i

Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

PART ONE: MATHEMATICS

Unit 1 Introduction to Mathematics and numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Mathematics and numbers
The number system
Sets of numbers
Mathematical symbols
Irregular plurals

Unit 2 Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Ratio, proportion and percentage
Using percentages in statistics

Unit 3 Powers and roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

Word transformation

Unit 4 Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Unit 5 Equations and formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Unit 6 Lines and angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Unit 7 Two-dimensional figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

The triangle
The circle
More 2-dimensional figures

Unit 8 Three-dimensional figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

PART TWO: COMPUTER SCIENCE

Unit 1 Introduction to computer science terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Unit 2 Computer applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

What can computers do?
What is a computer?
The Passive Voice
ii

Unit 3 What’s inside a microcomputer? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Relative clauses
Word building - prefixes

Unit 4 Input devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

About the keyboard
Point and click
Word building - Adding a suffix

Unit 5 Output devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54

Types of printers
Comparison of adjectives

Unit 6 Storage devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Optical disks: pros and cons
Connectors and modifiers

PART THREE: PHYSICS

Unit 1 Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Unit 2 Matter and measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63

Opposites

Unit 3 Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Unit 4 Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Conditional clauses

Unit 5 Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Unit 6 Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74

Unit 7 Work, energy and power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
 iii

Preface
A Course in Scientific English has been designed for students of mathematics,
computer science and/or physics as well as for students of other technical sciences
based upon the above (eg. electrical engineering, civil engineering, mechanical
engineering ...). It may also be of interest to college and university staff who would
like to broaden their knowlege and use of English in scientific studies.
This textbook presents a useful introduction to the English terminology dealing
with the fundamentals of certain scientific fields. The selected topics, techniques
and examples have been primarily selected on the basis of their relevance to the
knowledge that students already posses in their mother tongue. Each unit presents
the essential language of a particular aspect of mathematics, computer science and
physics. In addition to providing a range of practice questions and tasks, this
textbook enables students to become familiar with its application and to improve
their skills and confidence in using English in particular contexts.

Acknowledgements
The author would like to express her gratitude to Mario Brdar, PhD and Višnja
Pavičić, MA, Faculty of Education, University of Osijek, for their valuable com-
ments and advice, as well as to Audrey Kovačević who helped me a lot with her
suggestions.
Thanks are also due to Mihaela Ribičić, BSc, Department of Mathematics, Uni-
versity of Osijek, for editing the typescript and providing the overall technical sup-
port, and finally to Franka Miriam Brckler, MSc, Department of Mathematics,
University of Zagreb, for designing the title page.
PART ONE

MATHEMATICS
 Mathematics 1

UNIT 1
Introduction to Mathematics and numbers
Tuning-in
Task 1
Try to answer the following questions:
1) What are numbers?
2) What are integers?
3) What are digits?
Note: the word digit comes from a Latin word meaning finger.
4) What types of numbers are you familiar with?
5) What is the difference between 3.142 and 3,142?

Task 2
Explain the difference between the following pairs of words:
1) cardinal - ordinal numbers
2) odd - even numbers

3) common fractions - decimal fractions

Task 3
Define the following terms in mathematics and give examples:
a prime number, a three-digit number, a number line.
Note: a two-, three-, four-, etc. digit number, but numbers from 0-9 are known as
one- or single-digit numbers.
2 Mathematics

Reading 1
Task 4
Read the following text to check some of your answers to Tasks 1-3.

Mathematics and numbers

It is said that mathematics is the basis of all other sciences, and that arithmetic
is the basis of mathematics. Numbers consist of whole numbers (integers) which
are formed by digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 and by combinations of them.
E.g. 247 - two hundred and forty seven - is a number formed by three digits. Parts
of numbers smaller than 1 are sometimes expressed in terms of fractions, but in
scientific usage they are given as decimals. This is because it is easier to perform
the various mathematical operations if decimals are used instead of fractions.
The decimal is always represented by point, and not by comma which is reserved
for thousands. The main operations are: addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division, taking a root and raising to the power. The decimal, or ten-scale system,
is used for scientific purposes throughout the world. The other scale in general use
nowadays is the binary, or two-scale, in which numbers are expressed by combina-
tions of only two digits, 0 and 1. Thus, in the binary scale, 2 is expressed as 010, 3
is given as 011, 4 is represented as 100, etc. This scale is perfectly adapted to the
”on-off” pulses of electricity, so it is widely used in electronic computers.
Other branches of mathematics such as algebra and geometry are also exten-
sively used in many sciences and even in some areas of philosophy. Finally, a
knowledge of statistics is required by every type of scientist for the analysis of data.

Language study 1

Mathematical symbols
Scientific texts can easily be recognised by the use of diagrams, symbols, formulae
and equations. They are the same in all written languages but are pronounced
differently.
 Mathematics 3

Symbols How the symbol is read

+ plus; positive
− minus; negative
ab, a · b,a × b ab; a times b, a multiplied by b
a/b, a : b, a ÷ b a over b, a divided by b, the ratio of a to b
= equals, is equal to, is
≡ is identical with, is equivalent to
 = does not equal, is not equal to
> is greater than
< is less than
 is substantially greater than, is much greater than
 is substantially less than, is much less than
≥ is greater than or equal to
≤ is less than or equal to
a2 a squared
b3 b cubed
125
√ twelve to the power of five, the fifth power of 12
√ 9 the square root of nine
3
10 the cube root of ten
√
n
a the nth root of a
() round brackets, parentheses
[] square brackets, brackets
{} curly brackets, braces
log[a]x logarithm of x to the base a
n! factorial n, n factorial
a
a prime
a

a double prime, a second
a

n a sub n , a subscript n
integral

Task 5
How would you pronounce the following?
√
1) 32 = 9 6) 53 − 3 27 = 122
4
2) √ + b) √
(a 7) (a + b) − (c + d)
3) 81  3 8 8) log[2]a
4) bn 9) 12x : 4 = 3x
5) b≤8 10) a4 · a3 = a7
4 Mathematics

Language study 2
Irregular plurals
Many scientific and technical terms which have come into English from other lan-
guages like Latin and Greek form their plurals in a completely different way. There-
fore, they are often referred to as irregular plurals. Some of them are given below.

radius, radii
nucleus, nuclei
locus, loci
axis, axes
analysis, analyses
basis, bases
ellipsis, ellipses
hypothesis, hypotheses
parenthesis, parentheses
matrix, matrices or matrixes
index, indices or indexes
appendix, appendices or appendixes
vertex, vertices
apex, apices or apexes
criterion, criteria
phenomenon, phenomena
formula, formulae or formulas
abscissa, abscissae or abscissas
maximum, maxima
minimum, minima

Task 6
Give the Croatian equivalents of the above nouns.

Word study
Task 7
Arithmetical operations on numbers include addition, subtraction, division and
multiplication.
One number may be added to another. The result is called the sum. The sum of 9
and 14 is 23, i.e. 9 plus 14 equals 23, or 9 plus 14 is equal to 23.
Make similar statements using these words:

1) subtracted/difference
 Mathematics 5

2) multiplied/product
3) divided/quotient
Pay attention to the necessary preposition.

Task 8
An integer is even if it is divisible by 2.
An integer is odd if it is not divisible by 2.
An integer is divisible by 3 if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3.
Now make similar statements about the divisibility of integers by:
1) 10
2) 9
3) 4
4) 8
5) 5
6) 6
7) 11

Reading 2
Task 9
Read the texts and identify the types of numbers listed in the two texts. Give their
definitions.

The number system

The set of positive and negative integers consists of all the natural numbers 1,
2, 3, 4..., plus the same numbers preceded by the minus sign, -1, -2, -3, .... We can
represent any of these numbers on the number line. We can also represent frac-
tions of numbers, e.g. 1.5, 23 , −3.4 etc., on the number line. The rational numbers
are composed of both the integers (or whole numbers) and the non-integers (or
fractions). All rational numbers may be represented as a fraction where both the
denominator and the numerator are integers, whereas irrational numbers cannot √
be expressed √ in this way. Irrational numbers include numbers like π (3.14159), 2 2
(1.41421), 3 5 (1.70997) and so on. All these numbers, both rational and irrational,
make up the set of real numbers, and may be represented as points on a number
line. Imaginary numbers, on the other hand, √ cannot be represented as points on
a number line. They include numbers such as 2 −1, which is usually expressed by
the symbol i. Finally, a complex number is a number √ which contains both a real
number and an imaginary number, for example 6 + 2 −4.
6 Mathematics

Sets of numbers

Several sets of numbers are used frequently in mathematics and the use of stan-
dard abbreviations or symbols referring to them enables us to save time and space.
Capital letters are usually used for this notation. The set of natural numbers is
denoted by N. Z denotes the set of all integers. R represents all real numbers and
Q all rational numbers.
Note that Z+ means all positive integers, R− all negative real numbers, and so
on. Z+ differs from N in that Z+ consists of all positive integers, whereas N consists
of all non-negative integers and therefore includes the element zero in addition to
the elements of Z+ . We can see from this that a set which contains only the
element zero is not the same as the empty set, which contains no elements. Thus
N − Z+ = {0}, but Z+ ∩ Z− = ∅.
Some other sets are also referred to in the form of abbreviations. We use a
capital U to refer to the universal set, while the empty set is denoted by a symbol
which consists of a zero bisected by an oblique line. This may also be read as the
null or void set. For example, if two sets, A and B are disjoint (that is, they have
no elements in common), then A ∩ B = ∅ .

Task 10
Look at this set of numbers:

2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23 . . .

1) Can you continue this set?

2) Which numbers does it consist of?

Task 11
List the following sets:

1) the set of whole numbers less than 5

2) the set of natural numbers less than 5

3) the set of even numbers greater than 7 and less than 15

4) the set of two-digit numbers less than 50 with both digits the same

5) the set of two-digit numbers the sum of whose digits is 4.

Note: When you specify a set of numbers, you list the numbers inside braces {}.
 Mathematics 7

Task 12
a) Say whether the following statements are true or false. Correct the false state-
ments.
1) If m and n are integers, m
n is a rational member.
2) The set of irrational numbers includes negative integers.
3) Neither irrational numbers nor complex numbers may be represented as
points on a number line.
4) The symbol i represents a complex number.
5) A complex number consists of at least two parts.

b) Describe the following numbers:

3 √ √
3
−4, , 2, 1.41, 27
5
Example: 2.5 positive rational non-integer.

Task 13
a) Label this diagram as you read the passage:

This diagram consists of two lines. The horizontal line is called the x-axis; the
vertical is called the y-axis. They intersect at the origin O. Together, these
two axes are called the co-ordinate axes. The axes separate the diagram into
four quadrants. The top right-hand quadrant is known as the first quadrant,
the top left the second, the bottom left the third, the bottom right the fourth.
Starting from the origin, label the points to the right on the x-axis 1, 2, 3, 4,
etc... and to the left -1, -2, -3, and so on. On the y-axis, starting from the
origin, label the points above the origin 1, 2, 3, 4 ... and the points below
8 Mathematics

the origin -1, -2, -3, etc. Now any point in the plane may be represented
in the relation to the two axes by two numbers. For example, the point P is
represented by two numbers, (4, 2). These numbers are called the co-ordinates
of point P. The x-co-ordinate, 4 is called the abscissa of P. The y-co-ordinate,
2 is called the ordinate of P. The system is known as the Cartesian co-ordinate
system.
b) Say whether the following statements are true or false. Correct the false state-
ments.
1) The abscissa of the point Q is 3.
2) The co-ordinates of the point R are (-1, 2).
3) The co-ordinates of the point P are (2, 4).
4) The two axes divide the plane into four quadrants.
 Mathematics 9

UNIT 2 Fractions
Tuning-in

Task 1
Answer the following questions:

1) How can you define fractions?

2) How many types of fractions are you familiar with?

3) How often do you use fractions in everyday life? On which occasions?

Reading 1

Section 1 Vulgar or common (proper) fractions

4
5 ( four fifths or four over five) is a fraction.
In this fraction, 4 is the numerator and 5 is the denominator.
16
9 is an improper fraction.
4 41 is a mixed number.
To add or subtract vulgar fractions, we must express them in terms of the lowest
common denominator. For example, in expression 23 − 15 = 15 7
the lowest common
denominator is 15.
To multiply or divide vulgar fractions e.g. 2 85 × 2 32 × 1 10
3
we must first change the
21 8 13
mixed numbers to improper fractions 8 × 3 × 10 and then cancel where possible
7
1 × 11 × 13
10 . Then we multiply the numerators and denominators and express the
result as a mixed number = 91 1
10 = 9 10

Section 2 Decimal fractions

To write a decimal fraction we use a decimal point.
For example, if we convert 2 14 into a decimal fraction, the result is 2.25 (two point
two five).
If we convert 23 into a decimal fraction, the result is 0.6̇ (nought point six reccuring).
Note that 17 : 3 = 5.6 or 5.67 correct to two decimal places.
Note also that π is equal to 3.142 correct to four significant figures.

Task 2 Vocabulary practice

Using single words, fill in the blank spaces in the following sentences :

1) In the vulgar fraction seven ninths ________ is the numerator and ______ is
the ___________.
10 Mathematics

2) To _______ a vulgar fraction to a decimal fraction, we simply _________ the

numerator by the denominator.

3) The ________ _________ ____________ of two thirds and a half is six.

4) An integer plus a fraction makes a _______ ________.

5) An improper fraction exists when the __________ is greater than the ___________.

6) To multiply a decimal fraction by ten, we simply move the _________ ______

one place to the right.

7) 57.074 correct to _____ _________ ________ is 57.1.

8) To add or subtract vulgar fractions, we must _________ them ________ _________

____________ their lowest common denominator.

9) To divide a decimal fraction by ____ we simply move the decimal point one
______ to the ______.

5 2 5
10) 2 × 9 becomes 9 if we _______ the two’s.

Task 3 Vocabulary practice

Using single words, fill in the blank spaces in the following sentences :

1) The _______ of three and four is twelve.

2) The operation which uses the symbol : is called __________.

3) Forty-eight ________ thirty-six equals twelve.

4) The result of a division problem is called the ____________.

5) A whole number is also known as an __________.

6) Any number consists of combinations of __________.

7) Eighteen subtracted _____ twenty equals ______.

8) Three multiplied ____ five equals ___________.

9) When we ____ two quantities, for example seven plus twelve, the answer
(nineteen) is called the ____.

10) The product is the result when one quantity is ___________ ___ another.
 Mathematics 11

Task 4
Fill in the blank spaces in the following sentences and answer the respective ques-
tions:

A number such as 35 is called a ______. A fraction comprises two parts, a ______

and a ______. The denominator is the number _____ the line.
1) What is the numerator?
2) What are the numerator and denominator separated by?
If the numerator is ______ than the denominator, the fraction is known as a proper
______. If the denominator is less than the ______, the fraction is known as an
______ fraction. In the fraction 102
153 both the denominator and the numerator
may be ______ by the same number (______) to give 23 . This is called ______ or
reducing the fraction.
3) Can the following fractions be reduced?
28 40 41
70 64 105

Reading 2
Ratio, proportion and percentage
Section 1 Ratio and proportion
The ratio of two quantities is the magnitude of one quantity relative to the other.
Division of quantity a by quantity b gives the ratio ab , which can also be written as
a : b and is read as ’the ratio of a to b’. For example, the ratio of boys to girls in
a particular school is 3:2. If the school has 250 pupils, then we can see that 35 of
these are boys and 23 girls, i.e. there are 150 boys and 100 girls.
When we build a model ship, we make it to scale. For example, if a model is
built to a scale 1:30 (one to thirty), this means that 10 centimeters on the model
represents 300 centimeters on the ship itself. The scale of a map shows the ratio
of the distance on the map to the distance on the area covered by the map. On a
map this ratio is called the representative fraction.
Relative sizes of more than two quantities may be expressed by ratio. For
example, the ratio of AB:BC:AC in a certain triangle ABC is 3:4:6. Hence we
can see that AC is twice as long as AB. Any triangle which is similar to triangle
ABC has sides in exactly the same ratio.
When the ratio of one pair of quantities is equal to the ratio of another pair of
quantities, the two pairs are said to be in proportion. If we say that a, b, c are
in proportion, we mean that ab = dc . A property of this proportion is that the
reciprocals are also in proportion. Moreover, the ratio of the numerators is equal
to the ratio of the denominators.
12 Mathematics

y∝x The ratio between y and x is a constant.

Y is directly proportional to x.
We say that y varies directly with x.

1
y∝ x y is directly proportional to the reciprocal of x.
We say that y is inversely proportional to x
and that y varies inversely with x.

y ∝ xz y is directly proportional to the product of x and z.

We say that y is jointly proportional to x and z,
and that y varies jointly with x and z.

Task 5
Answer the following questions or provide solutions to the given mathematical prob-
lems.

1) Which fraction with a denominator of sixteen is in proportion to one over

four?

2) If a plan is drawn to a scale of 1:50 (one to fifty), what is the actual measure-
ment which is shown on the plan as four centimeters?

3) Divide one hundred and forty sheep into two groups in the ratio of 3:4.

4) The scale of a map is five centimeters to one kilometre. What is the repre-
sentative fraction of the map?

5) On the same map, what length will represent nine kilometres?

6) Divide thirty six pounds into three parts in the ratio 6:5:1.

7) Five families have a total of 100 sheep. How many sheep will six families have
if the numbers are in proportion?

8) A concrete mix of cement, sand and gravel is made in the ratio of 2:5:8. What
is the weight of each part in thirty tonnes of concrete?

9) In a class of students the ratio of success to failure in an examination was 9:2.

If eighteen students passed the examination, how many failed?

10) If ten litres of oil weigh eight kilograms, and a litre of water weighs one
kilogram, what is the ratio of the relative density of oil and water?

Task 6
Describe the relationship between the following quantities, where k is a constant:
k
1) y = x
 Mathematics 13

2) y = kxz

3) y : x = k

4) y = kx
1
5) y : x =k

Task 7
The volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure. The smaller the
volume, the higher the pressure.
Now make similar sentences about the following:

1) the density and pressure of a gas (for a constant temperature)

2) the volume and temperature of a gas (for a constant pressure)

3) the velocity of a falling body and the time it has been falling

4) acceleration and mass for a constant force

Task 8
Say whether the following statements are true or false. Correct the false statements:

1) In a test a student scored 30 out of 100. This gives a ratio of 3:10 for correct
answers to the incorrect ones.

2) The length of the shortest side of a triangle similar to triangle ABC is 12 cm.
The other sides are therefore 16 and 24 cm long.

3) Any triangle with sides in the ratio 2:3:6 is a right-angled triangle.

4) If a, b, c are in proportion, then ad = bc.

Section 2 Percentage
36% (thirty six percent) is really a fraction with a numerator of thirty six and a
denominator of one hundred.
8
The fraction 40 expressed as a percentage is 20%.
If a number is decreased by 10% the ratio of the new number to the old number is
90:100.
If a number is increased by 10% the ratio of the new number to the old number is
110:100.
If we borrow a sum of money at a rate of interest of 10% we must pay back the
money in the same proportion.
If a student scores 81% in one exam and 87% in the next, his average (or mean)
percentage is 84%.
14 Mathematics

Task 9
Solve the following:
1) What is four and a half percent of eight hundred people?
2) What is thirty percent of fifty?
3) Express fifty-six as a percentage of seventy.
4) What percentage is four-fifths?
5) What fraction is seventy-five percent?
6) What decimal fraction is sixty-three point nine percent?
7) What is the ratio of men to women if sixty percent are men?
8) How much interest has a bank been paid if it receives a total of six fifths of
the sum borrowed?
9) In a class of twenty-five students, twenty come to school by bus and five by
car. What is the ratio of those who come by car to those who come by bus
and what percentage of the class does each group represent?
10) The numerator of a fraction is 6. This numerator is equal to thirty-three point
three recurring percent of the denominator. What is the fraction?

Using percentages in statistics

Percentages are often used in statistics to represent one quantity relative to another.
But it is easy to use percentages in a misleading way. Here are some examples.
1 The price of bread for the last five years has been respectively 10p, 14p, 19p,
24p, 21p. The person who buys bread can say that the price of bread has
increased by 110% in five years, whereas the person who sells bread can say
that the price of bread has dropped by 12.5% in twelve months.
2 Mary’s wages go up by 50% while Tony’s only go up by 10%. But this does
not mean that the first person is therefore richer. If Mary’s wages were $20
a week, increasing to $30, and Tony’s wages were $150 a week, increasing to
$165, then Tony has had a larger increase than Mary.
3 Last year 40% of students in a school passed the English exam. This year 50%
passed. We can say either that the results are 10% better than last year or
that there has a 25% improvement.
4 A certain restaurant had only two customers yesterday. After the meal, one
customer was ill. It is true to say that 50% of the people who ate at the
restaurant were ill.
5 The price of meat has risen by 10% every year for the last ten years. But the
price is not now 100% higher than ten years ago, but 159% higher.
 Mathematics 15

UNIT 3 Powers and roots

Reading

Section 1 Powers
When we write 42 (four squared), or x2 (x squared), the 2 is called the power or
index.
a × a2 (a times a squared) is equal to a3 (a cubed).
a3 × a2 (a cubed times a squared) is equal to a5 (a to the power of five or a to the
fifth (power)).
In this example we simply add the indices or powers.
(x2 )3 (x squared all cubed) is equal to x6 (x to the power of six).
This example shows that to raise a power to a power, we multiply the indices.

Section 2 Roots
√
√ 64 means the square root of 64.
3
√ 27 means the cube root of 27.
5
x means the fifth root of x.
For example, if we wish to find the root in, for example,
√
n
am

we must divide the index by the root

= am:n = am/n

Section 3 Fractional and negative indices

√ 2
x2 is equal to x 3 . Here the index ( 23 ) is a fraction and is therefore called a
3

fractional index.
x2 : x4 = x−2 (x to the [power of] minus 2) which is called a negative index.

Task 1 Vocabulary practice

Fill in the blank spaces in the following sentences :

1) Any number to the _______ of 0 (nought) is equal to ______.

2) To divide powers we ___________ the _________.

3) To _______ a _________ to a power, we ____ the indices.

4) a to the ________ of five divided ____ a ________ equals a cubed.

5) The _______ _______ of forty-nine is seven.

16 Mathematics

Task 2
How would you pronounce the following:

1) a2 + b3

2) x4

3) z n = (x + y)2

4) 6y 2 : 3y 2
√
5) x2
√3
6) b3
√
7) 16b2

8) 3 8x6 y 9
1
9) 9 2

10) 2−3

Task 3
Solve the following and read the whole procedure aloud:
1 1
1) 3−2 = 32 = 9

2) 2−5 =
3
3) 2 2 =

4) 23 + 24 =

5) (23 )2 =

Language study

Word transformation
In English a word that belongs to one part of speech can frequently be transformed
with the addition of an ending to another part of speech. These transformations
most frequently happen among nouns, verbs and adjectives. The simplest trans-
formation is the transformation of an adjective into an adverb with the addition of
the ending - ly.
 Mathematics 17

Task 4
Give several examples to support this statement.
Sometimes no transformation of a word is visible and the word still changes from one
part of speech into another. This ’invisible’ transformation usually occurs between
nouns and verbs.

Task 5
List several examples of such transformation.

Task 6
Give some examples of the words that represent the ’invisible’ transformation be-
tween nouns and adjectives.
18 Mathematics

UNIT 4 Factors
Reading

Section 1 Arithmetical factors

If one number divides exactly into a second number, the first is a factor of the
second, and the second is a multiple of the first.
8
The fraction 24 is normally written as 13 . It is normal to express fractions in
their lowest terms. Here 2, 4 and 8 are all factors of both the numerator and the
denominator, but 8 is the highest common factor (H.C.F.). A factor which is also
a prime number (1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11 etc) is called a prime factor.
The smallest number which is exactly divisible by two or more numbers is called
their lowest common multiple (L.C.M.). The L.C.M. of 24 and 36 is 72. The L.C.M.
is also known as the least common multiple.

Task 1
Write down the answers to the following :

1) What are the prime factors of thirty-eight?

2) What is the highest common factor of eighteen and twenty-six?

3) What is the lowest common multiple of six and eight?

4) Express the fraction fourteen over twenty-one in its lowest terms.

Task 2
Ask and answer questions about the highest common factors and lowest common
multiples of the following pairs of numbers :

1) 36, 42

2) 218, 78

3) 142, 82

4) 12xy, 3x2

Section 2 Algebraic factors

If the expression 3x(3x − 5) is expanded, we obtain the result 9x2 − 15x.
If the expression 9x2 −15x is factorised, we reverse the process and obtain the result
3x(3x − 5).
In an expression where it is difficult to discover the H.C.F., it helps to group the
terms.
 Mathematics 19

example
Factorise the following expression :

ax − ay + bx − by

a is a factor of the first two terms, and b is a factor of the second two terms. Thus,
by grouping the terms, we obtain

a(x − y) + b(x − y)

Here (x − y) is a common factor, so we factorise again to obtain the result :

(x − y)(a + b)

If an algebraic expression is made up of two terms, e.g.(x + 3) or (2y − 4), it is called

a binomial.
An algebraic expression that is made up of three terms e.g. 12x2 + 13x − 4 is called
a trinomial.
A trinomial is the product of two binomials;
e.g. (a + 5)(a − 2) = a2 + 3a − 10
and so the factors of a trinomial can be expressed as two binomials.

Task 3
Expand the following :

1) Three x minus four all squared.

2) Two y plus nine all squared.

3) Five a minus four all squared.

4) Four plus two r all squared.

5) Four p minus two q all squared.

Task 4
Factorise the following :

1) x squared plus two xy plus y squared.

2) nine a squared plus eighteen ab plus nine b squared.

3) thirty-six minus sixteen a squared.

4) four minus b squared.

5) x squared minus y squared.

20 Mathematics

Task 5 Vocabulary practice

Fill in the blank spaces in the following sentences :
1) Twenty-three has only two _________, itself and ______, and is therefore a
_______ number.
2) To express a fraction or algebraic expression in its __________ ____________,
we must divide its terms by the __________ ___________ ___________.
3) The factors of a ___________ can be expressed as the _________ of two
binomials.
4) Twenty-four is the _________ __________ _________ of twelve and eight.

Task 6
Any integer may be represented as the product of prime numbers. For example,
150 = 2 · 3 · 52 . This is known as factorising a number. 20 can be factorised into
22 · 5.
Make similar statements about these numbers :
1) 16
2) 24
3) 36
4) 370

Word study

Verbs and related nouns

Task 7
Each of the verbs in column A has a related noun in column B. Complete the blanks.
For some counterparts more than one word is possible. Explain the difference. For
example: express - expression

A Verbs B Nouns

1 factorise _________
2 _________ definition
3 multiply _________
4 convert _________
5 _________ abbreviation
 Mathematics 21

UNIT 5 Equations and formulae

Reading

Section 1 Equations
If we wish to solve an equation, we must find the value of the letter (usually x)
which satisfies the equation. When the equation is solved, the answer must be
checked, by substituting it for x in the original equation.

example
x + 9 = 23
Here we subtract 9 from each side;

x + 9 − 9 = 23 − 9

Therefore x = 14
We can check by substituting 14 for x.

Equations which we solve at the same time in order to find two unknown values
are called simultaneous equations.
An expression which contains a square as the highest power of any letter (x2 ,y 2 ,
etc) is called a quadratic. If we say that such an expression is equal to some value,
the resulting equation is known as a quadratic equation.

example
Solve x2 − 5x + 6 = 0.
By factorising we get (x − 2)(x − 3) = 0.
Therefore, either x − 2 = 0,
so x = 2,
or x − 3 = 3.
Therefore, x = 2 or 3.
These values for x are the roots of the equation.

Task 1
1) Find the number when seven times the number is four less than sixty-seven.

2) Find the number when twenty-eight is one more that three quarters of the
number.

3) Find the number when five plus three times the number equals forty-one.

4) Three consecutive odd numbers add up to twenty-seven. What are they?

5) Two consecutive even numbers add up to thirty. What are they?

22 Mathematics

Section 2 Formulae
When we have solved a particular problem, we can often reduce the method of
solving it to a fixed pattern and write down this pattern as a formula which can be
used for similar problems.
For example, the statement ”average speed is equal to the distance covered divided
by the total time taken” can be written as the formula :
D
S=
T
Often we will need to change the subject of a formula.
For example, from Boyle’s law, we have the formula
k
P =
V
We can change the subject of the formula to V , and the result is
k
V =
P

Task 2
Read out the following formulae :
1) C = πd 7) V = πr2 h
MV 2
2) 2S = U + V 8) F =
R
3) x = an − b2 9) E = mc2
4) V = u + at 10) A = πr2
P RT
5) I =
100
9
6) F = C + 32
5

Task 3
Change the subjects of the above formulae as follows :
1) d = 6) C =
2) V = 7) h =
3) b = 8) R =
4) u = 9) m =
5) P = 10) π =
 Mathematics 23

Task 4
Solve the following :
1) b plus eight equals eleven.
2) seven b equals forty-two.
3) two x equals one.
4) three y plus nine equals twenty-seven.
5) four y minus eleven equals y plus one.
6) seven b equals sixteen minus three b.
7) five c plus six equals two c plus twenty-four.
8) twelve plus four a equals seven a minus twenty-one.
9) twelve minus two b equals four b plus thirty-six.

10) three x plus five equals two x.

Task 5 Vocabulary practice

Fill in the blank spaces in the following sentences :
1) When we have _________ an equation, we should _______ our answer.
2) The answer is checked by ___________ it for the letter in the original equation.
3) If our answer ____________ the equation, it is correct.
4) We can use one equation to help us solve another equation. These are called
_____________ equations.
5) __________ are fixed equations which can be applied in certain regular situ-
ations.
24 Mathematics

UNIT 6 Lines and angles

Section 1 Lines

1) This line is horizontal. 2) This line is vertical.

3) This line is oblique. 4) These lines are curved.

5) These two lines are parallel. 6) A straight line drawn across a

They are equidistant at all set of two or more parallel
points. lines is called a transversal.
 Mathematics 25

7) The broken line marks the

locus of a point equidistant
from AB and CD. The locus
of a point is the path traced
by that point when it moves
in accordance with a given
law.

Task 1
Look at the figure and say
which lines are:
1) vertical
2) transversal
3) parallel
4) oblique
5) horizontal
6) curved

Task 2
Using the words you have learned, describe the following mathematical symbols.

1) the plus symbol

2) the minus symbol

3) the multiplication symbol

4) the equals symbol

5) the pi symbol
26 Mathematics
Section 2 Angles
1) These two lines meet at an
angle. This angle is less than
90◦ (ninety degrees). It is an
acute angle.
3) This is a reflex angle.
5) Lines FK and AB intersect at
point X. The angles FXB and
BXK are next to each other,
or adjacent.
The sum of these angles is
180◦ . They are supplementary
angles.
2) This is an obtuse angle.
4) These two lines meet at an
angle of 90◦ . They form a
right angle. The two lines are
perpendicular to each other.
6) Angles ABY and YBC are
equal.
Line BY bisects angle ABC.
BY is the bisector of angle
ABC.
The sum of angles ABY and
YBC is 90◦ . They are
complementary angles.
 Mathematics 27

7) This figure shows a transversal

line drawn across two parallel
lines.
Angles r and q are equal
(opposite angles).
Angles b and q are equal
(corresponding angles).
Angles b and r are equal
(alternate angles).

Task 3
Describe the lines and angles in the following figures.
28 Mathematics

UNIT 7 Two-dimensional figures

Reading 1

Section 1 The triangle

A triangle is a three-sided figure. The three sides of a triangle meet at points called
vertices (singular vertex). The vertex at the top of a triangle may be called the
apex, and the line at the bottom may be called the base.

1) In triangle ABC, line BC is continued to point X. ACB is an interior angle,

and ACX is an exterior angle.

2) This is an isosceles triangle. 3) This is an equilateral triangle.

4) This is a right angled triangle.

In a right angled triangle the
side opposite the right angle
is called the hypotenuse.
The theorem of Pythagoras
states :
”In a right angled triangle the
square on the hypotenuse is
equal to the sum of the
squares on the other two
sides”.
 Mathematics 29

Section 2 The triangle - congruence, similarity and symme-

try

1) If the following parts of two

triangles are equal,
a) two sides and the included
angle; or
b) a right angle, hypotenuse
and side; or
c) two angles and a
corresponding side;
then the two triangles are congruent.

2) If two triangles have their

corresponding
angles equal,
they are similar.

3) These two triangles are on

either side of an axis of
symmetry (or centre line).
They are symmetrical
triangles.
30 Mathematics

Task 1
Describe each triangle, and use your ruler to discover any relationships between the
triangles (i.e. symmetry, similarity or congruence).

Task 2 Vocabulary practice

1) If each of the angles in a triangle is equal to 60◦ , the triangle is called
___________.
2) A line which meets another __________ at 90◦ is called a _____________
line.
3) If two angles of a triangle are equal to 45◦ , the triangle is called a _______ _________
___________ triangle.
4) If we ________ a right angle, we have two ______________ angles of 45◦ .
5) Each triangle has three points, or __________.
 Mathematics 31

Reading 2

The circle

1) This is a circle. 2) A half circle is called a

The centre of a circle is called semi-circle.
its point of origin.
The distance around a circle
is called its circumference.

3) The line drawn from the point 4) The line drawn from one side
of origin to the circumference of the circle to the other,
is called the radius (plural : passing through the point of
radii). origin, is called the diameter.

5) A part of the circumference 6) A part of a circle enclosed

of a circle is called an arc. by an arc and a chord is called
A straight line joining the a segment.
ends of an arc is called
a chord.
32 Mathematics
7) A part of a circle enclosed by
two radii and an arc is called
a sector.
9) A line which intersects the
circumference in two places
is called a secant.
11) The angle subtended at the
centre by an arc of a circle
is equal to twice the angle
subtended by that arc at the
circumference.
8) A line meeting the
circumference but which
(when produced) does not
intersect it is called a tangent.
10) A circle which passes
through the vertices of a
triangle is called the
circumference of the triangle,
and its centre is called its
circumcentre. The circle is
circumscribed around the
triangle.
12) These circles have the same
point of origin. They are
concentric.
 Mathematics 33

Task 3
Use the words you have learned to give information about the figures below.
34 Mathematics

Task 4
1) A circle has a radius of 3 centimetres. Calculate
a) the diameter
b) the circumference.
2) The circumference of a circle is approximately 15.7 centimetres. Calculate
a) the approximate radius
b) the approximate diameter.
3) What is the angle subtended by a semi-circle equal to?
4) The angle subtended by an arc at the circumference is 35◦ .
a) What is the angle subtended by the same arc at the point of origin?
b) How can you calculate the answer to a)?
5) If two chords of a circle, AB and CD, intersect at O, what is the relationship
between AO × OB and CO × OD?

Task 5 Vocabulary practice

1) If we draw the _________ of a circle, the line divides the circle into two equal
____________.
2) __________ circles are circles which have the same _______ of __________.
3) A semi-circle ___________ an angle of 90◦ at the ____________.
4) A triangle has been _____________ if a circle passes through its __________.
5) A _________ is the area enclosed by an arc and two _______, while a __________
is the area enclosed by an arc and a _______.
6) If a line passes through a circle and intersects the circumference, it is called a
__________, but a _________ meets the circumference without intersecting
it.
 Mathematics 35

Reading

More 2-dimensional figures

A line is 1-dimensional. Triangles and circles are 2-dimensional. Here are some
more 2-dimensional figures.

a square, square a rectangle, rectangular

The line drawn from one corner to the
opposite corner is called the diagonal.

a rhombus (Pl. rhombuses, rhombi) a parallelogram or a rhomboid

rhombic, rhomboid rhomboidal

a quadrilateral or a quadrangle a pentagon, pentagonal

quadrilateral
36 Mathematics

a hexagon, hexagonal an ellipse, elliptical

a trapezium, trapezoidal a spiral, spiral

note 1 : A figure with many or an unspecified number of sides is called a polygon.

note 2 : The sum of the sides of a two-dimensional figure is called a perimeter.

Task 6
Explain the following terms in English:
1) the Pentagon
2) the Parallelogram of Forces Rule
3) the elliptical galaxy ( in contrast to the spiral galaxy )
 Mathematics 37

UNIT 8 Three-dimensional figures

Tuning-in
Task 1
What is the difference between a line, a triangle, and a pyramid in terms of their
dimensional characteristics?

The following figures are 3-dimensional.

a sphere, spherical an ellipsoid, ellipsoid

a cube, cubic a helix (Pl.helices, helixes), helical

a prism, prismatic
a) a triangular prism
b) a hexagonal prism
c) a rectangular prism
38 Mathematics

a pyramid, pyramidal

a) a right square pyramid b) an oblique triangular pyramid

a cone, conical a cylinder, cylindrical

These figures show cross-sections

of a cylinder.
a) is a transverse section (cir-
cular).
b) is a longitudinal section
(rectangular).

Task 2 Vocabulary practice

1) A _______ is a _________ with six sides.

2) A four-sided figure is called a _______.

3) A shape with five sides is a ________ shape.

4) A four-sided figure with two sides parallel is called a ________.

 Mathematics 39

5) A rhomboid has two _______ and two ________ angles.

6) The ______ of the ________ angles of a polygon is equal to 360◦ .
7) A ________ may be called an equilateral rectangle.
8) If two ________ of a parallelogram are vertical, the other two are ________.
9) A ______ which has length and width is _____-_______.
10) A figure with four equal ________ but no right angles is called a _______.

Task 3
Name the following shapes and describe their lines and angles.

Task 4
Identify the following shapes and their sections.

Task 5
Draw the following sections :
1) an oblique section of a cone.
2) a longitudinal section of a right triangular pyramid.
3) a transversal section of a cylinder.
PART TWO
COMPUTER SCIENCE
 Computer Science 41

UNIT 1
Introduction to computer science terminology

Tuning-in

Task 1
Try to guess the meaning of the words given in italics without looking them up in
the dictionary.

1 As well as the hardware, you also need software. These programmes are on
disks, e.g. the hard disk inside the computer, or floppy disks, or on CD-ROMs.

2 Using the mouse, you can do a number of things by clicking on different icons.

3 More and more people are becoming computer-literate as many programmes

and machines are increasingly user-friendly. You can now connect your com-
puter to computers all over the world using the Internet. People send each
other e-mail messages using this system or network.

4 If your computer is slow, it may need more memory. It may crash if there is
not enough memory or if it has a bug. Remember to make a back-up copy of
your work.

Task 2
Match the following words with their meanings/explanations.

1 data a) keep (save)

2 connect b) writing letters and reports
3 store c) most popular input device for information processing
4 graphics d) a single letter of the alphabet, digit, or symbol
5 merge e) a secret word or number that must be entered before
access is given to a computer system
6 word processing f) information
7 keyboard g) a flashing symbol on the screen, to show where
something is expected to happen
8 character h) to mix together two or more items of text or files
9 cursor i) to link
10 password j) the pictures or symbols a computer programme can produce
42 Computer Science

Task 3
Add another word, abbreviation, or part of a word, to complete common ’computer’
words and phrases.
1) _________ -mail 6) laser _________
2) personal_________ 7) lap_________
3) data _________ 8) binary _________
4) compact_________ 9) _________ -ROM
5) data_________ 10) _________ checker

Reading

Task 4
a) Complete this text about using a computer for word processing.

I wrote a report on the (1)_________ this morning. When I finished, I (2)

_________ out two copies; one for me and one for my boss. Then, without any
warning, the computer went (3) _________, and I’m afraid I lost the whole
document. This is very unusual because normally I (4) _________ the data
while I’m writing and then make a (5) _________ copy when I have finished.
This morning I forgot.
Anyway, I gave the report to my boss, hoping that she would not ask me to
change it in any way. She did. She thought it was a bit long and said it
would be better if I used more (6) _________ to illustrate some of the written
information. She also thought it would make the report look more attractive.
I went back and rewrote most of the report when the computer was OK, only
I (7) _________ part of the middle section which was rather repetitive, and
I added extra (8) _________ as my boss advised. It did look better by the
time I’d finished, and this time I remembered to (9) _________ it and make
a (10) _________ copy.

b) Read the text again and give it an appropriate title.

Note: Titles can stress the problem, the situation, the solution of the problem,
the evaluation or any other information feature. They can also be useful
summaries of the information presented.

Language study Making questions

We usually make questions by changing the word order: we put the first auxiliary
verb before the subject:
Will the teacher come back?
What can I do for you?
 Computer Science 43

In present simple and past simple questions we use do/does and did, respectively.
What time does the lecture begin?
How did that happen?
But, do not use do/does/did in questions if who/what/which is the subject of
the sentence.

who object who subject

Emma phoned Peter. Peter phoned Emma.

Who did Emma phone? Who phoned Emma?

Task 5
Make questions to the words given in italics in Task 4 a).

Writing
Task 6
Write a short essay on computers.
Try to focus on the following issues:
- the importance of computers (at home/school/university/work)
- the usage of computers (how, when, why, for what purpose)
- electronic mail and the Internet (advantages and disadvantages)
44 Computer Science

UNIT 2 Computer applications

Tuning-in
Task 1
1) Computers have many applications in a great variety of fields. Write a list
of as many functions of the computer, or computer applications, as you can
think of.
2) Can you guess how computers are used in the following fields (if you have not
listed them already):
- education
- air traffic control
- journalism
- banking
3) Now read the text below and underline any applications that are not on your
list.

Reading 1

What can computers do?

Computers and microchips have become part of our everyday lives: we visit
shops and offices which have been designed with the help of computers, we read
magazines which have been produced on computers, we pay bills prepared by com-
puters. Just picking up a telephone and dialling a number involves the use of a
sophisticated computer system, as does making a flight reservation or bank trans-
action.
We encounter daily many computers that spring into life the instant they’re
switched on (e.g. calculators, the car’s electronic ignition, the timer in the mi-
crowave, or the programmer inside the TV set), all of which use chip technology.
What makes your computer such a miraculous device? Each time you turn it on,
it is a tabula rasa that, with appropriate hardware and software, is capable of doing
anything you ask. It is a calculating machine that speeds up financial calculations.
It is an electronic filing cabinet which manages large collections of data such as
customers’ lists, accounts, or inventories. It is a magical typewriter that allows you
to type and print any kind of document - letters, memos or legal documents. It is a
personal communicator that enables you to interact with other computers and with
people around the world. If you like gadgets and electronic entertainment, you can
even use your PC to relax with computer games as well as . . .

Task 2
Finish the final sentence of the text.
 Computer Science 45

Reading 2

What is a computer?
Computers are electronic machines which can accept data in a certain form,
process the data and give results of the processing in a specified format as informa-
tion.
Three basic steps are involved in the process: First, data is fed into the com-
puter’s memory. Then, when the programme is run, the computer performs a set
of instructions and processes the data. Finally, we can see the results (the output)
on the screen or in a printed form.
Information in the form of data and programmes is known as software, and
the electronic and mechanical parts that make up a computer system are called
hardware. A standard computer system consists of three main sections: the Central
Processing Unit (CPU), the main memory and the peripherals.
Perhaps the most influential component is the Central Processing Unit. Its
function is to execute programme instructions and co-ordinate the activities of all
the other units. In a way, it is the ’brain’ of the computer. The main memory holds
the instructions and data which are currently being processed by the CPU. The
peripherals are the physical units attached to the computer. They include storage
devices and input/output devices.
Storage devices (floppy or hard disks) provide a permanent storage of both data
and programmes. Disk drives are used to handle one or more floppy disks. Input
devices enable data to go into the computer’s memory. The most common input
devices are the mouse and the keyboard. Output devices enable us to extract the
finished product from the system. For example, the computer shows the output on
the monitor or prints the results onto paper by means of a printer.
On the rear panel of the computer there are several ports into which we can plug
a wide range of peripherals - modems, fax machines, optical drives and scanners.
These are the main physical units of a computer system, generally known as the
configuration.

Task 3
Use the information in the text to help you match the following terms with appro-
priate explanations of these definitions: SOFTWARE, PERIPHERAL DEVICES,
MONITOR, FLOPPY DISK, HARDWARE, INPUT, PORT, OUTPUT, CEN-
TRAL PROCESSING UNIT.
a) The brain of the computer.
b) Physical parts that make up a computer system.
c) Programmes which can be used on a particular computer system.
d) The information which is presented to the computer.
e) Results produced by a computer.
46 Computer Science

f) Hardware equipment attached to the CPU.

g) Visual display unit.
h) Small device used to store information. Same as ’diskette’.
i) Any socket or channel on a computer system into which an input/output
device may be connected.

Language study The passive voice

We use an active verb to say what the subject does. On the other hand, a passive
verb is used to say what happens to the subject. If we want to say who does or what
causes the action, we use by . . . The passive is be + past participle.

Task 4
Fill in the blanks with the passive form of the verbs in brackets. Pay attention to
the given time expressions.
a) Houses _________ (design, currently) with the help of computers.
b) Several terminals _________ (connect, just) to this workstation.
c) Microcomputers _________ (know, usually) as ’PCs’.
d) Hard disks _________ (use, always) for the permanent storage of information.
e) Last year a lot of information _________ (save) on optical disks.
 Computer Science 47

UNIT 3 What’s inside a microcomputer?

Tuning-in

Task 1
1) Read the following advertisement and translate the technical specifications
into Croatian. What do they refer to?

Ulysses 2001
-Intel 80386 25 MHz processor. Fully IBM compatible.
-Socket for 80387, optional maths co-processor.
-4 megabytes of RAM, upgradable to 16.
-80 MB hard disk.
-Comes with MS-DOS and Windows.

2) Answer the following questions. Use your dictionary, if necessary.

1.What is the main function of a microprocessor?
2.What is the unit of frequency which is used to measure processor speed?
3.What does ’RAM’ stand for?
4.What is a co-processor used for?

Reading

Task 2
Read the text below. Decide if the sentences are true or false, and rewrite the false
ones to make them true.

What’s inside a microcomputer?

The nerve centre of a microcomputer is the Central Processing Unit, or CPU. This
unit is built into a single microprocessor chip - an integrated circuit - which executes
programme instructions and supervises the computer’s overall operation. The unit
consists of three main parts:

i) the Control Unit, which examines the instructions in the user’s programme,
interprets each instruction and causes the circuits and the rest of the compo-
nents - disk drives, monitor, etc. - to be activated to execute the functions
specified;

ii) the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), which performs mathematical calculations
(+, -, etc.) and logical operations (and, or, etc.);
48 Computer Science

iii) the registers, which are high-speed units of memory used to store and control
information. One of these registers is the Programme Counter (PC) which
keeps track of the next instruction to be performed in the main memory.
Another is the Instruction Register (IR) which holds the instruction that is
currently being executed.

One area where microprocessors differ is in the amount of data - the number of
bits - they can work with at a time. There are 8, 16, 32 and 64-bit processors. The
computer’s internal architecture is evolving so quickly that the new 64-bit processors
are able to address 4 billion times more information than a 32-bit system.
The programmes and data which pass through the central processor must be
loaded into the main memory (also called the internal memory) in order to be
processed. Thus, when the user runs an application, the microprocessor looks for
it on secondary memory devices (disks) and transfers a copy of the application into
the RAM area. RAM (Random Access Memory) is temporary, i.e. its information
is lost when the computer is turned off. However, the ROM section (Read Only
Memory) is permanent and contains instructions needed by the processor.
Most of today’s computers have internal expansion slots that allow users to
install acceleration cards or co-processors. As the word implies, an acceleration
card is a board that increases the processor speed. A co-processor is a silicon chip
that performs precise tasks and mathematical operations at a very high speed.
The power and performance of a computer is partly determined by the speed of
its microprocessor. A clock provides pulses at fixed intervals to measure and syn-
chronize circuits and units. The clock speed is measured in MHz (megahertz) and
refers to the frequency at which pulses are emitted. For example, a CPU running
at 50 MHz (50 million cycles per second) is likely to provide a very fast processing
rate and will enable the computer to handle the most demanding applications.

1 The CPU directs and co-ordinates the activities taking place within the com-
puter system.

2 The Arithmetic Logic Unit performs calculations on the data.

3 32-bit processors can handle more information than 64-bit processors.

4 A chip is an electronic device composed of silicon elements containing a set

of integrated circuits.

5 RAM, ROM and secondary memory are the components of the main memory.

6 Information cannot be processed by the microprocessor if it is not loaded into

the main memory.

7 ’Permanent’ storage of information is provided by RAM (Random Access

Memory).

8 The speed of the microprocessor is measured in megahertz. One MHz is

equivalent to one million cycles per second.
 Computer Science 49

Language study 1 Relative clauses

We can define people or things with a restrictive (defining) relative clause. Look
at the following sentences:
a) The teacher who is responsible for the computer centre has just arrived. - We
use a relative pronoun who because it is the subject and it refers back to a person.
We can also use the pronoun that.
b) The microprocessor is a chip which processes the information provided by the
software. - We use which because it refers back to a thing, not a person. We can
also use that.
c) The computer we saw in the exhibition runs at 100 MHz. - The relative pronoun
is not necessary. It can be omitted when it is not the subject of the relative clause.
These clauses are called reduced relative clauses.

Task 3
1 Underline all relative clauses in the text What’s inside a microcomputer?.

2 Complete the following sentences with suitable relative pronouns. Give alter-
natives if possible.

1) That’s the CPU _________ I’d like to buy.

2) The microprocessor is a chip _________ processes data and instructions.
3) The microprocessor co-ordinates the activities _________ take place in the
computer system.
4) Last night I met someone _________ works for GM as a computer pro-
grammer.
5) Some Intel 80386 processors have an expansion socket _________ allows
us to install a maths co-processor 80387.
6) A co-processor is a silicon chip _________ carries out mathematical oper-
ations at a very high speed.
7) A megahertz is a unit of frequency _________ is used to measure processor
speed.
8) Here’s the floppy disk _________ you lent me!

Writing

Task 4
How would your ideal computer system look like?
First make notes about the features of the computer you would like to have and
then describe it.
CPU: _________ Speed: _________ Floppy disk drives: _________
Min./max. RAM: _________ Monitor: _________
Hard disk: _________ Software: _________
50 Computer Science

You will most probably find these expressions useful:

It’s very fast. It runs at . . .
The standard RAM memory is . . . and it is expandable . . .
The hard disk can hold . . .
As for the disk drive, . . .

Language study 2 Word building - prefixes

Prefixes are often used in computer science. Knowing the meaning of the most
common prefixes can help you understand new words. Look at the prefixes given
below.
Prefix Meaning Examples

deci- ten decimal, decimalise, decibel

hexadeci- sixteen hexadecimal
kilo- one thousand (1,000) kilocycle, kilogram(me), kilowatt
mega- large megahertz, megalith
one million
giga- very large gigantic, gigabyte
one thousand million
mini- small minibus, minimize, minimum
micro- very small microfilm, microphone, microwave
bi- two binary, bi-directional, bi-dimensional
tri- three trilingual, tricycle
multi- many multi-racial, multi-user, multi-tasking
mono- one monolingual, monologue

Task 5
By using relative pronouns explain the meaning of the following expressions taking
into account the value of the prefix and the sense of the base form.
Example: the binary system
The binary system is a notation which uses two digits, 0 and 1.
1) a mini-computer
2) a microcomputer
3) the decimal system
4) a multi-user configuration
5) a bi-dimensional chessboard
6) a monochrome computer
7) a document of 3 kilobytes
8) a CPU with 8 megabytes of RAM
 Computer Science 51

UNIT 4 Input devices

Tuning-in
Task 1 About the keyboard
a) Match the following descriptions with the names of keys on the right. Try to
recall their position on the keyboard.

1. A long key at the bottom of the keyboard. ARROW KEYS

Each time it is pressed, it produces a blank
space.
2. It moves the cursor to the beginning of a new RETURN
line. It is also used to confirm commands.
3. It stops a programme without losing the in- CAPS LOCK
formation from the main memory. Some-
times its use depends on the application.
4. It works in combination with other keys to SHIFT
produce special characters or specific ac-
tions.
5. It removes the character on the left of the TAB
cursor or any selected text.
6. It produces UPPER-CASE characters (or ESCAPE
the upper-case character of the key).
7. It produces upper-case letters, but it does SPACE BAR
not affect numbers and symbols.
8. It moves the cursor horizontally to the right DELETE
for a fixed number of spaces (in tabulations
and data fields).
9. They are used to move the cursor, as an al- ALT
ternative to the mouse.
b) Can you name some other input devices?
Which input devices are the most common ones?
What are input devices used for?

Reading
Task 2
Before you read the text try to answer these questions:
1) What is a mouse?
2) How is the mouse connected to the computer?
52 Computer Science

3) What does the mouse-pointer look like on the screen?

4) What are the functions of the mouse buttons?
5) What are the advantages of using the mouse on your computer instead of the
keyboard?

Point and click!

Typically, a mouse is a palm-size device, slightly smaller than a pack of cards.
On top of the mouse there are one or more buttons for communicating with the
computer. A ’tail’ or wire extends from the mouse to a connection on the back of
the computer.
The mouse is designed to slide around on your desktop. As it moves, it moves
an image on the screen called a pointer or mouse cursor. The pointer usually looks
like an arrow and it mimics the movements of the mouse on your desktop.
What makes the mouse especially useful is that it is a very quick way to move
around on a screen. Move the desktop mouse half an inch and the screen cursor
will leap four inches. Making the same movements with the arrow keys takes much
longer. The mouse also issues instructions to the computer very quickly. Point to
an available option with the cursor, click on the mouse and the option has been
chosen.
Mice are so widely used in graphics applications because they can do things
that are difficult, if not impossible, to do with keyboard keys. For example, the
way you move an image with a mouse is to put a pointer on the object you want
to move, press the mouse button and drag the image from one place to another.
When you have the image where you want it, you release the mouse button and
the image stays there. Similarly, the mouse is used to grab one corner of the image
(say a square) and stretch it into another shape (say a rectangle). Both of these
actions are so much more difficult to perform with a keyboard that most graphics
programmes require a mouse.
The buttons on the mouse are used to select items at which the mouse points.
You position the pointer on at object on the screen, for example, at a menu or a
tool in a paint programme, and then you press the mouse button to ’select’ it. Mice
are also used to load documents into a programme: you put the pointer on the file
name and double-click on the name - that is, you press a mouse button twice in
rapid succession.

Task 3
a) How would you explain the following verbs in English:
to click
to double-click
to drag
b) How would you translate them into Croatian?
 Computer Science 53

Language study Word building - Adding a suffix

The class of word can often be changed by adding a suffix. For example, if -er
is added to the verb scan (and ’n’ is doubled) we get the noun scanner.
Common adjectival suffixes are: -ing, -y, -able, -ible, -ive, -al, -ed, -ful.
Common noun suffixes are: -er, -or, -ion, -tion, -ation, -ment, -ness, -ity, -ant,
-logy.

Task 4
Put the following words into the correct column below.
computer, self-calibrating, easy, resolution, sharpness, information, printed, per-
sonal, capable, compression, technology, calculator, useful, assistant, expensive,
possibility, reducible, investment

Adjectives Nouns
_________ _________
_________ _________
_________ _________
_________ _________
_________ _________
_________ _________
_________ _________
_________ _________
_________ _________
_________ _________

Look at the following examples. Pay attention to the words given in italics.
Computers vary enormously / She speaks English perfectly (verb + adverb)
There is an enormous variety / She speaks perfect English (adjective + noun)
Note: Many adverbs are made from adjectives by adding a suffix -ly. But be careful;
not all words ending in -ly are adverbs (e.g. friendly, lovely, silly).

Task 5
Find five adverbs in the previous text, write them down and give their corresponding
adjectives or vice versa. Then take one example and write a pair of sentences that
would illustrate their different uses.
54 Computer Science

UNIT 5 Output devices

Types of printers
Printing is the final stage in creating a document. That is the purpose of the printers
joined to our computing equipment. Since the results you can obtain with different
types of printers vary substantially, here is a guide to help you decide which one is
the most suitable for your needs.
To begin with, it must be taken into account that printers vary in cost, speed,
print quality and other factors such as noise or compatibility. In fact, printing
technology is evolving so quickly that there is always a printer for every application
or personal requirement.
Daisywheel printers were very common a few years ago. They used a sort of
wheel with solid characters which rotated and hammered against the ribbon, but
they could not print pictures or diagrams, and were very slow and noisy.
Dot-matrix printers use pins to print the dots required to shape a character.
They print text and graphics and nowadays some of them can print up to 450
characters per second (cps); however, they produce relatively low resolution output
- 72 or 144 dots per inch (dpi). This level of quality, while suitable for preliminary
drafts, is not recommended for reports or books that have a wide audience. They
are slower than laser printers but much cheaper.
One common type of non-impact printer is an ink-jet printer. It operates by
projecting small ink droplets onto paper to form the required image. This type of
printer is quite fast, silent and not so expensive as a laser printer. Nevertheless,
you can expect high quality results because there are some ink-jet printers on the
market with a resolution of 369 dpi.
Laser printers produce output at great speed and with a very high resolution
of 300/600 dpi. They scan the image with a laser beam and transfer it to paper
with a special ink powder. They are constantly being improved. In terms of speed
and image quality they are preferred by experts for different reasons: they have a
wider range of scalable fonts, the can emulate different language systems, they can
produce graphics, and they have many other advantages. It goes without saying
that they are still expensive.
We must not forget to mention thermal printers. They use heat, a special
kind of paper and electrosensitive methods. They are silent and are considered to
be inexpensive. However, some colour models that emulate HP (Hewlett-Packard)
plotters cost too much to be included in the same category.
Photosetters can be regarded as an attractive alternative. They do not print
on regular paper, but on photographic paper or microfilm. They can produce
output with a resolution of over 2000 dots per inch. In addition, they are extremely
fast. Although they produce the highest quality output, they have one important
drawback: they are the most expensive.
Finally, plotters are special kinds of printers. Plotters use ink and fine pens held
in a carriage to draw very detailed designs on paper. The are used for construction
plans, engineering drawings and other technical illustrations.
 Computer Science 55

Task 1

On the basis of the text you have just read, label the following types of printers
and provide the most relevant information regarding their technical specifications
and other features.
56 Computer Science

Language study 1 Reference signals

Task 2
Read the first three paragraphs of the text and say what the underlined words refer
to.

Writing
Task 3
a) Write notes on the advantages and disadvantages of each printer.
b) Describe your ideal printer.

Language study 2 Comparison of adjectives

Task 4
a) Study the following sentences and draw a circle around comparatives and a
rectangle around superlatives.

1) Dot-matrix printers are cheaper than laser printers.

2) A photosetter is the fastest output device.
3) A colour ink-jet printer is more expensive than a monochrome laser printer.
4) The Micro Laser XT is the most reliable of all.
5) Personal laser printers cost less than ordinary laser printers.
6) Monochrome printers operate faster than colour ones.

b) Underline all adjectives in the text Types of printers and decide whether they
are positives, comparatives or superlatives.
 Computer Science 57

UNIT 6 Storage devices

Tuning-in

Task 1
Answer the following questions:

1) What are storage devices?

2) List storage devices you know.

3) What are the main differences/similarities between them?

Reading
Task 2
Read the following text and update the relevant information.

Optical disks: pros and cons

All of the signs say that optical technology has become a reality. Optical storage
devices give us immediate access to an enormous amount of information. Hundreds
of megabytes of software, images, animation and digitised sound can be recorded
on one light, durable optical disk. Basically, there are three main types of optical
disks: WORMs, CD-ROMs and erasable optical disks.
WORM stands for ’write once, read many’. WORM disks are so called because
they are indelible, i.e. they cannot be erased. For this reason, they can last at least
100 years, and this technology is very useful for ’permanent’ archiving of important
documents in fields like medicine, law or history. Each WORM disk can hold one
gigabyte of information. CD-ROM systems offer everything, from enormous share-
ware collections to large dictionaries, from multimedia databases to font families
and graphics. Companies and government agencies have discovered that CD-ROM
is the most economical way of sharing information. In fact, one CD-ROM disk
(650 MB) can replace 300,000 pages of text (about 500 floppies), which represent a
lot of savings in distributing materials and corporate databases. In addition, disk
formats and interfaces have been standardized by the ISO (International Standard
Organization), so manufacturers can exchange disks and cartridges. Furthermore,
CD-ROM readers can double as audio-CD players.
Yet CD-ROM technology has some disadvantages. You cannot write anything
onto a CD-ROM disk, nor can you change what is imprinted on it. You can only
’read’ it, like a book. Another reason why CD-ROM is not widely used for ’personal’
data storage is that CD-ROM drives are slow. They are fast enough for reading
CD-ROM disks and audio CDs but are too slow when compared with hard drives.
While there are hard drives with an average access time of 10 ms, most CD-ROM
58 Computer Science

drives have a seek time of 200-300 ms. Erasable optical disks usually hold between
120 and 1,000 MB of data in 3.5” or 5.25” disks. Unlike CD-ROMs and WORMs,
erasable optical disks (EOD) are rewritable, i.e. we can write on them in the same
way as a hard disk. They are mainly used as secondary storage devices, functioning
as file servers or as a second storage unit, accompanying hard disks. EODs have two
important advantages over hard disks: they are not affected by magnetic fields, and
they have a longer data life. However, optical drives are slower than hard drives,
and hardware components are still quite expensive.

Task 3
Think of the points for and against the three main types of optical disks. Make
notes about their use.

Pros Cons Use/Purpose

WORM

CD-ROM

Erasable optical
disk

Word study Acronyms and abbreviations

Task 4
What do the following acronyms stand for: PC, dpi, cps, CPU, RAM, CD-ROM,
HP?

Language study Connectors and modifiers

Look at the expressions in italics in these sentences and clauses.
1) For this reason, they may last 100 years . . .
2) In addition, disk formats and interfaces have been standardized . . .
3) Furthermore, CD-ROM readers can double as audio-CD players.
4) Another reason why CD-ROM is not widely used for ’personal’ data storage
...
5) While there are hard drives with an average access time of 10ms, most . . .
 Computer Science 59

6) EODs . . . are not affected by magnetic fields, and they have a longer data life.
7) However, optical drives are slower than hard drives . . .

These expressions have one of the following functions:

a) showing contrast
b) explaining causes and results
c) adding new ideas

Task 5
a) Put each expression (in 1-7) into the right category: a, b or c.

b) Give some other linking devices you are familiar with.

PART THREE
PHYSICS
 Physics 61

UNIT 1 Physics
Tuning-in

Task 1
Before you read the text, try to answer the following questions:

1) What is physics?

2) What does it deal with?

3) What are the main branches of physics?

Reading
Physics, major science dealing with the fundamental constituents of the uni-
verse, the forces they exert on one another, and the effects of these forces. Some-
times in modern physics a more sophisticated approach is taken that incorporates
elements of the three areas listed above; it relates to the laws of symmetry and
conservation, such as those pertaining to energy, momentum, charge, and parity.
See Atom; Energy. See also separate articles on the different aspects of physics and
the various sciences mentioned in this article.

Scope of Physics
Physics is closely related to the other natural sciences and, in a sense, encompasses
them. Chemistry, for example, deals with the interaction of atoms to form mole-
cules; much of modern geology is largely a study of the physics of the earth and is
known as geophysics; and astronomy deals with the physics of the stars and outer
space. Even living systems are made up of fundamental particles and, as studied
in biophysics and biochemistry, they follow the same types of laws as the simpler
particles traditionally studied by a physicist.
The emphasis on the interaction between particles in modern physics, known as
the microscopic approach, must often be supplemented by a macroscopic approach
that deals with larger elements or systems of particles. This macroscopic approach
is indispensable to the application of physics to much of modern technology. Ther-
modynamics, for example, a branch of physics developed during the 19th century,
deals with the elucidation and measurement of properties of a system as a whole and
is useful in other fields of physics; it also forms the basis of much of chemical and
mechanical engineering. Properties such as the temperature, pressure, and volume
of a gas have no meaning for an individual atom or molecule; these thermodynamic
concepts can only be applied directly to a very large system of such particles. A
bridge exists, however, between the microscopic and macroscopic approach; another
62 Physics

branch of physics, known as statistical mechanics, indicates how pressure and tem-
perature can be related to the motion of atoms and molecules on a statistical basis
(see Statistics).
Even as late as the 19th century a physicist was often also a mathematician,
philosopher, chemist, biologist, or an engineer. Today the field has grown to such an
extent that with few exceptions modern physicists have to limit their attention to
one or two branches of the science. Once the fundamental aspects of a new field are
discovered and understood, they become of interest to engineers and other applied
scientists. The 19th-century discoveries in electricity and magnetism, for example,
are now the area of electrical and communication engineers; the properties of matter
discovered at the beginning of the 20th century have been applied in electronics;
and the discoveries of nuclear physics, most of them not yet 40 years old, have
passed into the hands of nuclear engineers for applications for peaceful or military
uses.

Task 2
Where do you think this text comes from? Why do you think so? Give reasons for
your statements.

Task 3
Underline five key words/phrases in the text. Try to write down a summary of the
text by using as many of your key words/phrases as you can.
 Physics 63

UNIT 2 Matter and measurement

Reading
Matter exists in three states: solid, liquid and gas. A solid, for example a
stone, has a definite shape and a definite volume; a liquid, for example oil, has a
definite volume but not definite shape; a gas, for example hydrogen (H), has neither
definite shape nor definite volume. Water can exist in all three states; below 0◦ C
as a solid (ice), between 0◦ C and 100◦C as a liquid (water), and above 100◦ C as a
gas (vapour). All matter consists of elements such as zinc (Zn) or oxygen (O), or
of compounds such as nitric acid (HNO3 ) or sulphur dioxide (SO2 ). The smallest
particle of an element is called an atom, and the smallest particle of any other
substance is called a molecule. A molecule of sulphur dioxide is a compound of one
atom of sulphur and two atoms of oxygen.
When we measure quantities of matter, we may use the fundamental units of
time (e.g. the second), mass (e.g. the kilogram) and length (e.g. the metre). Or we
may use units such as area (e.g. m2 ), volume (e.g. cm3 ) or density (e.g. g/cm3 ).
These are known as derived units. The area of a rectangle is found by multiplying
the length by the width. The volume of a cylinder is equal to p × radius2 × height
(V=p r2 h). The density of a substance is equal to the mass divided by the volume
(d=m/v). We use the terms specific gravity or relative density to indicate density
relative to the density of water. The table of densities below shows that mercury
(Hg) has a density of 13.6 g/cm 3 . This means that a cubic centimetre of mercury
has 13.6 times the mass of a cubic centimetre of water.

Substance Density(g/cm3 )
Gold 19.3
Mercury 13.6
Aluminium 2.7
Water 1.0
Ice 0.92
Hydrogen 0.00009
Air 0.0013

Task 1
Answer the following questions, and explain your answers.

1) Give the mass of 4 cm3 of gold.

2) Give the area of a field measuring 120 m by 110 m.

3) Calculate the density of a substance which has a mass of 6 g and a volume of

0.9cm3 .
64 Physics

4) What is the mass of a litre of water?

5) What is the mass of a block of ice measuring 1 m × 11 m × 3 m?

Task 2
1) Explain why it is not possible to have an atom of salt.
2) Explain why the table of densities above has a foot-note about standard tem-
perature and pressure.
3) What states of matter can nitrogen exist in?
4) What happens to the weight and the mass of a body if it is transported to
the moon?
5) How would you show that a quantity of oil has ’definite volume’ but no ’definite
shape’ ?

Word study Opposites

Task 3
One of the best ways to increase your vocabulary quickly is to learn the opposite
of any new word (antonym). Look at the following examples and explain the way
their antonyms are given.
meaningful - meaningless
definite - indefinite
right-hand side - left-hand side
forbid - permit, allow

Note: The most convenient way of giving antonyms is to use prefixes like in-, im-,
ir-, un-, non-, dis-, anti-, counter-, or suffixes like -less, -ful.

Give antonyms for the following words.

complex impossible high
efficient relevant powerful
minor usual expensive
less than advantage output
general standard rich

Task 4
Use the vocabulary you have learned to fill in the blank spaces in the following
statements.
1) A _________ has no definite shape, but does have definite _________.
2) The smallest particle of a _________ is called a molecule.
 Physics 65

3) Speed is calculated by dividing distance by _________, and is therefore a

_________ unit.

4) Substances which cannot be broken down further into other substances are
called _________.
5) Equal volumes of water and ice do not have the same _________ because of
their different _________.
6) If we divide the mass of a substance by its density, we obtain the _________.
7) Time, mass and length are the most important _________ units.
66 Physics

UNIT 3 Liquids
Reading
A liquid takes the shape of the container in which it rests. It also pushes sideways
against the sides, as well as downwards on the bottom of the container, and upwards
against anything placed in it. The liquid exerts a force in these directions. The
existence of the force which is exerted upwards is called buoyancy. The law which
governs buoyancy was discovered by Archimedes, and states:
An object immersed in a liquid appears to lose an amount of weight which is
equal to the weight of the liquid it displaces.
For example, a stone with a mass of 3.2 kg is suspended from a spring balance
and lowered into some water. The spring balance now reads 2.2 kg. This indicates
that the stone has displaced 1 kg (=1 litre) of water. If a body floats in a liquid,
the buoyant force is equal to the weight of the body.
We obtain the pressure exerted by a liquid by dividing the force by the area
(p=F/A). In a liquid, the pressure at any point is directly proportional to the
depth below the surface. This pressure is calculated by multiplying the depth by
the density of the liquid (p=hd). If extra pressure is exerted on a liquid in a confined
space, the pressure is transmitted to all parts of the container. This is the principle
of the hydraulic press (Fig.1). Using this principle, a downward force of 100 N in
the small piston, for example, can produce an upward force of 40,000 N in the large
piston.

Fig. 1 Principle of Hydraulic Press

Task 1
Answer the following questions, and explain your answers.
1) Calculate the pressure on the side of a dam 4 m below the surface.
2) State the total force exerted on the bottom of a water tank 10 m long by 5 m
wide and filled to a depth of 1 m.
3) State the force on one of the longer sides of the same tank.
 Physics 67

4) Give the pressure on the bottom of the same tank.

5) A sack of flour weighing 50 kg rests on the floor making contact over an area
of 125 cm2 . Calculate the approximate pressure exerted by the sack on the
floor.

Task 2
1) Explain why it is easier to float in water when your lungs are inflated.
2) If the water comes from the same source, why would you expect the water
pressure to be higher at the bottom of a block of flats than at the top?
3) What will happen to the water-line on a ship if it sails out of a fresh water
river into the sea? Why?
4) Why is it necessary to build dams which are thicker at the base than at the
top?
5) Explain how the hydraulic press in Fig.1 works.

Task 3
Use the vocabulary you have learned to fill in the blank spaces in the following
statements.
1) We can calculate the _________ which a liquid _________ on the bottom of
a vessel by dividing the force by the area.
2) In a liquid, the _________ and the pressure are in direct _________.
3) _________ is the term used to describe the existence of the upward _________
exerted by a liquid.

4) The apparent loss of weight of a body _________ in a liquid is equal to the

_________ of the displaced liquid.
5) If we multiply the depth of a liquid by its _________ , we will obtain the
_________ at that point.
68 Physics

UNIT 4 Gases
Reading
The Earth’s atmosphere, the air we breathe, consists of a mixture of gases. Air
has mass and exerts pressure. At sea level, this pressure is sufficient to support a
76 cm column of mercury in a vacuum tube. Changes in the weather cause small
changes in the atmospheric pressure. The instrument used to measure these changes
is called a barometer, and a common type is the aneroid barometer. A change in
the atmospheric pressure causes a small movement in the surface of the cell. The
lever transmits this movement to the pointer, which moves across the scale.

Fig. 2 Aneroid Barometer

Gases have no definite volume and are compressible. The greater the pressure
which is applied, the less space the gas will occupy. Boyles Law states:
If the temperature of a fixed mass of gas remains constant, the volume will be
inversely proportional to the pressure.
In other words, if the volume of the container increases, the pressure in the
container will decrease. This may be expressed in the formula

V1 P2
=
V2 P1

Two other laws, Charles’ Law and the Pressure Law also describe the relation-
ship between the temperature, pressure and volume of a gas. If one of the three
values is constant, the other two values are found to be in direct or inverse propor-
tion.

Task 1
Answer the following questions and explain your answers.

1) Calculate the pressure required to compress 60 m3 of air at standard pressure

to a volume of 0.618 m3 . (Take standard pressure to be 1.03 kg/cm2 ).
 Physics 69

2) The atmospheric pressure on a mountain supports 50 cm of mercury. Calcu-

late the pressure in kg/cm2 .
3) If the pressure of a mass of gas is reduced by 50%, give the percentage increase
in the volume.
4) If the relative density of glycerine is 1.3, what height would a column of
glycerine reach in a vacuum tube at half atmospheric pressure?
5) The volume of a certain mass of gas increases by 10 cm3 when the temperature
is raised from 2◦ C to 29.5◦ C. Assuming constant pressure, find the volume of
the gas at 2◦ C.

Language study Conditional clauses

Task 2
Find all conditional clauses in the text Gases. Give the other two types of these
sentences. Just to remind you:

probable prediction =⇒ If mercury is heated to 357◦ C, it will boil.

hypothetical prediction =⇒ If the air temperature dropped below 0◦ C,
the rain would turn to snow.
impossible prediction =⇒ If the satellite had not been interrupted,
it would have continued in its orbit.

Task 3
1) Explain the meaning of ’inversely proportional’, and support your explanation
with an example.
2) How can it be demonstrated that the air has mass?
3) Explain how the aneroid barometer in Fig. 2 works.
4) A siphon is used to transfer a liquid from a higher level to a lower level.
Explain the principle.

Fig. 3
70 Physics

The diagram in Fig. 3. illustrates the ’crushing can’ experiment. Explain how
the experiment is done, and what it shows.

Task 4
Use the vocabulary you have learned to fill in the blank spaces in the following
statements.
1) A _________ measures changes in the Earth’s _________ pressure.
2) On an _________ barometer, changes in the pressure are indicated by a
pointer moving across a _________.
3) The pressure at _________ will support 76cm of _________.

4) Boyle’s law states that the volume and pressure of a gas are _________.
5) Gases are _________ and their volume may be easily reduced.

Writing Summary
Task 5
Gases are substances in one of the three visibly different states of ordinary matter
(liquids and solids being substances in the other two states). Solids have well-defined
shapes and are difficult to compress. Liquids are free-flowing and bounded by self-
formed surfaces. Gases expand freely to fill their containers and are much lower in
density than liquids and solids.
On the basis of the given summary on the three different states of ordinary matter
try to give the translations of the following:
- compressible
- solid state physics
- boundary

Task 6
The best way to make a summary of a text is to write down the main points in
note form and then link them clearly in your own words. Write a summary of the
text ’Scope of Physics’ (see p. 61)
 Physics 71

UNIT 5 Force
Reading
If a quantity has magnitude (size or amount) and direction, it is a vector quan-
tity. If it has magnitude but no direction, it is a scalar quantity. Force is a vector
quantity, and so it is expressed in terms of magnitude and direction. A number
of different forces which act on a body may be expressed as one force, called the
resultant. The resultant of two forces may be expressed using the parallelogram of
forces rule (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4 The Parallelogram of Forces Rule

The lines each show the direction of the force, and the length of the lines represents
the magnitude. Force R is the resultant of forces x and y. If the forces together
hold a body at rest, the resultant is zero, and the body is in equilibrium.
The force of attraction which exists between the Earth and the objects on the
Earth is called gravity. Newton discovered that this force exists between any two
bodies, and his law of gravitation states:
The force of attraction which exists between two bodies is directly proportional to
their masses, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
This may be expressed in the formula
Gm1 m2
F = .
s2
The Earth’s gravity pulls downwards on every particle of a body with a force equal
to the weight of that particle. The sum of these forces appears to act through the
centre of gravity of the body.

Task 1
Answer the following questions, and explain your answers.

1) State the approximate resultant force when two forces are exerted on a body;
5 N due north and 5 N due east.
72 Physics

2) A man can push with a force of 900 N, and a boy with a force of 450 N. Give
the resultant force if they both push a body in a northerly direction.

3) What will happen if the boy then pushes in the opposite direction?

4) What additional force is required to produce a zero resultant?

5) Calculate the resultant force on a body in a given direction if two forces of 4

N and 3 N are at right angles to each other.

Task 2
1) Explain why a ship is more stable when it is loaded than when it is empty.

2) Explain the difference between a vector quantity and a scalar quantity, and
give an example of each.

3) What is meant by equilibrium? Why is a piece of wood floating in water in

equilibrium?

4) Explain the formula given in the text.

5) What is meant by the ’centre of gravity’ ? Does it always refer to a particular

part of a body?

Fig. 5

Task 3
a) The spring balance and the graph in Fig. 5. show a law relating to elastic
materials (Hooke’s Law). Explain the experiment and state the law.

b) Define the following terms referring to elasticity:

- stress, strain, elastic limit, elastic modulus.
 Physics 73

Task 4
Use the vocabulary you have learned to fill in the blank spaces in the following
statements.
1) If a body is floating in water, the forces acting on it are in _________. Their
_________ is zero.
2) The resultant of two _________ may be illustrated using the _________ of
_________ rule.
3) If a quantity has magnitude and _________ , it is called a _________ quantity.
4) _________ is the _________ which is exerted by the Earth, and which gives
weight to the objects on the Earth.
74 Physics

UNIT 6 Motion
Reading
If a body is not at rest, it is in motion. The rate at which the body is moving
is called its speed. Speed is calculated by dividing the distance by the time
s
v=
t
and is therefore a derived unit. The term velocity is used to mean speed in a given
direction. It is therefore a vector quantity. If we multiply the mass of a body by
its velocity, we obtain its momentum

M = mv.

The rate at which the velocity of a body changes is called acceleration, and
acceleration is calculated by dividing the change in velocity by the time taken
v2 − v1
a=
t

For example, if a car travelling at 30 m/s (meters per second) accelerates to 70 m/s
in 10 seconds, its rate of acceleration will be
70 − 30 2
= 4 m/s .
10

The acceleration due to gravity (g) has a standard value of 9.8 m/s2 . In Task,
this acceleration is normally reduced by friction, the force of resistance in motion.
The value of g may be found by using a simple pendulum.

Fig. 6 A simple Pendulum

The pendulum swings from side to side, and the time for one swing of the
pendulum, the period, is calculated. It will be found that

l
t = 2π
g
 Physics 75

where t is the period and l is the length of the string. If we change the subject of
the equation to g, we have
4πl
g= 2
t
For each measurement of l, g is constant.

Task 1
Answer the following questions and explain your answers.
1) If a train has an average speed of 80 km/h, and completes its journey in 75
minutes, find the length of the journey.

2) If the train covers the same distance in 45 minutes, calculate its average speed.
3) Give the resultant velocity of a body which is moving at 3 cm/h due north
on a body of equal mass which is moving at 4 cm/h due south.

4) Calculate the acceleration of a cyclist who increases his speed from 5 m/s to
8 m/s in 12 seconds.
5) A car moving at 40 m/s accelerates at 1 m/s2 . Calculate
(i) its final speed after 5 seconds
(ii) the total distance travelled in this time.

6) A stone is dropped from the top of a building, and hits the ground after 3
seconds. Taking friction as zero, find the height of the building.

Task 2
1) Explain what is meant by acceleration due to gravity.
2) Explain how you would use a pendulum to calculate the value of g.
3) Explain the difference between speed and velocity.

4) What is meant by the ‘parallelogram of velocities’ ?

5) Describe Galileo’s famous experiment in Pisa, and say why it is significant.

Task 3
Use the vocabulary you have learned to fill in the blank spaces in the following
statements.
1) Dividing distance by time gives us the _________ , or the rate of _________
of a body which is not at rest.
2) _________ means speed in a given _________ . It is a _________ quantity,
having both magnitude and direction.
76 Physics

3) _________ is the _________ of change of velocity.

4) A simple _________ consists of a small _________ at the end of a length of
string.
5) This device may be used to _________ the _________ due to gravity.
 Physics 77

UNIT 7 Work, energy and power

Reading
Work is done when a force moves a load over a certain distance

W = F s.

The capacity to do the work is called energy. Energy, like work is measured in ergs
and joules. It is a scalar quantity, having magnitude but not direction. Mechanical
energy exists in two forms:

(i) kinetic energy, the energy a body possesses because of the motion,

1
(KE = mv 2 )
2

(ii) potential energy, the energy a body possesses because of its position or state.

(PE = mgh)

A pendulum shows the relationship between kinetic energy and potential energy,
and also illustrates the principle of the conservation of energy. This states that:
In the absence of friction, the total mechanical energy of the system remains
costant.
The rate at which work is done is called power. This is expressed by the formula

W
P =
t
where W is the amount of work done or energy expended, t is the time taken, and
P is the power. One joule per second is a watt (W), and 1 000 W is one kilowatt
(kW).
In a hydro-electric power station, the potential energy of the water behind the
dam is finally converted into electrical energy. The water is led through steel pipes
and falls with a great force. This provides the kinetic energy which drives the
turbines. The turbines are connected to the generators which provide electricity.
Such a station may generate 12 megga kilowatts (MkW).

Task 1
Answer the following questions and explain your answers.

1) If a man holds a 5 kg weight 50 cm from the ground, how much work does he
do?

2) If he then lifts the weight of 1m from the ground, calculate the work done.
78 Physics

3) A stone of mass 2 kg is released from a height of 10 m. Give its kinetic energy

just before it strikes the ground.

4) Find the kinetic energy of a car of mass 500 kg moving at the speed of 40
km/h.
5) Calculate the potential energy of a 2 g pellet travelling at 500 m/s.

Task 2
1) Say what is meant by the conservation of energy. What are the transforma-
tions of energy which take place in the generation of hydro-electric power?
2) Estimate the power developed by an average man running up a short flight of
stairs, and explain your answer.
3) Define potential energy and kinetic energy, and explain how the pendulum
shows the relationship between them.
4) “Our greatest source of energy is the sun”. Would you agree with that state-
ment? Explain your answer.

5) How can electrical energy be obtained from the sea? Explain the transforma-
tions of energy which take place.

Task 3
Use the vocabulary you have learned to fill in the blank spaces in the following
statements.
1) Energy is _________ as the capacity to do _________.
2) When a _________ moves a body, _________ has been done.

3) The energy which a _________ has as a result of its state or _________ is

called _________.
4) _________ energy is the energy a body has as a result of its motion.
5) Energy cannot be destroyed; it can only be _________. This is the _________
of the _________ of energy.
 79

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[3] C. Clapham, The Concise Dictionary of Mathematics, Oxford University Press,
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[4] P. Donovan, Basic English for Science, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1978.
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Longman, London, 1980.
[6] J. W. Harris, H. Stocker, Handbook of Mathematics and Computational Science,
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