieved in as little
as 7 to 12 months for some motors, with 1-2 years being more typical, as
in the following table.
269
Example #3: Motors for OEM Equipment
Additional Savings
While the savings described above are impressive, they are only an
indication of what can be gained in an entire facility, even if it only
operates a few motors. Many companies have examined their entire
motor inventory, including motors in service as well as those held in
reserve, to determine which ones could be replaced profitably. In at least
one instance, a company instituted a corporate energy policy to replace
all standard-efficiency motors rated at less than 50 hp, regardless of how
recently they had been rewound. That action may or may not be suitable
for all organizations since it involves many factors, such as utility rate
270
structures, that can vary significantly. However, developing a corporate
energy policy is always a smart idea, and calling CDA at 1-888-480-
MOTR to obtain a free copy of MotorMaster+ 3 is a very good place to
start. You can also obtain a free MotorSlide calculator, case histories,
and other energy efficiency information as well as a copy of the new CD-
ROM "Premium Efficiency Motors & Transformers."
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272
Installation, Testing, and Maintenance
Overview
Foundations
The motor foundation must be flat and, if possible, free from vibration. A
cast concrete foundation is therefore recommended. Foundation studs or
a base plate should be used to secure the motor. Motors for belt drives
should be mounted on slide rails.
The foundation must be stable enough to withstand the forces that can
arise in the event of a three-phase short-circuits. The short-circuit torque
is primarily a damped sinusoidal oscillation, and can thus have both
positive and negative values. The stress on the foundation can be
calculated with the aid of details in the data tables of the motor catalogue
and the formula below.
4 * Mmax
F = 0.5 * g * m ± A N
where:
F = stress per side, N
g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2
m = weight of motor, kg
Mmax = maximum torque, Nm
A = lateral distance between the holes in the motor
feet. The dimension is taken from the dimension
drawing and is expressed in meters.
273
The foundation should be dimensioned to give a large enough resonance
distance between the natural frequency of the installation and any
interference frequencies.
274
Alignment
275
Angular misalignment, sometimes referred to as "gap" or "face," is the
difference in the slope of one shaft, usually the moveable machine, as
compared to the slope of the shaft of the other machine, usually the
stationary machine. The units for this measurement are comparable to the
measurement of the slope of a roof (i.e., rise/run). In this case the rise is
measured in mm and the run (distance along the shaft) is measured in
inches. The units for angular misalignment are mm/100mm.
276
Another common tolerance from coupling manufacturers is the gap
tolerance. Typically this value is given as an absolute value of coupling
face TIR (as an example, a specification might read "Face TIR not to
exceed 0.127 mm). This number can be deceiving depending on the
swing diameter of the face dial indicator or the diameter of the coupling
being measured. In fairness, it should be noted that the tolerances offered
by coupling manufacturers are to ensure the life of the coupling with the
expectation that the flexible element will fail rather than a critical
machine component.
Misalignment Forces
Calculating the forces due to shaft alignment is a far more difficult task
than this manual needs to address. However, it is worthy to note that the
following simple rule always applies when misalignment is present.
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Example: For a 15kW drive with 0.254 mm (0.000254 meter) parallel
offset misalignment:
When shafts are misaligned, forces are generated. These forces can
produce great stresses on the rotating and stationary components. While
it is probably true that the coupling will not fail when exposed to the
large stresses as a result of this gross misalignment, the bearings and
seals on the machines that are misaligned will most certainly fail under
these conditions. Typically, machine bearings and seals have small
internal clearances and are the recipient of these harmonic forces, not
unlike constant hammering.
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Excessive shaft misalignment, say greater than 0.06/100mm for a 3600
rpm machine under normal operating conditions, can generate large
forces that are applied directly to the machine bearings and cause
excessive fatigue and wear of the shaft seals. In extreme cases of shaft
misalignment, the bending stresses applied to the shaft will cause the
shaft to fracture and break.
The most prevalent bearings used in machinery, ball and roller bearings,
all have a calculated life expectancy, sometimes called the bearing’s L-
10 life— a rating of fatigue life for a specific bearing. Statistical analysis
of bearing life relative to forces applied to the bearings has netted an
equation describing how a bearing’s life is affected by increased forces
due to misalignment.
279
Quite a bit of research in shaft alignment has been conducted over the
past 20 years. The results have led to a much different method of
evaluating the quality of a shaft alignment and to increasingly accurate
methods of correcting misaligned conditions. Based on the research and
actual industrial machine evaluations, shaft alignment tolerances are now
more commonly based on shaft rpm rather than shaft diameter or
coupling manufacturers’ specifications. There are presently no specific
tolerance standards published by ISO or ANSI, but typical tolerances for
alignment are shown in the above table.
Energy Savings
280
To calculate savings
281
Pre-alignment Check
282
Machine Casing to Baseplate Interface Problem (aka ‘soft foot’)
283
them all together and insuring that everything is flat, square, and in the
same plane is very slim. However, cast baseplates are not exempt from
this problem either. Even in cast baseplates where the base is sand cast
and the machinery feet are machined, it is possible that during the
installation process the frame was warped when it was placed on the
concrete pedestal introducing a soft foot problem.
The techniques and tools shown here illustrate some methods used to
measure the position of the one shaft’s centerline of rotation with respect
to another shaft’s centerline of rotation when the machinery is off-line.
There is no one method or measuring device that will solve every
alignment problem that one can possibly encounter on the various types
of rotating machinery drive systems in existence. Understanding each
one of these techniques will enable you to select the best measurement
method for the alignment situation confronting you.
284
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
285
Reverse Indicator Method
This method is also often called the Indicator Reverse method or the
Double Dial method.
Advantages:
286
Disadvantages:
Laser Alignment
It was inevitable, however, that all was not to stop here, particularly in
light of the technological explosion in electronics. With the advent of the
microprocessor chip, the semiconductor junction laser, and silicon
photodiodes, new inroads have been forged in the process of measuring
rotational centerlines that utilize these new electronic devices instead of
the mechanical measuring instruments.
287
Express alignment adapting the reverse indicator method within a
maximum of seven (7) meters measuring distance.
One of the most important components of any drive system is the device
connecting the rotating shafts together known as the couplings. Since it is
nearly impossible to maintain perfectly collinear centerlines of rotation
between two or more shafts, flexible couplings are designed to provide a
certain degree of yielding to allow for initial or running shaft
misalignment. There is a wide assortment of flexible couplings designs,
each available in a variety of sizes to suite specific service conditions.
288
It is imperative that you can differentiate between coupling tolerance and
alignment tolerances. Coupling misalignment tolerances quoted by
flexible coupling manufacturer typically specify the mechanical or
fatigue limits of the coupling or components of the coupling. These
misalignment tolerances are frequency excessive compared to the
alignment tolerances mentioned above. The said alignment tolerance is
concerned with the survivability of not the coupling, but also the shafts,
seals, and bearings of the machinery over long periods of time.
289
Types of Flexible Couplings
290
V-Belts with Cogged or Synchronous Belt Drives
291
About one-third of the electric motors in the industrial and commercial
sectors use belt drives. Belt drives provide flexibility in the positioning
of the motor relative to the load. Pulleys (sheaves) of varying diameters
allow the speed of the driven equipment to be increased or decreased. A
properly designed belt transmission system provides high efficiency,
decreases noise, requires no lubrication, and presents low maintenance
requirements. However, certain types of belts are more efficient than
others, offering potential energy cost savings. The majority of belt drives
use V-belts. V-belts use a trapezoidal cross section to create a wedging
action on the pulleys to increase friction and improve the belt’s power
transfer capability. Joined or multiple belts are specified for heavy loads.
V-belt drives can have a peak efficiency of 95% to 98% at the time of
installation. Efficiency is also dependent on pulley size, driven torque,
under or over-belting, and V-belt design and construction. Efficiency
deteriorates by as much as 5% (to a nominal efficiency of 93%) over
time if slippage occurs because the belt is not periodically re-tensioned.
Cogged belts have slots that run perpendicular to the belt’s length. The
slots reduce the bending resistance of the belt. Cogged belts can be used
with the same pulleys as equivalently rated V-belts. They run cooler, last
longer, and have an efficiency that is about 2% higher than that of
standard V-belts. Synchronous belts (also called timing, positive-drive,
or high-torque drive belts) are toothed and require the installation of
mating toothed-drive sprockets. Synchronous belts offer an efficiency of
about 98% and maintain that efficiency over a wide load range. In
contrast, V-belts have a sharp reduction in efficiency at high torque due
to increasing slippage. Synchronous belts require less maintenance and
re-tensioning, operate in wet and oily environments, and run slip-free.
But, synchronous belts are noisy, unsuitable for shock loads, and transfer
vibrations.
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Energy Savings = Annual Energy Use x (1 – η1/η2 )
= 527,000 kWh/year x (1 – 93/98)
= 26,888 kWh/year Annual Cost Savings
= 26,888 kWh x $0.05/kWh
= $1,345
Further Considerations:
The center point of the belt, or system of V-belts, should not be beyond
the end of the motor shaft.
The inner edge of the sheave or pulley rim should not be closer to the
bearing than the shoulder on the shaft but should be as close to this point
as possible. The outer edge of a chain sprocket or gear should not extend
beyond the end of the motor shaft1. (Reference: NEMA, MG 1 2006.
14.7.1. Refer also to Section 11 of this manual: “Application of V-Belt
Sheave Dimensions to Alternating Current Motors Having Anti-Friction
Bearings.”)
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V-Belt Tension Forces
Using this general rule, the shaft force per belt (applied at the sheave)
due to belt tension equals 32 x the deflection force. It should be noticed
that the horsepower does not enter into the equation at all.
The following chart provides some typical force values for V-belt drives.
294
It is obvious that V-belts produce a significant amount of force,
especially when larger belt cross-sections and numbers of belts are used
on the drive. Flat, synchronous, poly-V and round belts also require
significant levels of tension in order to operate.
Bearing Maintenance
In order for a bearing to function properly it is important that the correct
mounting method be used. The type of bearing used for a given
application and the method of mounting and dismounting is determined
initially at the design stage. Mounting should, wherever possible, be
carried out in a clean and dust-free room and not where there are dust-
producing machines.
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Causes of Premature Bearing Failures in Electric Motor
296
Dirt and debris can affect the internal clearance of the bearing and the fit
of the bearing on the shaft or in the housing. A small speck of dirt can
pinch the outer ring outside diameter. Also it can keep split housing from
being tight. This can cause an out-of-round housing bore in which the
bearing's outer ring may turn. Dirt on a shaft at the seal contact area can
cause seal wear which results in lubricant leakage. Dust and dirt mixes
with the lubricant in the bearing and forms a lapping compound that
causes wear in the bearing.
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The proper method to repair a bearing housing is to replace the worn
housing with a new one or to machine and sleeve the worn housing. The
sleeve is bored to proper dimension after being pressed into the old
housing. It is important not only to return the bore to proper dimension
but to maintain concentricity of the new bore with the old bore’s center
line as well.
Shaft Fit
Often the bearing turns on the shaft during a failure. In that case, the
shaft has to be replaced or built up to proper dimension. Typically, the
rolling element bearings in an electric motor are installed with a tight fit
on the shaft.
Bearing Installation
298
Prior to mount the bearings, it is necessary prepare the shaft where the
bearing is to be mounted. Ensure shaft and housing interference fits are
met, cylindricity of the shafting and pour oil to prevent rush and
corrosion later on.
A. Cold Mounting
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When a shaft is put in a vise in any assembly or disassembly operation, it
is important to protect the shaft from the jaws with sheets of copper or
brass.
Bearings and shafts are designed for each other and you cannot make any
changes unless a redesign of the machine is made.
If the bearing fits too loosely on a shaft, it can creep or slip. This causes
the bearing to overheat and also results in abrasive wear to the bore of
the bearing and the surface of the shaft. If the press fit is too tight, the
inner ring of the bearing will be stretched so much that there will be no
room for the balls or rollers to revolve freely.
An arbor press can be used for mounting small bearings. Place a sleeve
between the bearing and the press. The end faces of the sleeve should be
flat, parallel and burr free. It should be so designed that it abuts the ring
which is to be mounted with an interference fit, otherwise the rolling
elements and raceways can be damaged leading to a premature failure.
To facilitate mounting and also to reduce the risk of damage, the bearing
seating on the shaft and in the housing should be lightly smeared with
thin oil.
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At times it is necessary to have a press fit on the inner ring since it
rotates and also on the outer ring if there is some unbalance load that
could cause the outer ring to creep. The pressing force then must go
through both the inner ring and the outer ring at the same time; otherwise
the bearing will be damaged.
If a spherical roller bearing was used for inner ring rotation where there
was an unbalance load, a pin could be put through one oil hole in the
outer ring to prevent outer ring creep. With this arrangement a press fit of
the outer ring would not be necessary.
B. Temperature Mounting
a) Treating one part (this is, generally speaking, the most common
method).
b) Cooling one part.
c) Simultaneously heating one part and cooling the other part.
The temperature differential method is suitable for any bearing size, both
straight-bore and tapered bore. Because of the equipment required, the
cold mounting method is used wherever possible for bearings under a
4"(10.16cm) outside diameter.
301
The most usual bearing mounting is that in which the inner ring is
mounted with an interference fit on the shaft, and the outer ring is
mounted with a line-to-fine to loose fit in the housing. For non-separable
bearings over a 4"(10.16cm) outside diameter, it is necessary to heat the
entire bearing or just the inner ring, depending on the method of heating,
so that the inner ring easily goes over the shaft. In the case of a separable
bearing, it is only necessary to heat the inner ring. The bearing should be
uniformly heated within a maximum temperature of 250°F(121°C).
Methods for heating a bearing are:
The hot oil bath is probably the most common method used. Both the oil
and the container should be clean. Quenching oil having a minimum
flash point of 300°F (149°C) should be used. The quantity of oil used in
a bath should be large in relation to the volume of the bearing. An
insufficient quantity heats and cools too rapidly, thus introducing the risk
of in adequately or unevenly heating the bearing.
After a bearing has been heated in oil, its bore should be wiped with a
clean lint-free cloth before mounting.
302
ring has cooled sufficiently to be firm on the shaft. If this is not done, the
inner will walk away from the shaft shoulder.
Remove bearings
Heating Rings
303
as the raceway diameter of the inner ring. The ring is heated using a hot
plate or naked flame to approximately 280 °C and then placed over the
inner ring and clamped using the handles. The heat is transferred from
the heating ring to the bearing inner ring, causing the bearing inner ring
to expand. Once the bearing inner ring expansion has overcome the
interference fit, then it is easy to remove the bearing inner ring
Lubrication
The correct amount of grease for roiling bearings and the grade of oil for
sleeve bearings is normally stated in the manufacturer's maintenance
Instructions that come with the motor. The rolling bearings of motors
from ABB Motors are lubricated before dispatch with full-charge grease
suitable for use in dry or humid conditions at normal ambient
temperature.
304
If motors are to be used in a wet environment, for example, or in a high
ambient temperature, the bearing may need relubricating. Motors for
such duty can often be modified from a closed bearing housing to some
form of valve lubrication.
The bearings should be lubricated when the motor is running, but there is
a procedure for lubricating with the motor stationary. To do this, first
inject about half the recommended amount of grease, and then run the
motor at full speed for about one minute. Then stop the motor and inject
the remainder of the grease. If the entire amount is injected at once with
the motor stationary, there is a risk that some of the grease will force its
way past the inner bearing seal and into the motor.
Always continue until fresh grease comes out through the grease outlet.
The life of new bearings will be extended if they are relubricated after a
few days' running in.
305
Grease valve lubrication allows the grease to be changed while the motor
is running and prevents over lubrication. Fresh grease is forced in
through the nipple, displacing old grease, which is discharged through an
opening in the bearing cover. The bearing housing provides excellent
protection from dust and contamination.
Motors with brush and slip-ring gear require more inspection than
squirrel-cage motors. There is no way of preventing brush dust collecting
on all surfaces near the brush gear, and the parts must be thoroughly
cleaned by vacuum-cleaning and wiping, generally once or twice a
month. The cable connections of the slip-ring unit and the free movement
of the brushes in the holders must be checked at the same time. Raising
the brushes by pulling on their connecting leads is a good way of
checking the soundness of the leads at the same time as ensuring that the
brushes move freely.
306
Brush wear of 1 to 5 mm per 1000 hours' running is acceptable, but there
may be wide variations as a function of load, environment, vibration etc.
The surface of the slip rings must be even and free from spots, preferably
with a brownish patina after the motor has been in service for a while. A
scratched or scored surface and no patina may be a sign of poor brush
quality. If there are craters due to sparking, or if there is serious scoring,
the rings must be ground or turned. The surface finish after machining
must be Ra 1.5.
For all types of brush holder the distance between the bottom edge of the
holder and the slip ring must be 2 to 2.5 mm. For every brush material,
manufacturers state the brush pressure that will give the best
performance at the slip ring. Usually the brush pressure is around 0.02
N/mm2 (200 g/cm2).
A typical rotor for a slip-ring motor is shown at right side. The three
phases of the rotor winding are connected to the slip rings on the shaft.
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Brush wear
There are several reasons for abnormal brush wear. These are the usual
ones:
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7.2 Description of Routine Tests
General inspection
In general, when the machine leaves the test area, the machine shall be in
good condition if not best, to serve as advertising for the workshop thus,
giving the workshop as well as the company a good reputation with
regard to job orders and its execution.
After the final test, the machine shall be painted before delivery to the
customer.
When the machine to be tested has been installed to test bench following
points are checked:
Air gap is measured during assembly by a thickness gauge. The air gap
of HX machines is measured only if the machine should be tested in
accordance with some classification society or the protection type of the
machine is "e" (explosive atmosphere).
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Axial play
Axial play check is done to machines with sleeve bearings. When the
machine is running at rated voltage and speed magnetic and windage
forces are trying to move the rotor. Because there is no axial locking the
stator and rotor should be directed so that there is enough axial play.
When the machine is running at rated voltage and speed the point of a
bearing gasket is marked to the shaft with a drawing ink. After the
machine has stopped, the rotor is moved first to the one direction until it
stops and then to another direction. The displacements to the mark are
measured. It is checked that the magnetic center is in the axial play area.
Inspection
310
Insulation Resistance Test
Test voltage should be applied for one minute. (Reference: IEEE Stds.
43, Sec 5.4 and 12.2).
Notes:
311
Guidelines for DC Voltages to be Applied during Insulation Resistance
Test
a
Rated line-to-line voltage for three-phase AC
machines, line-to-ground for single-phase
machines, and rated direct voltage for DC
machines or field windings
312
High Potential test
313
Capacitors of capacitor-type motors must be left connected to the
winding in the normal manner for machine operation (running or
starting). Electrical machines may be tested using AC or DC high-
potential test equipment. A DC instead of an AC voltage may be used for
high-potential tests. In such cases, the DC test voltage should be 1.7
times the specified AC voltage. Failure under test can be less damaging
to the winding if a DC voltage is used.
314
This test evaluates ground insulation. It will usually detect damaged slot
liners and conductors outside the slot liner. It does not stress insulation
between turns, coils or phases.
The surge comparison test is most often applied to winding circuits using
a test voltage of twice the circuit rating plus 1000 volts.
315
This will check for shorted wires and misconnections. This is the only
test that stresses insulation between turns, coils, and phases. Although it
stresses the insulation to ground, it usually is not accepted as a ground
insulation test.
316
No load test
520
kW = x 5 x 1 = 20V
130
connection
wattmeter according to VW = 520V
connection sketch skd = 130
according to
sketch AW = 5A
kA = 1
317
where:
WV
kW = skd x AW x kA
During the test balance vibrations and bearing are checked. No load test
executes at rated voltage. No load current varies with the number of
poles as an average, the following table can be used:
Speed
For AC motors, no-load running test should be made at rated voltage and
rated frequency. The speed should be measured and compared with
nameplate speed.
Current
318
Cooling System
Bearing Temperature
Vibration measurement
319
Machine Sound
Sound pressure levels at a distance from the motor rather than sound
power levels, may be required in some applications, such as hearing
protection programs. However, the information provided here is only
concerned with the physical aspect of noise and expresses limits in terms
of sound power level. Reference: NEMA MG 1 -2006, 9.2.
Performance Test
320
7.3 Recommended Winding Tests
321
Stator and Wound Rotor Windings
Squirrel-cage windings
1. Growler test
2. Single-phase test
Voltage Unbalance
322
Unbalanced currents resulting from unequal line voltages applied to an
induction motor produces an elevated temperature rise compared to a
motor operating with balanced voltages. Should voltages be unbalanced,
the motor horsepower rating should be derated in accordance with MG 1
Part 14. [MG 1-14.36]
It should not be assumed that because can drive a running load, it also
has the capability to accelerate the load up to rated speed. During
starting, a motor must deliver the energy required to accelerate the load.
To do this, the motor torque must exceed that needed to accelerate the
load. The motor torque value in excess of the load torque requirement is
termed the “torque available for acceleration” as shown at the right side.
323
Though this explanation appears to be relatively simple and
straightforward, there are some complex conditions: namely, that the
motor torque during starting is not constant. Unless the load is a pure
inertia load (very rare), it does not have a constant speed-torque
relationship. Therefore, the torque available for acceleration is the
difference between the speed-torque curves for the motor and the load.
The acceleration time for the motor and load system can be determine
from the following formula:
The inertia of the load is the Wk2 factor in pound-feet squared; the rpm is
the speed change of the load; and Tacc is average accelerating torque in
Newton-meters. The formula using metric units is:
Motor torque ratings are normally based on full rated voltage being
available at the motor terminals. In many applications the voltage at the
motor is less than rated, due to such conditions as voltage drop in the
feeder circuit or reduced voltage starting. The result is a reduction in
motor torque, varying approximately as the square of the ratio of applied
voltage versus rated voltage. The effects or saturation reduce the motor
torque even more. For example, if the voltage at the motor were 80% of
rated, the expected torque reduction would be (0.8/1.0)2 = 0.64, or 64%.
Due to the reduced flux, however, the torque would probably be closer to
57% of rated.
324
Although the motor torque available has been reduced, the load torque
remains unchanged. The result is a longer acceleration time. If the
reduced motor torque is equal to that of the load, leaving none available
for acceleration, the motor and load will not accelerate beyond the speed
point. Further, if the motor torque is less than that of the load at initial
startup, the rotor will not rotate. That is, it will remain in a locked-rotor
condition. Figure below illustrates both of these conditions.
325
Fortunately, under normal stating conditions, the heating period is
relatively short. For example, NEMA MG1 Part 12.49 allows an
acceleration time of up to 12 seconds for motors rate to 500hp (375kW)
and rated 1kV or less. During this period parts of the stator and rotor may
reach temperatures in excess of their rated temperatures. Conservative
motor designers assume that all of the heat generated during staring is
absorbed in the components that produce the heating – e.g., the stator and
rotor. Therefore these components heat very rapidly, and to relatively
high temperatures.
However, since the duration of acceleration time is very short, it does not
normally have a negative impact on motor life. Upon attaining rated
speed, the current and temperature drop to normal levels for the load
conditions. For motors larger than 500hp (375kW), or with loads with
greater than normal inertia, the motor manufacturer should be consulted
to determine the time limit for accelerating the load.
According to the NEMA standards, there are three conditions that apply
to the maximum inertia rating.
326
If the starting conditions are other than those stated above, the motor
manufacturer should be consulted. When additional starts are required, it
is recommended that none be made until all conditions affecting
operation have been thoroughly investigated and the apparatus examined
for evidence of excessive heating. It should be recognized that the
number of starts should be kept to a minimum since the life of the motor
is affected by the number of starts. [MG 1-12.54]
The mechanical and electrical forces also affect the stator windings. The
excessive starting current leads to rapid heating of the windings and
consequently, rapid thermal expansion resulting in physical stress. The
torque forces associated with starting are many times normal, leading to
327
winding movement and possible motion between adjacent conductors, or
between conductors and frame or core, which can result in a short circuit
or ground fault.
328
Current research in North America indicated the following cost related
statistics concerning rotating equipment maintenance and reliability:
329
Maintenance Program Objectives
330
plan contains inputs drawn from the reviews and analysis rather than
from complaints.
331
7.7 Maintenance Programs
Methods of Maintenance
Predictions based on the analysis of the information form the basis for
corrective actions to be taken.
332
specific purpose of a quality predictive maintenance program is to
minimize unscheduled machinery failures, reduce maintenance costs and
loss of production. To accomplish these objectives a program is required
which will:
333
Predictive Maintenance Program Benefits
The maintenance plan was to periodically tear down and overhaul the
machine as assurance against failure.
334
Each technique helps in determining to what extent a mechanical fault
exists and if it is progressing. The corrective action is often based on
“feel”, sound, or appearance.
Temperature
335
Vibration can be more accurately measured by using tools such as
vibrations meters, analyzers, or monitors. Use of a simple vibration
meter. The probe is placed on, or near the bearing and a vibration reading
is given on the meter. The amount of vibration measured is used to
determine the severity of the vibration and the condition of the machine.
Listening
336
Sight
Is the lubricant the proper one for the application? Check whether the air
is free of obstructions.
Take a small sample of used oil and compare it with new oil. If it is
cloudy in appearance, water has more than likely mixed with it,
therefore, the oil must be replaced.
Dark or thick oil is a sure sign of contamination or that the oil has started
to carbonize. Overheating may have caused this problem.
Corrective Maintenance
337
arrangements for restrooms, lunchrooms, lockers, etc.
Note: The maintenance planner responsible for planning and scheduling the
corrective maintenance work must have direct access to records
which contain past maintenance history, information on equipment
design, bill of materials, parts list, assembly/disassembly drawings,
and current inventory status for specific parts and assemblies.
Short and Mid-Range Planning: These plans project from one to five
years into the future. Plans are developed under the direct supervision of
the managers responsible for defined maintenance and production
activities. Maintenance program are involved in both short and mid-
range planning.
338