Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 112 (2006) 107–114

www.elsevier.com/locate/agee

Medium-chain fatty acids and their potential to reduce

methanogenesis in domestic ruminants
Andrea Machmüller *
Institute of Animal Science, Animal Nutrition, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich,
ETH Zentrum/LFW, CH-8092 Zurich, Switzerland

Available online 13 October 2005

Abstract

In the wave of the Kyoto Protocol, a large effort is undertaken to find sustainable strategies for reducing greenhouse gas emissions from
livestock. The present paper summarises the results of a research project, which was designed to analyse the potential of medium-chain fatty
acids (MCFA) as a diet component for ruminants to inhibit rumen methanogenesis. In a series of eight in vitro and four in vivo experiments, a
research strategy was pursued including: (i) a comparison of feeding coconut oil (rich in MCFA) and feeds containing long-chain unsaturated
fatty acids (LCFA) with respect to their effects on rumen and total digestive tract metabolism; (ii) a search for effective MCFA feeds other than
coconut oil; (iii) identification of specific MCFA effective against rumen methanogenesis; (iv) clarification of the mode of action of MCFA;
and (v) revealing of dietary pre-conditions for a significant methane-suppressing effect of MCFA. The project clearly demonstrated the
potential of MCFA, used either in esterified form (such as coconut oil, palm kernel oil and genetically modified canola oil) or in non-esterified
form (C12:0 and C14:0), to substantially reduce methanogenesis in domestic ruminants. Detailed insight into the numerous interactions
within the rumen, which will determine the extent of methanogenesis inhibition when feeding MCFA, was gained. From an assessment of the
combined data, it was concluded that even with dietary proportions below 3% MCFA of C12:0 and C14:0, a 50% reduction of in vivo methane
emission is possible.
# 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Enteric methane emission; Methane mitigation strategy; Coconut oil; Myristic acid; Lauric acid; Rumen archaea

1. Introduction level, diet composition and apparent digestibility of dietary

Worldwide, there is a renewed focus in research to find
sustainable strategies for reducing emissions of the green-
house gas methane from domestic ruminants. Animal
husbandry, particularly of ruminants, has been identified
as a significant contributor to global anthropogenic methane
emission (e.g., Kirchgessner et al., 1991). Additionally,
economic considerations are an important reason for
reducing methanogenesis in ruminants, since methane is a
source of considerable loss of feed energy (2–15% of the
gross energy intake), with the extent depending on feeding
* Tel.: +41 44 6323269; fax: +41 44 6321128.
E-mail address: andrea.machmueller@alumni.ethz.ch.
energy (Blaxter and Clapperton, 1965; Johnson et al., 1993).
Previous research has demonstrated that there is a potential
to reduce methane at the stage of formation using appropriate
feeding strategies (e.g., Van Nevel and Demeyer, 1996). In
order to achieve reduced methane emissions without
constraining net energy intake, besides the substitution of
structural carbohydrates by non-structural ones (Kreuzer
et al., 1986), dietary fats currently seem to be the only natural
alternatives to synthetic methane inhibitors, antibiotics or
biotechnological interventions (cf. Moss et al., 2000). It is
over 35 years since Blaxter and Czerkawski (1966) observed
that both MCFA and LCFA could reduce methane emission
from sheep. Nevertheless, subsequent research of Czerkawski
and other scientists focused exclusively on LCFA, since with
these fatty acids a greater effect against methanogenesis was

0167-8809/$ – see front matter # 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.agee.2005.08.010
108 A. Machmüller / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 112 (2006) 107–114
expected due to the hydrogen-consuming process of fatty acid
hydrogenation (e.g., Czerkawski et al., 1966a; Van Nevel and
Demeyer, 1996). However, in the course of these investiga-
tions, it was realised that LCFA can also reduce ruminal fibre
degradation substantially (e.g., Broudiscou et al., 1990).
Although pure culture studies have indicated that the
inhibitory effect on fibre-degrading microbes will be stronger
with LCFA than with MCFA (Henderson, 1973), until now
published information on the effect of feeding MCFA on
rumen methanogenesis is very limited.
The present paper summarises the results of eight in vitro
and four in vivo experiments with the aim to analyse the
potential of dietary MCFA to reduce methanogenesis in
domestic ruminants.
2. Methods
At the ETH in Zurich, a research project was designed and
conducted to investigate the potential of dietary MCFA to
reduce rumen methanogenesis. This was done to extend the
knowledge on the effects of MCFA in ruminants, and
eventually for developing a practical methane mitigation
strategy applicable to livestock production systems world-
wide. In order to evaluate MCFA effects at different metabolic
levels, i.e. in the total digestive tract, in the rumen, as well as at
the level of the single methanogenic cell, the present project
encompassed both in vitro and in vivo experiments. A
research strategy was pursued including: (i) a comparison of
feeding coconut oil (containing MCFA) and feeds containing
LCFA with respect to their effects in the rumen and the total
digestive tract; (ii) a search for effective fatty feeds other than
coconut oil with high contents of MCFA; (iii) identification of
specific MCFA effective against rumen methanogenesis; (iv)
clarification of the mode of action of MCFA; and (v) revealing
of dietary pre-conditions for a significant methane-suppres-
sing effect of MCFA.
In the course of the research project in vitro experiments
with rumen fluid from cattle were conducted using Rusitec, a
rumen simulation technique developed by Czerkawski and
Breckenridge (1977) or a Hohenheim gas test apparatus
(Menke et al., 1979). For the in vivo experiments, sheep
were used as a model for ruminants. The methane emission
of the sheep was measured with a dual chamber open-circuit
indirect respiration calorimetry system (cf. Machmüller and
Kreuzer, 1999). The present paper discusses the results of
eight in vitro and four in vivo experiments.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Identification of MCFA as dietary ingredients
suppressing rumen methanogenesis
The effects of different fatty feeds (coconut oil and
crushed whole rapeseed, sunflower seed and linseed) on
rumen fermentation and methane production were compared
in vitro using the Rusitec system (Machmüller et al., 1998).
It turned out that coconut oil, sunflower seed and linseed
significantly reduced methane release, as well as the number
of ciliate protozoa which are known to provide a habitat for
rumen methanogens (Finlay et al., 1994). Coconut oil even
eliminated ciliate protozoa completely from the rumen fluid.
Compared with the low-fat control, 3% coconut oil
suppressed methane production by 43%, while 6% coconut
oil suppressed it by 57%. The maximum methane
suppression achieved with sunflower seed and linseed was
approximately 40%. These in vitro data indicate that certain
fats and oils can be methane-suppressing feed components,
effective even at common dietary proportions.
The same fatty feeds as used in vitro were fed to growing
lambs to investigate the effects on total tract methane release
and energy balance of the animals (Machmüller et al., 2000).
The in vivo data confirmed the suppressive effects of
coconut oil and crushed whole oilseeds on methane release
and on rumen ciliates, as observed in vitro. At a relatively
low dietary inclusion of 3% coconut oil or 6% sunflower
seeds, the coconut oil and sunflower seed diets decreased the
energy loss via methane from the lambs by on average 27%.
A persistent methane-suppressing effect was apparent over 7
weeks. Taking the effects on methane release and energy
balance together, the MCFA source coconut oil appeared to
be the most beneficial option of dietary fat.
In a further in vivo experiment, three different diets with
increasing proportions of coconut oil (0, 3.5 and 7%) were
fed to wethers (Machmüller and Kreuzer, 1999). Ciliate
protozoa counts in rumen fluid were reduced by 88 and
97% when diets contained 3.5 and 7% coconut oil,
respectively, whereas bacterial counts increased. Supple-
menting coconut oil at proportions of 3.5 and 7%
suppressed methane production by 28 and 73%, respec-
tively, relative to the unsupplemented diet. Even with a
dietary proportion of 7%, coconut oil did not show
significant negative effects on total tract nutrient digestion,
or on energy and nitrogen balance of the sheep. However,
adverse effects of the coconut oil on rumen fermentation,
especially fibre degradation, cannot totally be ruled out
since Sutton et al. (1983) showed that when feeding
coconut oil to sheep, a certain shift of fibre fermentation
from the rumen to the hindgut can take place.
In order to broaden the range of options to suppress
methanogenesis and the protozoal population by MCFA
feeding, the effects of different fat sources with high
proportions of MCFA (C8:0 to C16:0) were investigated in
vitro with Rusitec (Dohme et al., 2000). The fats (coconut
oil, palm kernel oil, palm oil, tallow, milk fat and two types
of canola oil, both genetically enriched with C12:0) were all
supplied at a level of 5%. It was observed that, in addition to
coconut oil, palm kernel oil and one of the two genetically
modified canola oils were also able to suppress methano-
genesis, methanogenic archaea and ciliate protozoa popula-
tions significantly. In this in vitro experiment, the effective
 A. Machmüller / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 112 (2006) 107–114
treatments also significantly impaired the fibre degradation
compared to the control treatment (rumen-protected fat).
Comparing the efficacy of individual fatty acids in vitro
using Rusitec, Dohme et al. (2001) proved that C12:0 and
C14:0 are the only MCFA effective in suppressing rumen
methanogenesis and methanogenic counts. In coconut oil,
C12:0 and C14:0 are the predominant fatty acids, which
would explain the high methane-suppressing effect of this
oil and the other effective MCFA oils identified by Dohme
et al. (2000). Using non-esterified MCFA in this in vitro
experiment, it was demonstrated that C12:0, but not C14:0,
significantly depressed fibre degradation. That C12:0 will
probably have a larger impact on ruminal fibre breakdown
than C14:0 was also indicated by the in vitro data of
Weisbjerg and Børsting (1989).
3.2. Mode of action of MCFA
The role of rumen ciliate protozoa in the methane-
suppressing effect of coconut oil was investigated in vitro
with a Rusitec study (Dohme et al., 1999), and in vivo using
sheep (Machmüller et al., 2003a). In vitro coconut oil
reduced methane production in both faunated (with ciliate
protozoa) and chemically defaunated (without ciliate
protozoa) rumen fluid. This was verified in vivo, where
also no interaction between the effects of coconut oil feeding
and defaunation on methane emission was observed. Thus,
the in vivo results confirmed the in vitro results that the
methane-suppressing effect of coconut oil is not dependent
upon the protozoa-inhibiting effect. Instead, the data
indicate that MCFA directly inhibit rumen methanogenic
archaea and may change their metabolic activity, as well as
the composition of the rumen methanogenic population.
The direct effects of MCFA on rumen archaea were
investigated in vitro with a Hohenheim gas test apparatus
using non-esterified C12:0 and C14:0, as well as different
mixtures of these fatty acids (Soliva et al., 2003). Both
methane production and numbers of rumen methanogens
declined curvilinearly with increasing proportions of C12:0
in the fatty acid mixtures. However, even with a proportion
of 2:1 (C12:0/C14:0), the same maximum methane-
suppressing effect (96%) was achieved as with C12:0 alone.
Therefore, although C14:0 alone showed no suppression of
rumen methanogenesis within the 24 h incubation, C14:0
seemed to enhance the methane-suppressing effect of C12:0
in mixtures having a C12:0/C14:0 ratio between 14:1 and
2:1. Future investigations should clarify whether and why
synergistic effects between specific mixtures of non-
esterified C12:0 and C14:0 occur in the inhibition of
ruminal methanogenesis. Data reported by Soliva et al.
(2003) document that the order-specific composition of the
methanogenic population will be changed by MCFA, thus
showing for the first time that the composition of the
methanogenic population in the rumen is altered by certain
feeding strategies.
109
3.3. Determinants for a significant methane-suppressing
effect of MCFA
Since certain minerals can form soaps with fatty acids,
the impact of dietary minerals on the methane-suppressing
effect of MCFA was investigated in vitro using C12:0 in a
Rusitec (Machmüller et al., 2002). The data suggested that
the dietary Ca level can modify the effect of MCFA on
rumen methanogenesis. The average daily methane release
was reduced by 76% when incubating the 5% C12:0 diet
without additional Ca, but only by 47% when Ca at a level of
1.1 g kg 1 DM was supplemented.
Beside mineral supplementation, another decisive
factor for how MCFA will affect rumen methanogenesis
is the composition of the dietary carbohydrate fraction
(Machmüller et al., 2001). The methane-suppressing
effects of MCFA (esterified and non-esterified) were
investigated in vitro with the Rusitec system using
extensive-type (high-structural carbohydrate content)
and intensive-type (low-structural carbohydrate content)
basal diets. The data clearly showed that the highest
methane-suppressing effect of MCFA will be achieved
when supplementing MCFA to intensive-type diets with
relatively low contents of structural carbohydrates.
Methanogenesis during fermentation of high-fibre diets
seems to be highly sensitive to the supplementation of
MCFA only when non-esterified forms of MCFA are used.
Harfoot (1978) assumed that there is a direct competition
between rumen microbes and feed particles for attachment
of non-esterified fatty acids, whereas esterified fatty acids
are mainly adsorbed onto feed particles, and are less
firmly bound to rumen microbes than non-esterified fatty
acids. Consequently, in order to maximise the methane-
suppressing effect of MCFA, different strategies have to
be developed for extensive- as compared to intensive-
livestock production systems.
In vivo, the efficacy of 5% C14:0 inclusion was evaluated
under different dietary conditions (Machmüller et al.,
2003b). In contrast to the short-term (24 h) in vitro results
of Soliva et al. (2003) (see section 3), the in vivo data of
Machmüller et al. (2003b) demonstrated that C14:0 is a
promising feed additive for suppressing methane emissions
with realised reductions of up to 58% when fed for more than
3 weeks to sheep. However, C14:0 was less effective in diets
with a high proportion of forages, which confirms the in vitro
observations of Machmüller et al. (2001). Additionally, as
the in vitro findings on Ca supplementation suggested
(Machmüller et al., 2002), the in vivo data show that the
efficacy of C14:0 was high only when the dietary Ca level
did not exceed the actual requirements of the animals.
Therewith, it was demonstrated that possible interactions of
MCFA with the basal diet in the rumen must be considered
when developing effective feeding strategies against
methane formation in domestic ruminants. As in the
previous in vivo experiments using coconut oil (Machmüller
and Kreuzer, 1999; Machmüller et al., 2000, 2003a), feeding
110 A. Machmüller / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 112 (2006) 107–114

non-esterified C14:0 to sheep did not significantly reduce the
total tract fibre degradation.
3.4. The potential of dietary MCFA to reduce
methanogenesis in domestic ruminants
Based on the observations presented, it is evident that
MCFA have a high potential for reducing methanogenesis in
domestic ruminants. Significant negative correlations
between the amounts of MCFA (C12:0 and C14:0) supplied
and the level of methane produced were recorded in both the
in vitro and the in vivo experiments, even though the
variance is high. In the in vivo experiments, on average
0.97  0.04 g methane per day per kg0.75 live weight was
emitted by sheep when fed control diets without MCFA
supply (Fig. 1a). When the diets were supplemented with
MCFA (C12:0 and C14:0), the methane emission was
reduced by 0.16  0.03 g per day per kg0.75 live weight for
each g of MCFA supplied; thus, a reduction of 50% could be
achieved with a supply of 3.0 g MCFA per day per kg0.75 live
weight. Within the present project, it was demonstrated that
with increasing dietary Ca or fiber content (Machmüller
et al., 2001; Machmüller et al., 2002; Machmüller et al.,
2003b), the methane-suppressing effect of the supplied
MCFA would be reduced. Deleting high Ca and high-fibre
data from the in vivo data set enhanced r2 from 0.30 to 0.50
(Fig. 1b). According to this relationship, a 50% reduction of
the methane emission would be achieved already by feeding
1.8 g MCFA per day per kg0.75 live weight.
The methane suppression due to MCFA is even more
pronounced when compared only with fat-unsupplemented
diets (negative control) instead of comparing with diets
including rumen-protected fats (positive control). When
comparing the MCFA diets with diets supplied with rumen-
protected fats, all ruminal effects could be assigned
exclusively to feeding MCFA (cf. Machmüller et al.,
2000, 2003a), whereas comparisons with the negative
controls (without any fat supplementation) revealed the total
possible methane suppression of MCFA-supplemented diets
(Fig. 2a and b). To reach the energy requirements of the
animals, the fat-unsupplemented diets (negative controls)
had to contain more fermentable organic matter than the
MCFA-supplemented diets. Based on a reduced data set
without high Ca and high-fibre treatments, and without
rumen-protected fat treatments (n = 50), regression equa-
tions were calculated for methane emission (g per day per
kg0.75 live weight) in relation to MCFA concentration in the
diets (C12:0 and C14:0, g kg 1 DM), and for methane
emission (percentage of gross energy intake) in relation to
daily MCFA intake (C12:0 and C14:0, g per day per kg0.75
live weight). From this in vivo data set, it was calculated that
supplying diets with 2.7% MCFA would halve the methane
emission (g per day per kg0.75 live weight) of ruminants
(Fig. 2a). With the fat-unsupplemented diets, on average
6.32  0.25% of the gross energy intake was emitted as
methane (Fig. 2b). For each g of MCFA C12:0 and C14:0
supplied (g per day per kg0.75 live weight), the energy loss
via methane (percentage of gross energy intake) was
reduced by 2.13  0.22. This indicates that a methane
inhibition of 50% could be reached by a supply of only 1.5 g
MCFA per day per kg0.75 live weight.
Although it was demonstrated within the present research
project that MCFA (i.e. C12:0 and mixtures of C12:0 and
C14:0) inhibit rumen methanogenic archaea directly (cf.

Fig. 1. Effect of increasing supply of the MCFA C12:0 and C14:0 (g per day per kg0.75 live weight, X) on methane production in vivo (g per day per kg0.75 live
weight). (a) n = 82 (Y1) and (b) n = 64, data set without high Ca and high-fibre treatments (Y2). Regression equations: Y1 = 0.97 0.16X, r2 = 0.30, CV = 29.5,
P < 0.001; Y2 = 1.01 0.28X, r2 = 0.50, CV = 26.3, P < 0.001. (~) Negative control (without any fat supplementation);(&) positive control (rumen-protected
fat); (&) coconut oil; (*) non-esterified C14:0. The dashed lines are 95% confidence intervals and the dotted lines are 95% prediction intervals.
 A. Machmüller / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 112 (2006) 107–114 111

Fig. 2. Effect of increasing supply of the MCFA C12:0 and C14:0 (g kg 1 DM, X1; g per day per kg0.75 live weight, X2) on methane production in vivo (g per day
per kg0.75 live weight, Y1; percentage of gross energy intake, Y2). n = 50, data set without high Ca and high-fibre treatments and without rumen-protected fat
treatments. Regression equations: (a) Y1 = 1.06 0.02X1, r2 = 0.67, CV = 23.0, P < 0.001; (b) Y2 = 6.32 2.13X2, r2 = 0.66, CV = 27.3, P < 0.001. (~)
Negative control (without any fat supplementation); (&) coconut oil; (*) non-esterified C14:0. The dashed lines are 95% confidence intervals and the dotted
lines are 95% prediction intervals.

Soliva et al., 2003), predictions of the extent of methane
suppression when supplying a certain amount of MCFA in
vivo seems to be difficult because of the complexity of
processes in the rumen. The rumen is an ecological system
with various interrelated entities enabling the system to react
against stressors and to recover balance. According to
Czerkawski (1986), the components of the rumen are the
rumen microbes (living and dead), the feed material
(fermentable and non-fermentable), the endogenous mate-
rial (saliva and gut wall debris) and the fermentation end
products. Within the rumen, there are digestive and synthetic
processes as well as processes of disposal. The driving
forces are the feed intake (continuous or intermittent), the
dilution and flow within the rumen (determined by
salivation, intake of drinking water and rumen wall
function), the rumen movement, the rumination and the
temperature. As control functions within the rumen,
Czerkawski (1986) considers the diverse interactions
between rumen microbes.
When intending to manipulate the rumen, all interactions
and regulatory processes taking place have to be considered,
which makes it nearly impossible to issue general statements
about the effects, and especially about the efficacy of a
manipulation or a manipulator. However, within the present
project, it was demonstrated in vitro (Machmüller et al.,
2001, 2002) and in vivo (Machmüller et al., 2003b) that
interactions with the dietary content of minerals (i.e. Ca) and
fibre (i.e. composition of the carbohydrate fraction)
influence the methane-suppressing effect of MCFA. Fig. 3
attempts to summarise and visualise all possible interactions
within the rumen determining the extent of methanogenesis
when feeding MCFA. What can be concluded is that the
decisive factor of the methane-suppressing effect of MCFA
is the concentration of non-esterified MCFA in the rumen,
which was also demonstrated to be the decisive factor when
investigating the inhibitory effect of MCFA on pure cultures
of Methanobrevibacter ruminantium (Henderson, 1973). In
the rumen, the effective MCFA concentration is determined
by the amount of MCFA-fed (i.e. total daily amount and
number of daily portions, Czerkawski et al., 1966b), by the
composition of MCFA (proportion of C12:0 and C14:0), and
whether non-esterified or esterified MCFA are fed. When
esterified MCFA are fed, the rate of ruminal lipolysis will
determine how quickly a certain concentration of non-
esterified MCFA is achieved. Within the rumen, several
factors could reduce the level of free (dissolved) non-
esterified MCFA and, therefore, the methane-suppressing
effect. These include: (i) adsorption onto feed particles; (ii)
soap formation with minerals; (iii) adsorption onto and
absorption by microbes other than methanogens; (iv)
absorption by the host animal (Hagemeister et al., 1979);
and (v) dilution by increased water intake or increased
salivation. Additionally, it can be assumed that the methane-
suppressing effect of MCFA is pH dependent, as was
demonstrated for MCFA effects against non-ruminal
microbes (Galbraith and Miller, 1973). Thus, a low pH
would intensify the inhibition of methanogens. In turn, pH
conditions in the rumen depend on: (i) the intensity of the
fermentation processes; (ii) the dietary proportion of starch
and sugars; (iii) the buffering capacity of the rumen; (iv) the
salivation; (v) the VFA absorption by the host animal; and
(vi) the animal’s water intake.
Another important aspect to be considered is the
composition of the initial rumen microbial community
112 A. Machmüller / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 112 (2006) 107–114
Fig. 3. Possible interactions within the rumen determining the extent of methanogenesis when feeding MCFA.
(incl. composition of the methanogenic community), which
will depend on the species and breed of the host animal and
the feeding history (cf. Lin et al., 1997; Chandramoni et al.,
1998; Yanagita et al., 2000). The sensitivity of the microbes
towards certain MCFA is determined by the structure of their
cell wall, and ciliate protozoa and Gram-positive archaea are
inhibited before Gram-negative microbes (cf. Galbraith
et al., 1971; Sheu and Freese, 1973; Dohme et al., 1999;
Machmüller et al., 2003a,b). After an inhibition of certain
(sensitive) rumen microbes, the extent of hydrogen-
producing and hydrogen-utilising processes in the rumen
will be conditioned by the remaining non-inhibited
microbial population.
In the Rusitec experiments, the hydrogen balance was
calculated using the equation of Demeyer (1991), which
considers hydrogen utilisation for the formation of
propionate, butyrate, valerate and methane. Nevertheless,
there are other possible hydrogen acceptors in the rumen
(Demeyer et al., 1995); thus, the used equation does not take
into account hydrogen released in gaseous form or
incorporated into lactate, acetate (by reductive acetogenesis)
and fatty acids (by microbial saturation). This could explain
why the hydrogen recovery in four of the seven Rusitec
experiments was reduced in the MCFA treatments which
suppressed methanogensis. Regarding the in vitro data, the
actual fate of the hydrogen no longer utilised by
methanogenesis remains uncertain. However, significantly
increased proportions of propionate in in vivo experiments
using MCFA (e.g., Steele and Moore, 1968; Rohr et al.,
1978; Machmüller et al., 2003b) indicate that at least part of
this hydrogen was incorporated into propionate.
3.5. Looking at the whole livestock production system
Although not subject of investigation in the present project,
it should not go unnoticed that, for an integrated approach,
possible side-effects of an increased MCFA feeding on fields
very closely related to animal nutrition have to be considered.
With regard to the methane emission from a whole livestock
production system, it must be borne in mind that beside
methanogenesis inside the animals (rumen and hindgut),
methanogenesis will also occur outside the animals during
storage of their excreta (urine and faeces). The extent of
methane emission from excreta will depend on the availability
of fermentable organic matter and storage conditions (e.g.,
Jungbluth et al., 2001; Phetteplace et al., 2001). In one recent
study, feeding C12:0 to dairy cows actually increased the
methane formation in stored excreta due to an increased fibre
content of the faeces (Külling et al., 2002). On the other hand,
the same study provided evidence that the emission of nitrous
oxide, which has a larger global warming potential than
methane, will be reduced from the excreta of MCFA-fed
animals.
A second aspect to be mentioned is that increasing the
dietary MCFA intake of animals will also increase the
MCFA content of animal products, i.e. milk and meat (e.g.,
Rindsig and Schultz, 1974; Scheeder et al., 2001). For
human beings, saturated fatty acids are considered to be
atherogenic factors (e.g., Lairon, 1997) because of their
hypercholesterolemic effect, and recommended to be
replaced with unsaturated fatty acids (Hu et al., 2001).
However, the supposed causal relationship between satu-
rated fatty acids and coronary heart disease is still under
 A. Machmüller / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 112 (2006) 107–114
discussion (Taubes, 2001; Grundy, 2001; Ravnskov et al.,
2002) and diets rich in C12:0 are even recommended for
HIV-infected individuals because of their antiviral proper-
ties (Enig, 1999). Therefore, for both, the human being and
the domestic ruminant, it applies that it is a matter of dosage
and frequency whether or not the consumption of MCFA will
have a negative effect or, as was shown for the ruminants in
the present paper, a positive effect.
4. Conclusions
Although interactions within the rumen are numerous and
complex, it is possible to halve the methane emission of
domestic ruminants by using MCFA, without significantly
inhibiting total tract nutrient digestion and energy utilisation
(cf. Machmüller and Kreuzer, 1999; Machmüller et al.,
2003b). In general, the methane-suppressing effect of MCFA
will be greatest with a feeding regime:
 administering MCFA with high proportions of C12:0 and
C14:0;
 using concentrate-based diets;
 adding minerals (capable of forming soaps) according to
requirements; and
 administering the daily supply of MCFA in few portions.
If these conditions are not optimized, the daily supply of
MCFA must be increased to realise the same extent of methane
suppression. In the case of diets with high contents of structural
carbohydrates, non-esterified MCFA should be fed rather than
esterified ones. Intensive-livestock production systems are
most suitable for MCFA feeding regimes. However, the only
absolute requirement with respect to production system seems
to be that management of the animals allows the MCFA
supplement to be administered regularly.
Acknowledgements
I am greatly indebted to Prof. Dr. Michael Kreuzer as well
as to Dr. Damian A. Ossowski, Dr. Frigga Dohme and Dr.
Carla R. Soliva for their support in the present research project.
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