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General Chemistry 2
Quarter 3 - Module 3
Colligative Properties and Thermodynamics

Department of Education ● Republic of the Philippines

General Chemistry 2
Alternative Delivery Mode
Quarter 3 - Module 3: Colligative Properties and Thermodynamics
First Edition, 2020

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 Senior
Senior High
High School
School

General
Chemistry 2
Quarter 3 - Module 3
Colligative Properties and
Thermodynamics

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 Table of Contents

What This Module is About ....................................................................................................................... i

What I Need to Know .................................................................................................................................. i
How to Learn from this Module............................................................................................................... ii
Icons of this Module ................................................................................................................................... ii

What I Know ................................................................................................................................................iii

Lesson 1:
Colligative Properties and Determination of Molar Mass of
Solutions ............................................................................................................................................... 1
What I Need to Know..................................................................................................... 1
What’s New: Find me! ................................................................................................... 1
What Is It: ......................................................................................................................... 2
What’s More: Solve me! ............................................................................................... 7
What I Have Learned: Imagine me! .......................................................................... 7
What I Can Do: Know me! ........................................................................................... 8

Lesson 2:
Laboratory Procedures in Determination of Solution’s
Concentration.................................................................................................................................. 9
What’s In............................................................................................................................ 9
What I Need to Know..................................................................................................... 9
What’s New: Twist me! .............................................................................................. 9
What Is It: ...................................................................................................................... 9
What’s More: Let’s do this! ........................................................................................ 11
What I Have Learned: Explain me! ....................................................................... 11
What I Can Do: Prepare me!................................................................................... 11

Lesson 3:
First Law of Thermodynamics...................................................................................... 12
What’s In............................................................................................................................ 12
What I Need to Know..................................................................................................... 12
What’s New: Word Twist! .......................................................................................... 12
What Is It: ...................................................................................................................... 12
What’s More: Solve me! ............................................................................................. 14
What I Have Learned: Explain me! ....................................................................... 14
What I Can Do: Draw me! ........................................................................................ 14
Lesson 4:
Enthalpy and Hess Law ....................................................................................................... 15
What’s In............................................................................................................................ 15
What I Need to Know..................................................................................................... 15
What’s New: Find me! ................................................................................................ 15
What Is It: ...................................................................................................................... 16
What’s More: Calculate me! ...................................................................................... 18
What I Have Learned: Solve me! .......................................................................... 18
What I Can Do: Complete me! …………………………………………………... 18

Summary ………………………………………………………………………………………. 19
Assessment: (Post-Test)………………………………………………………………………. 20
Key to Answers ......................................................................................................................................... 21
References …………………………………………………………………………………………… 24
What This Module is About
This module has 4 lessons:

1. Colligative Properties and Determination of Molar Mass of Solutions

2. Determination of Concentration of a Solution
3. First Law of Thermodynamics
4. Enthalpy of a Reaction and Hess Law

First thing we’re going to discuss in this module is colligative properties of a

solution. We are going to tackle about boiling point elevation, freezing point depression
and determination of molar mass of a solution. Prepare your calculators, pen and
paper, we’re going to do a lot of calculations!

Next, you will learn how to determine the concentration of a solution. Then here
comes the first law of thermodynamics, a branch of physical science that deals with
heat and energy. Are you tired of all these calculations? Say no more! Let’s take a
break and discuss what is enthalpy and Hess Law. However, don’t get too comfortable
with your break because unfortunately, breaks don’t last long, we’ll eventually go back
to calculations. In the next lesson, we are going to solve for the enthalpy of a reaction
using the Hess Law.

You are expected to answer the activities given in each lesson. You may write
your answers on the answer sheets provided. Remember to strictly follow the
instructions.

What I Need to Know

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

1. Calculate boiling point elevation and freezing point depression from the concentration
of a solute in a solution (STEM_GC11PPIIId-f-117);
2. Calculate molar mass from colligative property data (STEM_GC11PPIIId-f-118);
3. Describe laboratory procedures in determining concentration of solutions
(STEM_GC11PPIIId-f-119);
4. Explain the first law of thermodynamics (STEM_GC11TCIIIg-i-124);
5. Explain enthalpy of a reaction (STEM_GC11TCIIIg-i-125);
6. 6. Calculate the change in enthalpy of a given reaction using Hess Law
(STEM_GC11TCIIIg-i-127).

i
How to Learn from this Module
To achieve the objectives cited above, you are to do the following:
• Take your time reading the lessons carefully.
• Follow the directions and/or instructions in the activities and exercises diligently.
• Answer all the given tests and exercises.

Icons of this Module

What I Need to This part contains learning objectives that

Know are set for you to learn as you go along the
module.

What I know This is an assessment as to your level of

knowledge to the subject matter at hand,
meant specifically to gauge prior related
knowledge
What’s In This part connects previous lesson with that
of the current one.

What’s New An introduction of the new lesson through

various activities, before it will be presented
to you

What is It These are discussions of the activities as a

way to deepen your discovery and under-
standing of the concept.

What’s More These are follow-up activities that are in-

tended for you to practice further in order to
master the competencies.

What I Have Activities designed to process what you

Learned have learned from the lesson

What I can do These are tasks that are designed to show-

case your skills and knowledge gained, and
applied into real-life concerns and situations.

ii
 What I Know
Multiple Choice. Encircle the letter of the best answer from among the given choices.

1. Which factor does not affect the solubility of a solid electrolyte in a liquid solvent?
A. common ion B. nature of the solvent
C. pressure D. temperature

2. The extent to which a solute dissolve in a solvent is determined by which of the

following?
A. ambient pressure B. stirring the mixture
C. type of intermolecular forces D. temperature

3. Which among the following is not a colligative property?

A. boiling point elevation B. chemical solubility
C. freezing point depression D. Vapor pressure reduction

4. On what do the colligative properties of solutions depend?

A. chemical nature of solute B. concentration of solute molecules
C. number of moles of solute D. physical nature of solute

5. Which concentration unit is used when calculating colligative properties relating to

boiling point elevation?
A. molality B. mole fraction
C. molarity D. weight percent

6. What is the boiling point of a solution when compared to the pure solvent?
A. decreased because the dissolved solute raises the vapor pressure of the
solution over that of the solvent.
B. decreased because the solute boils at a higher temperature than the
solvent.
C. increased because of the lowered vapor pressure of the solution.
D. increased because the solution has a higher osmotic pressure.

7. The first law of thermodynamics deals with what conservation?

A. Conservation of energy
B. Conservation of mass
C. Conservation of momentum
D. Conservation of pressure

8. What is the equation of the first law of thermodynamics?

A. Internal Energy= Heat added into work done
B. Internal Energy= Heat rejected into work done
C. Internal Energy= Heat added divided by work done
D. Internal Energy=Heat added plus work done

9. A reaction is allowed to take place in an insulated container containing 100 mL of

water. If the reaction is exothermic, what happens to the temperature of water?
A. The temperature of the water goes down.
B. The temperature of the water goes up.
C. The temperature of the water does not change.
D. None of the above.

10. An increase in enthalpy leads to an increase in what?

A. Increase in pressure B. Increase in volume
C. Increase in internal energy D. Increase in mass
iii
 Lesson Colligative Properties and Determination
3.1 of Molar Mass of Solutions

What I Need to Know

This module discusses about the colligative properties of solutions and

determination of molar mass from colligative property data.

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. Calculate boiling point elevation and freezing point depression from the
concentration of a solute in a solution (STEM_GC11PPIIId-f-117);
2. Calculate molar mass from colligative property data (STEM_GC11PPIIId-f-
118).

What’s New
Activity 3.1.1. Find me! Locate the words associated with colligative
properties in the grid. The words can be running in horizontal, vertical and
diagonal directions.

R W E L E C T R O L Y T E G G
V A N T S F G O A T S A G A W
F B M I M A S S A Y B A T H F
F O G M I L I A O R G K I R R
P I E N O M O L A L I T Y F E
H L T S I N L S I A V N V E E
K I J V A N T H O F F E K A Z
G N A F S O L U T E O Y N R I
D G F A O Q E M G H A M A T N
E A T S L C I P E A P E R C G
K A D Y U E Y H A R P S A R C
U B L E T C H B U N N Y F A T
C O L L I G A T I V E R Y M E
A T T A O D E G R E A S E R S
R A C I N F G J E F T S D W Q

1. _____________________ 6. ___________________
2. _____________________ 7. ___________________
3. _____________________ 8. ___________________
4. _____________________ 9. ___________________
5. _____________________ 10. __________________
1
 What Is It
In this lesson, we are going to discuss about colligative property and how to determine
molar mass of a solution using these colligative properties. Colligative property refers to the
property of the solution that depends on the number of solute particles present. Colligative
properties of solutions include freezing point depression and boiling point elevation. There are
more colligative properties like osmotic pressure and vapor pressure lowering. In this lesson,
we’ll focus only on the first two properties mentioned above.

Colligative Properties of Nonelectrolyte and Electrolyte Solutions

Boiling Point Elevation of Nonelectrolyte Solution

Previously, you have learned that a liquid boils when its vapor pressure is equal to its
atmospheric pressure (1.01 x 105 Pa). The normal boiling point of a liquid is the temperature
at which its vapor pressure is 1.01 x 105 Pa. If the vapor pressure decreases in a nonelectrolyte
solution, the boiling point of the solution tends to increase. Therefore, to reach the 1.01 x 10 5
Pa vapor pressure, the solution must be boiled at a temperature higher than the normal boiling
point temperature of the pure solvent. The increase in the boiling point temperature is called
boiling point elevation (∆Tb). To determine the boiling point elevation of a solution, we will have
to use equation 3.1.1,
∆Tb = Kbm equation 3.1.1

where Kb is the molal boiling point elevation constant and m is the molality of the solute
in the solution. Molality is used in this equation since it relates to mole fraction and, thus,
particles of solute and temperature do not affect it. On the other hand, the boiling point of a
solution can be determined using equation 3.1.2,

Tb(solution)= Tb(solvent)+ ∆Tb equation 3.1.2

where Tb(solution) is the boiling point of solution, Tb(solvent) is the boiling point of pure
solvent and ∆Tb is the boiling point elevation.

Let’s do an example!

Example 3.1A: Sucrose (C22O11H22, 342 g/mol), like many sugars, is highly soluble in water;
almost 1500 g will dissolve in 1000 g of water, giving rise to what amounts to pancake syrup.
Using Kb of 0.514 K/mol*Kg, estimate the boiling point elevation of such a sugar solution.

We can solve this problem in a straightforward manner. Since all the data needed is
already given, we can just directly substitute the given values in equation 3.1.1. But take note,
in equation 3.1.1, the boiling point elevation can be solved if we have the values of molality
and the molal boiling point elevation constant and since molality is not given, then we have to
calculate for it first.

Given: Molar MassC22O11H22 = 342 g/mol MassC22O11H22 = 1500 g

Volumewater = 1000 g = 1Kg Kb = 0.514 K/mol*Kg
Unknown: Boiling point elevation (∆Tb)
Equation: ∆Tb = Kbm
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
molality = equation 3.1.3
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝑔

2
 Now that we already listed all the given data, the unknown and the equation that we
will use, let’s proceed to the solution part.
Solution: Since, we are given the molar mass and mass of the sucrose, let’s get the number
of moles of sucrose.
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
Number of moles = equation 3.1.4
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
1500 𝑔
Number of moles of sucrose =
342 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
Number of moles of sucrose = 4.39 mol

That’s it! Now that we have the number of moles of sucrose, we can then solve for the molality
of the solution using equation 3.1.3.
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
molality (m) =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝑔
4.39 𝑚𝑜𝑙
molality (m) =
1 𝑘𝑔
molality (m) = 4.39 mol sucrose/kg water

Finally, we have the values of molality and the Kb . We can now go to the last part of the
calculation, which is to calculate for the boiling point elevation.

∆Tb = Kbm
∆Tb = (0.514 K/mol*Kg)(4.39 mol sucrose/kg water)
∆Tb = 2.25 K

Therefore, the boiling point elevation of the sugar solution is 2.25 K.

Freezing Point Depression

Recall that only solvent vaporizes from solution, so solute molecules are left behind.
Similarly, only solvent freezes, again leaving solute molecules behind. The freezing point of a
solution is the temperature at which its vapor pressure equals that of the pure solvent, that is,
when solid solvent and liquid solution are in equilibrium. The freezing point depression (∆Tf)
occurs because the vapor pressure of the solution is always lower than that of the solvent, so
the solution freezes at a lower temperature; that is, only at a lower temperature will solvent
particles leave and enter the solid at the same rate. The freezing-point depression (∆Tf) is
defined as the freezing point of the pure solvent (Tf°) minus the freezing point of the solution
(Tf):
∆Tf =Tf° + Tf equation 3.1.5

Because Tf° >Tf, ∆Tfis a positive quantity. Again, ∆Tfis proportional to the concentration
of the solution:
∆Tfα m
∆Tf = Kfm equation 3.1.6

where ∆Tf is the freezing point elevation, m is the concentration of the solute in
molality units, and Kf is the molal freezing-point depression constant. The Kf of water is 1.86
°C*Kg/mol.

Let’s practice solving for freezing point depression!

Example 3.1B: Calculate the mass of ethylene glycol (formula mass = 62.1 g/mol), an
antifreeze component, that must be added to 5.0 L of water to produce a solution that freezes
at -18.3°C. Assume that the density of the water is exactly 1 g/mL.

3
Given: Kf = 1.86 °C*Kg/mol Tf = -18.3 °C
Molar massethylene glycol = 62.1 g/mol Densitywater = 1 g/mL Volumewater = 5.0 L

Unknown: Mass of ethylene glycol

Solution: The approach in answering this kind of problem is the same with the previous
problem. It just differs slightly since this time, it’s the mass that is being asked.

∆Tf =Tf° + Tf
∆Tf = 0 °C – (-18.3 °C)
∆Tf = 18.3 °C

Now, we have the value for the boiling point elevation. However, our task is not yet
done since it’s the mass that we’re looking for and not the boiling point elevation. Previously,
we learned that ∆Tf can also be solved using molality and Kf, as shown is equation 3.1.6. To
solve for the molality, we can use this equation and transpose it.

∆Tf = Kfm
∆Tf
m=
Kf
18.3 °C
m=
1.86 °C∗Kg/mol
m = 9.84 mol/Kg

With this, we can now solve for the mass of the ethylene glycol by substitution.
1 𝐾𝑔
Number of moles of ethylene glycol = molality (Volume of water)(density of water)( )
1000 𝑔
𝑔 1 𝐾𝑔
Number of moles of ethylene glycol = 9.84 mol/Kg (5000 mL)(1 )( )
𝑚𝐿 1000 𝑔
Number of moles of ethylene glycol = 49.2 mol

We get the mass of a substance by simply multiplying the number of moles of the
substance and its molar mass.

Massethylene glycol = 49.2 mol (62.1 g/mol)

Massethylene glycol = 3.05 x 103 g = 3.05 Kg

Therefore, the mass of ethylene glycol, an antifreeze component, is 3.05 Kg.

Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solution

The study of colligative properties of electrolytes requires a slightly different approach

than the one used for the colligative properties of nonelectrolytes. The reason is that
electrolytes dissociate into ions in solution, and so one unit of an electrolyte compound
separates into two or more particles when it dissolves. For example, electrolyte solution such
as sodium chloride dissociates into two ions – Na+ and Cl-. A van’t Hoff factor (i) must be put
into the previous equations involving the colligative properties of nonelectrolytes to account
this effect. The van’t Hoff factor establishes the relationship between the number of moles of
solute dissolved and the moles of particles in a solution. This factor is given by,

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

i= equation 3.1.7
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑

4
 where the i value for an electrolyte with an AB empirical formula is 2, whereas for AB2,
i is 3.Thus, i should be 1 for all nonelectrolytes. For strong electrolytes such as NaCl and
KNO3, i should be 2, and for strong electrolytes such as Na2SO4 and CaCl2, i should be 3.
Table 2.1 shows the experimentally measured values of i and those calculated assuming
complete dissociation. As you can see, the agreement is close but not perfect, indicating that
the extent of ion-pair formation in these solutions at that concentration is appreciable.

Table3.1.1. The van’t Hoff Factor of 0.0500 M Electrolyte Solutions at 25 degrees Celsius

In calculating the colligative properties of electrolytes, such as boiling point elevation

and freezing point depression, i is integrated. The general equation now becomes,
∆Tb = iKbm equation 2.1.8
∆Tf = iKfm equation 2.1.9
Let’s practice solving!

Example 3.1C: Determine the freezing and boiling point of a solution prepared by dissolving
85.40 g of calcium chloride (CaCl2) in 200 g of water (H2O).

Just follow the process we did in the previous examples. Start with listing all the known
and unknown data before going to the solution part.

Given: Masscalcium chloride = 85.40 g Masswater = 200 g

Molar MassCaCl2 =110.98 g/mol Kf = -1.86 °C ∗ Kg/mol Kb = 0.512 °C ∗ Kg/mol

Take note that CaCl2 dissociates into 3 ions, 2 ions for Chlorine and 1 ion for Calcium
as given in the reaction below.
CaCl2(aq)→Ca2+(aq) +2Cl−(aq)
Unknown: Tf and Tb

First thing we have to do is to calculate for the moles of CaCl2. We can do this by dividing the
mass of the CaCl2 to its molar mass.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Number of moles =
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
85.40 𝑔
Number of moles =
110.98 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
Number of moles = 0.770 mol CaCl2

Now, we can solve for the molality of the solution using equation 2.1.3.
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
molality (m) =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝑔
0.770 𝑚𝑜𝑙
molality (m) =
0.200 𝑘𝑔
molality (m) = 3.85 mol/Kg

Using equations 2.1.8 and 2.1.9, we can consecutively solve for ∆Tb and ∆Tf.
∆Tb = iKbm
∆Tb = 3 (0.512 °C ∗ Kg/mol)(3.85 mol/Kg)
∆Tb = 5.91 °C

5
 ∆Tf = iKfm
∆Tf = 3 (-1.86 °C ∗ Kg/mol)(3.85 mol/Kg)
∆Tf = -21.48 °C
Since the normal boiling point of water is 100 °C, using equation 3.1.2 for boiling point
and 3.1.5 for freezing point, we must add the calculated ∆Tb to 100 °C to get the new boiling
point of the solution. Therefore, the new boiling point is 105.91°C. On the other hand, since
the normal freezing point of water is 0 °C, the new freezing point is still -21.48°C.

Using Colligative Properties to Find Solute Molar Mass

The colligative properties of nonelectrolyte solutions provide a means of determining

the molar mass of a solute. We learned that each colligative property is proportional to solute
concentrations. Thus, by measuring the property we can determine the amount (mol) of solute
particles and with a given mass, the molar mass can be calculated. Let’s have an example!

Example 3.1D: The addition of 250 mg of naphthalene in benzene elevated the boiling point
of 100 g of benzene by 0.05°C at 1.01 x 105 Pa. Calculate the molar mass of naphthalene
molecules. Benzene has a boiling point of 80.1°C and the Kb for benzene is 2.53 °C*Kg/mol.

Given this problem, first thing you have to do is to breathe. Relax. We can solve this
problem together! Now, you have to list down all the data given and the unknown. You may
follow the format below to make your calculations neat and easier to track.

Given:
MassNaphthalene = 250 mg = 0.250 g MassBenzene = 100 g ∆ Tb = 0.05°C
Pressure = 1.01 x 105 Pa Tb = 80.1°C Kb = 2.53 °C*Kg/mol

Unknown: Molar Mass of naphthalene molecules

All givens in? Already know what we have to calculate? Good! Let’s proceed to the
solution part.

Solution: With all the given data, we have to think of an equation where we can use those data
given to us. Do you think we can use equation 3.1.1 to solve for the molality of the naphthalene
molecules? Absolutely! But we can’t use the equation on its original form since we’re not
looking for the ∆Tb, we’re looking for the molality. So, using the knowledge you acquire from
the subject algebra, we have to transpose the equation and get the value for molality.

∆Tb = Kbm
∆Tb Kb ∗ 𝑚
=
Kb Kb
∆Tb
m=
Kb
0.05°C
m=
2.53 °C∗Kg/mol
m = 0.020 mol/Kg

We already calculated the molality of the solution. But, we are not done yet since our
final goal is to determine the molar mass of the naphthalene molecules. We know that the
solution was prepared using 0.100 kg of benzene. Now, we can find the number of moles of
naphthalene in the solution.
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
Molality (m) =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐾𝑔)

6
 Number of moles of naphthalene = molality (mass of solvent)
Number of moles of naphthalene = (0.020 mol/kg)(0.100 kg)
Number of moles of naphthalene = 1.98 x 10-3 mol

Previously, we learned that to get the molar mass, we can use equation 3.1.4.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Molar mass =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
0.250 𝑔
Molar mass =
0.00198 𝑚𝑜𝑙
Molar mass = 128 g/mol

The molecular formula of naphthalene is C10H8 and its molar mass is 128 g/mol.

What’s More
Activity 3.1.2. Solve me! Calculate the problems below. Write your solution
and box your final answer on the answer sheets provided. Follow the flow of
solving like the examples given above. You may use the Kb and Kf of water in
the examples.

1. Calculate the freezing and boiling points of a solution prepared by dissolving

15.5 g of Al(NO3)3 in 200.0 g of water. (Molar mass of Al(NO3)3 is 212.996 g/mol).

2. A solution is prepared by dissolving 120 grams of NaCl in 450 grams of water. Find
the freezing and boiling points of this solution. (Molar mass of NaCl is 58.44 g/mol)

What I Have Learned

Activity 3.1.3. Imagine me! Congratulations! You won the lotto and bought
a new car. Since it’s very hot in the Philippines you are required to buy an antifreeze
to keep the water in your car’s radiator from boiling. You add 1.00 Kg of ethylene glycol
(C2H6O2) antifreeze to 4450 g of water in your car’s radiator. What are the boiling and
freezing points of the solution?

7
 What I Can Do
Activity 3.1.4. Know me! Look for a book or search the web for additional
information regarding the colligative properties of solution. Refer to the guide
questions below.
1. State the effect that dissolving a solute has on each of the following physical
properties of a solvent.
a. Boiling point
b. Freezing point
2. Explain why the colligative properties of a solvent are affected more by the
dissolving of an electrolyte compared to an equal amount of a nonelectrolyte.
3. Are the values of Kf and Kb dependent on the identity of the solvent, the solute, or
both? Explain.

8
 Lesson Laboratory Procedures in
Determination of Solution’s
3.2 Concentration

What’s In
Previously, we discussed about the colligative properties of the solutions. Now,
let us learn how to prepare and determine the concentrations of those solutions
in laboratory.

What I Need to Know

This module discusses about laboratory procedures to be followed in preparing
and determining the concentration of the solutions.

After going through this module, you are expected to:

Describe laboratory procedures in determining concentration of solutions

(STEM_GC11PPIIId-f-119).

What’s New
Activity 3.2.1. Twist me! Rearrange the letters to get the correct word.
Clue: These words are related to solution!

1. NCTOENCITORA
2. TYOMILAR
3. NILUSOTIO
4. VESLONT
5. AUQEOSU

What Is It

In performing chemical experiments across the world, the most important procedure is
preparing a solution. With this, the concentration of the solution must be determined first.

Recall that a solution is made up of a substance dissolved in liquid. The substance that
is being dissolved is called solute while the substance that is dissolving the solute is known
as solvent. We can then call the result of this mixture as solution. Most of the time, solution is
defined by their solute concentration, which refers to the measure of how much solute is
present per unit of solution.

Making solution is easy and requires basic skill only; however, poor technique in doing
this may result to a failed experiment. That is why, it is a must that we should know how to
properly prepare a solution in a laboratory experiment.

Are you familiar with the concept “Safety First”? Well, that also applies in performing a
laboratory experiment. The first consideration when making a solution is the safety of those

9
who will perform the experiment. That is why beforehand, your personal protective equipment
(PPE) should be complete and appropriate. Examples of this PPE are safety goggles, face
mask, gloves and laboratory coat.

When you’re already equipped with your PPE, the next thing to do is to determine the
moles of the solute you will need in order to achieve the desired concentration of your solution.
Then convert this value to grams using the molar mass of the chemical. The chemicals can
be weighed out using a digital and analytical balance.

In an aqueous solution, the solvent to be used is water. In measuring the volume of

the water, you can use the graduated cylinder. Most of the time, it is roughly ¾ of the final
volume of the solution. It is also highly recommended to use purified water rather than tap
water to avoid contamination and compromising the quality of the solution.

After measuring the volume of the solvent to be used, you can then transfer it to a
beaker which contains a stir bar. The weighed solute can then be added to the purified water.
Heating and stirring the solution is also recommended upon mixing to make the process of
dissolving faster.

Now, these are the most common scenarios in performing a laboratory experiment.
But you might wonder how did we come up with the right values of the volume needed?
Usually, a given volume and molarity are required before starting the experiment. Let’s do the
calculations!

Starting with a Solid Solute Procedure

1. Determine the mass in grams of one mole of solute, the molar mass (MM).
2. Decide volume of solution required, in liters, V.
3. Decide molarity of solution required, M.
4. Calculate mass (M) in grams of solute (g) required using equation 3.2.1,

Mass = MM x M x V equation 3.2.1

Example: Prepare 800 mL of 2 M sodium chloride.

MMNaCl = 58.45 g/mol
MNaCl= 58.45 g/mol (2 mol/L)(0.8 L)
MNaCl = 93.52 g NaCl

Therefore, you must dissolve 93.52 g of NaCl in about 400 mL of distilled water, then
add more water until final volume is 800 mL.

Basically, in making solution, the following is the most used procedure.

Fill Label the

Transfer Add more
volumetric flask with
the solid Stir until the deionized
Weigh the flask with solid is or distilled
the
to the correspondi
solid deionized dissolved water until
volumetric ng solution's
or distilled the mark
flask name
water

10
 What’s More

Activity 3.2.2. Let’s do this!

Mikaela is a STEM student who is currently having her General Chemistry 2 subject.
Today, she is asked by her teacher to prepare CuSO4 solution. Help her do her task by
following the procedure and answering the question below.

1. Obtain a sample of CuSO4 from the front bench.

2. Using your scale, weigh out 18g of CuSO4.
3. Dissolve the 18g of CuSO4 in 100 mL of distilled water.
4. Stir until you have reached a homogeneous solution with all the solute dissolved
in the solvent.

Calculate the concentration of your solution (M in mol/ L of CuSO4). Show your work
in the space provided below.

What I Have Learned

Activity 3.2.3. Explain me!

Grace needs to prepare a sulfuric acid solution using sulfuric acid and distilled water.
However, there is no distilled water left on the laboratory. Marie suggested to use the running
water from the faucet, but Grace declined. Grace insisted that tap water should not be used
in preparing solutions. Explain the basis of Grace’s claims.

What I Can Do

Activity 3.2.4. Prepare me!

Objective: Prepare a sodium chloride (table salt) solution and sugar solution.

Equipment: Cup, table salt, sugar, timer/stopwatch, table spoon

Procedure:

1. Measure amount of table salt using table spoon. Record it.

2. Add the table salt in a ½ cup of water.
3. Stir the solution using the table spoon.
4. Record the time it takes for the salt to be totally dissolved.
5. Picture/draw your set-up in preparing the solution.
6. Do step 1 to 5 for sugar solution.

Guide Question:

In preparing the solutions, which of the two solutes was dissolved faster?

11
 Lesson
First Law of Thermodynamics
3.3
What’s In

Previously, we discussed about how to prepare and determine the concentrations

of those solutions in laboratory. Now, let us proceed to learning what thermodynamics is all
about. Let’s start with the first law of thermodynamics.

What I Need to Know

This module discusses about the first law of thermodynamics.

After going through this module, you are expected to:

Explain the first law of thermodynamics (STEM_GC11PPIIId-i-124).

What’s New
Activity 3.3.1. Word Twist!

1. HIRTONSADMEMCY
2. NEGEYR
3. TEHA
4. KORW
5. CELCINAHAM

What Is It

Thermochemistry is part of a broader subject called thermodynamics, which is the

scientific study of the interconversion of heat and other kinds of energy. The laws of
thermodynamics provide useful guidelines for understanding the energetics and directions of
processes. In this section we will concentrate on the first law of thermodynamics which is
particularly relevant to the study of thermochemistry.

The first law of thermodynamics which is based on the law of conservation of energy
states that energy can be converted from one form to another but cannot be created or
destroyed. It states that the change in internal energy of a system, ∆U, equals the net heat
transferred into the system, Q, plus the net work done on the system, W.

12
This is shown in equation 3.3.1.

∆U = W + Q equation 3.3.1

Here, ΔU is the change in internal energy of the system. Q is the net heat transferred
into the system—that is, Q is the sum of all heat transferred into and out of the system. W is
the net work done on the system.

So positive heat, Q, adds energy to the system and positive work, W, adds energy to
the system. Therefore, the first law takes the form it does in equation 3.3.1. It simply says that
you can add to the internal energy by heating a system or doing work on the system.

We can think of the first law of thermodynamics as an energy balance sheet, much like
a money balance sheet kept in a bank that does currency exchange. You can withdraw or
deposit money in either of two different currencies (like energy change due to heat exchange
and work done). However, the value of your bank account depends only on the net amount of
money left in it after these transactions, not on which currency you used.

Work

We have seen that work can be defined as force F multiplied by distance d:

W=F*d equation 3.3.2

Where, F is the distance and d is the distance.

In thermodynamics, work can be defined in many ways such as mechanical work,

electrical work and surface work. An example of a mechanical work is the compression and
expansion of a gas. In this way, work can be defined using equation 3.3.3.

W = - P(∆V) equation 3.3.3

Where, ∆V, the change in volume, is given by Vf– Vi and P is the external atmospheric
pressure.

Let’s have an example!

Example 3.3.1. A certain gas expands in volume from 2.0L to 6.0L at constant temperature.
Calculate the work done by the gas if it expands (a) against a vacuum and (b) against a
constant pressure of 1.2 atm. The work done in gas expansion is equal to the product of the
external, opposing pressure and the change in volume. What is the conversion factor between
L*atm and J?

(a) Because the external pressure is zero, no work is done in the expansion.
W = - P(∆V)
W = - 0 ( 6 L – 2L)
W = 0 atm*L

(b) The external, opposing pressure is 1.2 atm, so

W = - P(∆V)
W = - 1.2 atm (6.0 L – 2.0 L)
W = - 4.8 atm*L
To convert the answers to Joules, J.
101.3 𝐽
W = - 4.8 atm*L ( )
1 𝑎𝑡𝑚∗𝐿
2
W = - 4.9 x 10 J
Because this is gas expansion (work is done by the system on the surroundings), the work
done has a negative sign.
13
Heat

The other component of internal energy is heat, Q. For example, it takes 4184 J of
energy to raise the temperature of 100g of water from 20°C to 30°C. This energy can be gained
(a) directly as heat energy from a Bunsen burner, without doing any work on the water; (b) by
doing work on the water without adding heat energy (for example, by stirring the water with a
magnetic stir bar); or (c) by some combination of the procedures described in (a) and (b). This
simple illustration shows that heat associated with a given process, like work, depends on how
the process is carried out. It is important to note that regardless of which procedure is taken,
the change in internal energy of the system, ∆U, depends on the sum of (Q + W). If changing
the path from the initial state to the final state increases the value of Q, then it will decrease
the value of W by the same amount and vice versa, so that ∆U remains unchanged.

What’s More
Activity 3.3.2. Solve me!

1. Manuel has a container that contains a sample of nitrogen gas and a tightly fitting
movable piston that does not allow any of the gas to escape. During a
thermodynamics process, 200 Joules of heat enter the gas, and the gas does 300
Joules of work in the process. What was the change in internal energy of the gas
during the process described above?

2. The work done when a gas is compressed in a cylinder is 462 J. During this
process, there is a heat transfer of 128 J from the gas to the surroundings.
Calculate the energy change for this process.

What I Have Learned

Activity 3.3.3. Explain me!

Juliet was studying about thermodynamics. She was doing well in understanding the
lesson except for one concept. She was confused between the two terms, heat and
temperature. Are heat and temperature the same? Explain the difference between the two
terms.

What I Can Do
Activity 3.3.4. Draw me!

Draw an illustration of an example of work and heat. Label correctly how the work is
done and how the heat flows. You can draw in a short bond paper. Attach the drawing in your
answer sheets.

14
 Lesson
Enthalpy and Hess Law
3.4
What’s In

Previously, we discussed about the first law of thermodynamics. Now, let us proceed
to learning what is enthalpy and how to calculate for enthalpy of a reaction using Hess Law.

What I Need to Know

This module discusses about enthalpy and the calculation of enthalpy of a reaction
using Hess Law.

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. Explain enthalpy of a reaction (STEM_GC11TCIIIg-i-125)

2. Calculate the change in enthalpy of a given reaction using Hess Law

(STEM_GC11TCIIIg-i-127).

What’s New
Activity 3.4.1. Find me! Locate the words associated with enthalpy in the grid. The
words can be running in horizontal, vertical and diagonal directions.

R W E N D O T H E R M I C G T
V A N T S F G O A T S A P A H
R B M E N T H A L P Y A R H R
E E G M I L I A O R G K O R O
A I E P O H O K A L E T D F T
C P T R I N E S I A V N U E T
T I J E A F T S E F V E C A L
A N A S S P L O S E O Y T R I
N G F S T Q E M G H L M A T N
T A T U L C I P E A U E R C G
K A D R T E Y H A R M S A R C
I N T E R N A L E N E R G Y T
C I L K I G A S I P E R Y M E
A T T A O D E G R E A S E R S
R E X O T H E R M I C S D W Q

15
 1. _____________________ 6. ___________________
2. _____________________ 7. ___________________
3. _____________________ 8. ___________________
4. _____________________ 9. ___________________
5. _____________________ 10. __________________

What Is It
Our next step is to see how the first law of thermodynamics can be applied to
processes carried out under different conditions. Specifically, we will consider two situations
most commonly encountered in the laboratory; one in which the volume of the system is kept
constant and one in which the pressure applied on the system is kept constant.

Enthalpy is a thermodynamic property of a system. It is the sum of the internal energy

added to the product of the pressure and volume of the system. It reflects the capacity to do
non-mechanical work and the capacity to release heat. Enthalpy is denoted as H; specific
enthalpy denoted as h. Enthalpy in a throttling process is constant. We can define enthalpy
using equation 3.4.1.
H = U + PV equation 3.4.1

Where, H is the enthalpy of a reaction, U is the internal energy of the system, P is the
pressure and V is the volume of the system. Because U and PV have energy units, enthalpy
also has energy units. Common units used to express enthalpy are the joule, calorie, or BTU
(British Thermal Unit.)

Change in enthalpy is calculated rather than enthalpy in part because total enthalpy of
a system cannot be measured since it is impossible to know the zero point. However, it is
possible to measure the difference in enthalpy between one state and another. Enthalpy
change may be calculated under conditions of constant pressure. One representation of this
is of a firefighter who is on a ladder, but the smoke has covered his view of the ground. He
cannot see how many steps are below him to the ground but can see there are three steps to
the window where a person needs to be rescued. In the same way, total enthalpy cannot be
measured, but the change in enthalpy (three ladder steps) can. This change in enthalpy is
defined as ∆H.

Because most reactions are constant-pressure processes, we can equate the heat
change in these cases, to the change in enthalpy. For any reaction of the type
reactants products
we define the change in enthalpy, called the enthalpy of reaction, ∆Hrxn, as the difference
between the enthalpies of the products and the enthalpies of the reactants:

∆Hrxn = H(Products) – H(Reactants) equation 3.4.2

Remember that the enthalpy of reaction can be positive or negative, depending on the
process. For an endothermic process (heat absorbed by the system from the surroundings),
∆H is positive (that is, ∆H >0). For an exothermic process (heat released by the system to the
surroundings), ∆H is negative (that is, ∆H < 0).

Another way of calculating the change of enthalpy is by using Hess Law. Hess Law
states that the enthalpy change accompanying a chemical change is independent of the route
by which the chemical change occurs. In other words, Hess Law is saying that if you convert
reactants A into products B, the overall enthalpy change will be the same whether you do it in
one step or two steps or however many steps.

Let’s have an example for better understanding!

16
Example 3.4.1. Find the enthalpy change for the reaction.

CS2(l) + 3 O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2 SO2(g)

when:
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g); ΔHf = -393.5 kJ/mol
S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g); ΔHf = -296.8 kJ/mol
C(s) + 2 S(s) → CS2(l); ΔHf = 87.9 kJ/mol

This is an example of a trial-and-error problem. To solve this, it is better to start with a reaction
with only one mole of reactant or product in the reaction.

Our reaction needs one CO2 in the product and the first reaction also has one
CO2 product.

C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) ΔHf = -393.5 kJ/mol

This reaction gives us the CO2 needed on the product side and one of the O2 needed on the
reactant side. The other two O2 can be found in the second reaction.

S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g) ΔHf = -296.8 kJ/mol

Since only one O2 is in the reaction, multiply the reaction by two to get the second O2. This
doubles the ΔHf value.

2 S(s) + 2 O2(g) → 2 SO2(g) ΔHf = -593.6 kJ/mol

Combining these equations gives

2 S(s) + C(s) + 3 O2(g) → CO2(g) + SO2(g)

The enthalpy change is the sum of the two reactions:

ΔHf = -393.5 kJ/mol + -593.6 kJ/mol = -987.1 kJ/mol

This equation has the product side needed in the problem but contains an extra two S and
one C atom on the reactant side. Fortunately, the third equation has the same atoms. If the
reaction is reversed, these atoms are on the product side. When the reaction is reversed, the
sign of the change in enthalpy is reversed.

CS2(l) → C(s) + 2 S(s); ΔHf = -87.9 kJ/mol

Add these two reactions together and the extra S and C atoms cancel out. The remaining
reaction is the reaction needed in the question. Since the reactions were added together, their
ΔHf values are added together.

ΔHf = -987.1 kJ/mol + -87.9 kJ/mol

ΔHf = -1075 kJ/mol

Therefore, the change in enthalpy for the reaction is -1075 kJ/mol.

17
 What’s More
Activity 3.4.2. Calculate me!

Given the thermochemical equation

2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2 SO3(g) ∆H =- 198.2 kJ/mol
calculate the heat evolved when 87.9 g of SO2 (molar mass 64.07 g/mol) is convertedto SO3.

What I Have Learned

Activity 3.4.3. Solve me!

1. Calculate the heat of hydrogenation of ethane, C2H4 given the following

thermochemical equations:

2 C(graphite) + 3 H2 (g) —> C2H6 (g) ΔHf= - 84.5 kJ/mol

2 C (graphite) + 2 H2 (g) —> C2H4 (g) ΔHf= 52.3 kJ/mol

2. Calculate the ΔH for the reaction:

CS2 (l) + 2 O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2 SO2 (g)

Given:
ΔHfCO2 (g) = - 393.5 kJ/mol;
ΔHfSO2 = -296.8 kJ/mol;
ΔHfCS2 (l) = 87.9kJ/mol

What I Can Do
Activity 3.4.4. Complete me! Complete the table by providing the information
needed.

Importance Application

Enthalpy

18
Summary
Colligative Properties

• Colligative property refers to the property of the solution that depends on the number
of solute particles present.

• Colligative properties of solutions include freezing point depression and boiling point
elevation.

• The increase in the boiling point temperature is called boiling point elevation (∆Tb). To
determine the boiling point elevation of a solution, we will have to use equation,
∆Tb = Kbm. Where the value of the Kb is 0.514 K/mol*Kg

On the other hand, the boiling point of a solution can be determined using equation,
Tb(solution)= Tb(solvent)+ ∆Tb

• The freezing point depression (∆Tf) occurs because the vapor pressure of the
solution is always lower than that of the solvent, so the solution freezes at a lower
temperature; that is, only at a lower temperature will solvent particles leave and enter
the solid at the same rate.

• The equation of freezing point depression is ∆Tf = Kfm , where Kf is 1.86 °C*Kg/mol.

• In solving electrolytes solution, a van’t hoff factor must be incorporated to the

previous equations.

Laboratory Procedures in Concentration’s Determination

First Law of Thermodynamics

• The first law of thermodynamics, which is based on the law of conservation of

energy, states that energy can be converted from one form to another, but cannot be
created or destroyed. It states that the change in internal energy of a system, ∆U,
equals the net heat transferred into the system, Q, plus the net work done on the
system, W.

Enthalpy and Hess Law

• Enthalpy is a thermodynamic property of a system. It is the sum of the internal

energy added to the product of the pressure and volume of the system. It reflects the
capacity to do non-mechanical work and the capacity to release heat.

• Hess law states that the enthalpy change accompanying a chemical change is
independent of the route by which the chemical change occurs.

19
 Assessment: (Post-Test)
Multiple Choice. Encircle the letter of the best answer from among the given
choices.

1. What is the SI unit of enthalpy?

A. Joule/kgK B. Joule/K
C. Joule/kg D. K/kg

2. The extent to which a solute dissolve in a solvent is determined by which of the

following?
A. ambient pressure B. stirring the mixture
C. type of intermolecular forces D. temperature

3. Which among the following is not a colligative property?

A. boiling point elevation B. chemical solubility
C. freezing point depression D. Vapor pressure reduction

4. An increase in enthalpy leads to an increase in what?

A. increase in pressure B. increase in volume
C. increase in internal energy D. increase in mass

5. Which concentration unit is used when calculating colligative properties relating to

boiling point elevation?
A. molality B. mole fraction
C. molarity D. weight percent

6. What is the molal freezing point constant, K?

A. is a specific effect of a solute on a given solvent.
B. is independent of the solute used in making the solution.
C. varies with temperature and pressure.
D. has the same value as the boiling point constant.

7. First law of thermodynamics deals with what conservation?

A. conservation of energy B. conservation of mass
C. conservation of momentum D. conservation of pressure

8. A reaction is allowed to take place in an insulated container containing 100 mL of

water. If the reaction is exothermic, what happens to the temperature of water?
A. the temperature of the water goes down
B. the temperature of the water goes up
C. the temperature of the water does not change.
D. none of the above.

9. On what do the colligative properties of solutions depend?

A. chemical nature of solute B. concentration of solute molecules
C. number of moles of solute D. physical nature of solute

10. What is Hess Law?

A. that energy released is negative enthalpy and energy used is positive
enthalpy
B. that energy released is positive enthalpy and energy used is negative
enthalpy
C. that the path taken doesn't matter in reactions; the total change in
enthalpy will always be the same
D. that at a given temperature, pressure at a compound will always have the
same enthalpy.
20
 21
LESSON 3.1
What I know
1. C 6. C.
2. A. 7. A.
3. B. 8. D.
4. B. 9. C.
5. A. 10. C.
What’s New. Activity 3.1.1. Find me!
R W E L E C T R O L Y T E G G
V A N T S F G O A T S A G A W
F B M I M A S S A Y B A T H F
F O G M I L I A O R G K I R R
P I E N O M O L A L I T Y F E
H L T S I N L S I A V N V E E
K I J V A N T H O F F E K A Z
G N A F S O L U T E O Y N R I
D G F A O Q E M G H A M A T N
E A T S L C I P E A P E R C G
K A D Y U E Y H A R P S A R C
U B L E T C H B U N N Y F A T
C O L L I G A T I V E R Y M E
A T T A O D E G R E A S E R S
R A C I N F G J E F T S D W Q
1. ELECTROLYTE 6. SOLUTION
2. MASS 7. SOLUTE
3. VAN’T HOFFE 8. SOLVENT
4. BOILING 9. FREEZING
5. COLLIGATIVE 10. MOLALITY
What’s More: Activity 3.1.2 What I have learned: Activity 3.1.3
1. Tb = 100.19 °C and Tf = -0.68 °C 1. Tb(solution) = 101.85 °C , TF(solution) = -6.73 °C
2. Tb = 102.34°C and Tf = -8.49°C
Key to Answers
 22
LESSON 3.2
What’s New: Activity 3.2.1. Twist me! What’s More: Activity 3.2.2. Let’s do this!
1. CONCENTRATION Answer: 1.13 M
2. MOLARITY
3. SOLUTION
4. SOLVENT
5. AQUEOUS
What I have learned: Activity 3.2.3. Explain me!
Answer: To avoid contamination and compromising the quality of the solution.
LESSON 3.3
What’s New: Activity 3.3.1. Word Twist! What’s More: Activity 3.3.2: Solve
Me!
1. THERMODYNAMICS 1. ∆U = - 100 J
2. ENERGY 2. ∆U = 334 J
3. HEAT
4. WORK
5. MECHANICAL
What I have learned: Activity 3.3.3: Explain me!
Absolutely not. This is one of the most common misconceptions when dealing with the first law of
thermodynamics. (Elaborate)
`
 23
LESSON 3.4
What’s New: Activity 3.4.1. Find Me!
R W E N D O T H E R M I C G T
V A N T S F G O A T S A P A H
R B M E N T H A L P Y A R H R
E E G M I L I A O R G K O R O
A I E P O H O K A L E T D F T
C P T R I N E S I A V N U E T
T I J E A F T S E F V E C A L
A N A S S P L O S E O Y T R I
N G F S T Q E M G H L M A T N
T A T U L C I P E A U E R C G
K A D R T E Y H A R M S A R C
I N T E R N A L E N E R G Y T
C I L K I G A S I P E R Y M E
A T T A O D E G R E A S E R S
R E X O T H E R M I C S D W Q
1. ENDOTHERMIC 6. VOLUME
2.INTERNAL ENERGY 7. PRESSURE
3. EXOTHERMIC 8. ENTHALPY
4. REACTANT 9. HESS
5. THROTTLING 10. PRODUCTS
What’s More: Activity 3.4.3. Solve me!
1. ΔHrxn = - 136.8 kJ/mol
2. ΔHf = -1075 kJ/mol
Assessment
1. C 6. B
2. A. 7. A.
3. B. 8. C
4. C. 9. B
5. A. 10. C.
References

Chang, Raymond. Chemistry. Chang. New York (24-05-96 EPS: McGraw-Hill, 1991.

“What Is the First Law of Thermodynamics? (Article).” Khan Academy. Khan Academy.
Accessed August 10, 2020.
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/thermodynamics/laws-of-
thermodynamics/a/what-is-the-first-law-of-thermodynamics.

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