Mexico’s

Case Study: PumpTech

Growing Thirst Torsional Analysis Issue

COMPRESSOR
APRIL 2013

Dedicated To Gas Compression Products & Applications

compressor
maintenance
Compressor Efficiency
Drops With Black
Powder Build-Up

Managing
Screw Compressors
In The Field
www.compressortech2.com
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 Page
A Member Of The Diesel & Gas Turbine Publications Group
President & CEO ..................... Michael J. Osenga
Executive Vice President .... Michael J. Brezonick

COMPRESSOR
Dedicated To Gas Compression Products & Applications
4
PUBLICATION STAFF
CT2 Founder ........................... Joseph M. Kane Joe Kane
Publisher .................................Brent D. Haight
Associate Publisher ...............Roberto Chellini
Compressortech2 Founder
Editor ...........................................Patrick Crow

An Issue We Should
Executive Editor ............................... DJ Slater
Senior Editor .................. Michael J. Brezonick
Senior Editor .............................. Mike Rhodes
Associate Editor ................................ Jack Burke

Lose Sleep Over

Associate Editor .............................Chad Elmore
Copy Editor ................................ Jerry Karpowicz
Digital Content Manager............Catrina Boettner
Advertising Manager ...........Christa L. Johnson
Circulation Manager ...................Sheila Lizdas
Production Manager ............. Marisa J. Roberts Our attention is focused mostly on emerging economies, not in the United
Graphic Artist ........................Brenda L. Burbach
Graphic Artist .............................Carla D. Lemke the economy, government spending, States. Carbon-dioxide emissions in the
Graphic Artist ........................... Amanda J. Ryan taxes, our national debt and a heap of U.S. have been declining, and by 2035
Graphic Artist ................................ Alyssa Loope
other issues that seem to be numbing will return to 2005 levels, the Energy In-
PUBLICATION HEADQUARTERS our senses. formation Administration projects.
20855 Watertown Road, Suite 220
Waukesha, Wisconsin 53186-1873 A carbon tax, that onerous item that “Advances in climate science, mean-
Telephone: (262) 754-4100 Fax: (262) 754-4175 is expected to sneak into the govern- while, raise even more doubt about the
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS ment’s revenue quest again, is one that assertion human activities are the pri-
Ellen Hopkins - Midland, Texas
Norm Shade - Cambridge, Ohio seems to rest below the public radar. It mary cause of warming. Former NASA
Mauro Belo Schneider - Rio Grande du Sul, Brazil
was attempted during the Clinton ad- scientist Roy Spencer, for example, has
HOUSTON OFFICE
Brent D. Haight, Publisher ministration, but met with such opposi- shown that temperatures since 1976
Patrick Crow, Editor tion that it was dropped. have risen and stabilized in parallel
Mike Rhodes, Senior Editor
12777 Jones Road, Suite 225 The two reasons expressed for a car- with the Pacific Decadal Oscillation, a
Houston, Texas 77070
Telephone: (281) 890-5310 Fax: (281) 890-4805
bon tax were to gain more revenue for natural climate pattern affecting all sorts
GERMAN OFFICE the federal pocketbook and to address of natural phenomena. An increas-
Lisa Hochkofler, Advertising Manager climate change. The public was advised ing number of experts now admit that
Gabriele Dinsel, Advertising Manager
Niemöllerstr. 9 that it wouldn’t hurt the large energy pro- natural variability is poorly understood
73760 Ostfildern, Germany ducers and it would avoid the necessity of and poorly reflected in the models that
Telephone: +49 711 3416 74 0 Fax: +49 711 3416 74 74
UNITED KINGDOM OFFICE raising taxes on American citizens. The are the foundation of so much climate-
Ian Cameron, Regional Manager/Editor former might be true because big ener- change dread.”
Linda Cameron, Advertising Manager
40 Premier Avenue gy producers would pass the additional Sleep is beautiful when it comes at
Ashbourne, Derbyshire, costs on to consumers. So the American the right time but embarrassing other-
DE6 1LH, United Kingdom
Telephone: +44 20 31 79 29 79 Fax: +44 20 31 79 29 70 public would inevitably foot the bill. wise. Some people sleep through
ITALIAN OFFICES This whole issue was discussed classes. They sleep at meetings. They
Roberto Chellini, Associate Publisher
44, Via Delle Forbici more succinctly late last year by William sleep during concerts. They mean well,
I-50133 Firenze, Italy O’Keefe, CEO of the George C. Mar- but they miss out on the important mo-
Telephone: +39 055 50 59 861 Fax: +39 055 57 11 55
Roberta Prandi
shall Institute, in a column for The Wall ments of life.
Via Fitta, 21a Street Journal. He stated that energy is Others sleep through life in other
I-38062 Arco, Italy
Telephone: +39 0464 014421 Fax: +39 0464 244529 so paramount to our national well-being ways. They are unaware of political
SCANDINAVIAN OFFICE that any tinkering with its natural product- issues, unconcerned for the needs of
Bo Svensson, Field Editor/Business Manager to-market flow could be disastrous. others, devoid of manners, aloof from
Dunderbacksvagen 20
612-46 Finspong, Sweden He said an energy tax would place people seeking their attention. Some
Telephone: +46 70 2405369 Fax: +46 122 14787
our manufacturing sector at a compet- people sleep through relationships and
JAPANESE OFFICE
Akiyoshi Ojima, Branch Manager itive disadvantage globally, causing a through events that impinge upon deep-
51-16-301 Honmoku Sannotani, Naka-ku further shifting of production and jobs seated beliefs. In short, they live in the
Yokohama, 231-0824 Japan
Telephone: +81 45 624 3502 Fax: +81 45 624 3503 outside the U.S. But, worse, it would darkness of ignorance.
CHINESE OFFICE have its greatest impact on the low- Our so-called main line media con-
S.H. Mok, Branch Manager
Rm 1405, Kowloon Building income bracket of our population. tributes too much to this snooze factor
555 Nathan Road Moreover, O’Keefe asserted, “The by not addressing both sides of the
Kowloon, Hong Kong
Telephone: +852 3118 7930 Fax : +852 3110 3572 climate-change justification for a car- climate change debate.
bon tax is bogus. Greenhouse gas May the Lord hold you in the hollow
emissions are rising in China and other of His hand. CT2
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April 2013

COMPRESSOR
Dedicated To Gas Compression Products & Applications

Featured Articles
16 Compressor Efficiency Drops With Black Powder Build-Up
24 Caring For A Compressor
42 Mexico’s Growing Thirst
46 Mecos Acquisition Opens Opportunities For MAN
72 Lubes Evolve With Higher Turbine Performance
74 Turbine-Driven Compression For China
88 IEA Urges More Competition In Asia Pacific Gas Market
90 Case Study: Torsional Analysis

PUMPtech
Cover Designed By 52 Warning: Contents Are Hot
Amanda Ryan
58 Wärtsilä Pumps It Up
62 Unusual PD Pump Pulsation Solutions
Compressortech 2 (ISSN 1085-2468)
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 WHEN CATALYST ELEMENT
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DCL WILL BE ON THE SPOT.

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D A L L A S • H O U S T O N • L O S A N G E L E S • O K L A H O M A C I T Y
Global Perspective
Russia Looks Toward
Asia Pacific Energy
By Roberto Chellini
Associate Publisher Market > Gazprom, Rosneft under
political pressure to exploit
F
or many years, Europe has been the primary ex-
port market for Gazprom, the Russian natural
gas monopoly.
If on one side, the European marketplace is seen as a
slow-growing area with high competition from North Sea,
African and Middle East gas source. On the other side, the
growing economies of the Asia Pacific region ensure a fast-
growing demand for energy. That’s especially true for lique-
fied natural gas (LNG), since Japan and South Korea are
the world’s largest LNG importers.
Strong energy demand has brought very lucrative prices,
and several international oil companies are investing in LNG
plants to monetize the gas reserves of Indonesia, Australia,
the Middle East and the East African coast. The low price
of gas in the United States has even prompted proposals to
export LNG to Asia Pacific.
Russia is looking at this market area with great interest. It
has significant hydrocarbon resources in East Siberia and
on the Russian Continental Shelf (RCS). The easiest, and
the most economical, option would have been a gas pipe-
line from East Siberia to South Korea through North Korea.
Although technically feasible, the political situation in the
area could jeopardize the substantial investment required.
Instead, on Feb. 21, Gazprom decided to invest in the Vladi-
vostok LNG export project. The three-train export terminal will
be built at Perevoznaya Bay on the Lomonosov Peninsula and
will have annual export capacity of about 15 mtpa (20.7 x109
m3/year). The first train is scheduled to start up in 2018.
Last October, Russia had finally decided to invest in the
development of the Chayanda gas and condensate field.
It will build a 2000 mi. (3200 km) pipeline from Yakutia to
Vladivostok to provide feedstock gas for the Vladivostok
LNG project.
The Vladivostok terminal also will draw on gas from
Sakhalin Island area gas fields and from the Irkutsk produc-
tion center (also in East Siberia), which will be linked to the
Yakutia-Vladivostok (“Power of Siberia”) trunkline.
Gazprom did not disclose a construction cost of the Vladi-
vostok venture. However, it is likely to be greater than the
US$12.7 billion originally estimated, given the increased
APRIL 2013 8 Compressortech2
gas, oil resources
scale of the project. The final cost, including the develop-
ment of Chayanda and pipeline construction, likely will be
more than US$50 billion over five years or longer.
The gas export monopoly that Gazprom holds is in-
creasingly threatened by pressure from Russian Presi-
dent Vladimir Putin, whose political allies include Rosneft
chairman Igor Sechin. In fact, Rosneft has made over-
tures to ExxonMobil, as well as Chinese and Japanese
companies, for possible LNG collaboration in its conces-
sions, although a liberalization of Russia’s gas export
framework has yet to occur.
Gazprom is wise to speed its entry into Asia through the
Vladivostok LNG project while Russian politicians consider ex-
tending its export monopoly. However, rising competition in the
Asia Pacific LNG market could give consuming nations more
bargaining power. Gazprom could find it difficult to secure
long-term contracts at prices that would give it a comfortable
profit margin for the expensive Vladivostok LNG investment.
Rosneft has also offered opportunities for cooperation on
the RCS to Chinese companies and is expected to make
similar offers to Japanese firms. Those deals will probably
follow the pattern of agreements it had inked with ExxonMo-
bil, Eni and Statoil: entry into the prospective Russian shelf,
which could hold 733 billion barrels of oil equivalent (BOE)
of resources, in exchange for the capital and expertise to
develop the fields.
These promise to be beneficial partnerships for the oil
giant Rosneft. Thanks to legislation in 2008 that effectively
granted it and Gazprom exclusive rights to the RCS, the two
firms have been sitting on licenses that could be rich with
hydrocarbon potential.
However, due to the high costs of exploration and produc-
tion, as well as the specialized knowhow needed to operate
offshore — a relatively new area of operations for both com-
panies — they have been slow to develop the RCS.
In recent months, both firms have been under increas-
ing pressure from political figures such as Prime Minister
Dmitry Medvedev and Natural Resources and Environment
Minister Sergei Donskoy to speed development of the RCS
or risk a forfeit of their licenses. CT2
 It’s all in
the name...

A proud past leads to a new future

They may display a proud old name on the outside,
but the driving force within the world’s best-engineered,
most efficient, pipeline gas compressors is Rolls-Royce.
The heritage name, Cooper-Bessemer, still carried by older
machines, echoes the engineering excellence that has
earned Rolls-Royce an unparalleled reputation for quality.
Today, in a business where productivity and dependability
mean so much, the unsurpassed engineering experience
of the past makes Rolls-Royce the compressor name
of the future. Trusted to deliver excellence

Cooper-Bessemer is a registered trade name of Cameron Corporation, used under license by Rolls-Royce plc

www.rolls-royce.com
 Meetings & Events
For a complete listing of upcoming events, please visit our website at www.compressortech2.com

APRIL April 16-17 May 14-16

April 7-10
*Gas Processors Association
Annual Convention — San Antonio
Tel: +1 (918) 493-3872
Web: www.gpaglobal.org
April 10-11
*Turkish International Oil & Gas
Conference 2013 — Ankara, Turkey
Tel: +44 207 596 5147
Web: www.turoge.com
April 15
*Gas Compressor Association
Expo & Conference —
Galveston, Texas
Tel: +1 (972) 518-0019
Web: www.gascompressor.org
April 15-17
North Africa Technical Conference
& Exhibition — Cairo
Tel: +971 4 390 3540
Web: www.spe.org/events/natc
*Gas Compressor Institute —
Liberal, Kansas
Tel: +1 (620) 417-1171
Web: www.gascompressor.info
April 29-May 3
*Gulf South Rotating Machinery
Symposium — Baton Rouge,
Louisiana
Tel: +1 (225) 578-4853
Web: www.gsrms.org
MAY
May 1-4
Baghdad International Oil & Gas
Conference and Exhibition — Baghdad
Tel: +90 212 356 00 56
Web: www.baghdadoilgas.com
May 6-9
*Offshore Technology Conference
— Houston
Tel: +1 (972) 952-9494
Web: www.otcnet.org
*Eastern Gas Compression
Roundtable —
Moon Township, Pennsylvania
Tel: +1 (412) 372-4301
Web: www.egcr.org
May 14-16
*Sensor+Test — Nuremberg, Germany
Tel: +49 5033 9639-0
Web: www.sensor-test.de
May 14-16
Uzbekistan International Oil & Gas
Exhibition — Tashkent, Uzbekistan
Tel: +44 207 596 5233
Web: www.oguzbekistan.com/2013
JUNE
June 3-7
*ASME Turbo Expo — San Antonio
Tel: +1 (404) 847-0072
Web: www.asmeconferences.org/
TE2013
June 4-6
*Power-Gen Europe — Vienna

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*Indicates shows and ­conferences in which Compressortech2 is participating

Tel: +44 1992 656 617 september Sept. 30-Oct. 3

Web: www.powergeneurope.com Sept. 17-19 *Turbomachinery Symposium —
*Gas Compressor Conference — Houston
June 4-6 Norman, Oklahoma Tel: +1 (979) 845-7417
Sensors Expo & Conference — Web: http://turbolab.tamu.edu
Tel: +1 (405) 325-3891
Rosemont, Illinois
Web: www.engr.outreach.ou.edu/
Tel: +1 (617) 219-8375 Oct. 1
Web: www.sensorsmag.com/ gascompressor
Pittsburgh Chemical Day — Pittsburgh
sensors-expo Tel: +1 (855) 807-9814
Sept. 18-20 Web: www.pittchemday.com
June 4-7 *Wyoming Natural Gas Fair —
Caspian Oil & Gas 2013 — Jackson, Wyoming Oct. 2-4
Baku, Azerbaijan Tel: +1 (307) 234-7147 *Power-Gen Asia — Bangkok
Tel: +44 207 596 5000 Web: www.wyogasfair.org Tel: +1 (918) 835-3161
Web: www.caspianoil-gas.com Web: www.powergenasia.com
Sept. 25-26
June 5-6 ChemInnovations Conference & Expo Oct. 6-9
Energy Exposition — Gas Machinery Conference —
— Galveston, Texas
Gillette, Wyoming Albuquerque, New Mexico
Tel: +1 (713) 343-1884
Tel: +1 (307) 234-1868 Tel: +1 (972) 620-4026
Web: www.energyexposition.com Web: www.cpievent.com Web: www.gmrc.org

June 11-13 Sept. 30-Oct. 3 Oct. 7-10

Calgary Oil & Gas Expo — *International Pump Users Argentina Oil & Gas Expo —
Calgary, Canada Symposium — Houston Buenos Aires, Argentina
Tel: +1 (403) 209-3555 Tel: +1 (979) 845-2924 Tel: +54 11 4322 57
Web: www.gasandoilexpo.com Web: http://turbolab.tamu.edu Web: www.aog.com.ar

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About The Business
Compression Industry Reports
Strong 2012 Business Despite
By Norm shade Low Gas Prices > More-or-less flat outlook sends
small, regional players search-
C
ompression fabrication and contract services compa-
nies reported strong results for 2012 even though natu-
ral gas prices were subdued.
Enerflex recorded sales 22% higher than in 2011 due to
strong activity in the southern United States, South America,
and other international segments. Cameron Process & Com-
pression reported revenues were 21% higher, led by strong
process equipment sales. Dresser-Rand’s new-unit sales in-
creased 20%.
USA Compression Partners, which closed its IPO in Janu-
ary 2013, had record 20% higher revenues. Exterran Holdings’s
revenues were 17% higher for the quarter and 7% for the year,
with growth in all business sectors, but especially in fabrication.
Compressco Partners increased its revenues 23% due to strong
international growth, primarily in Mexico. UE Compression, which
opened a facility in Denver to handle larger packages, reported re-
cord packaging sales in 2012. And SEC Energy enjoyed its highest
volume since 2008.
Nevertheless, tepid economies and low gas prices limited results
for a number of companies. Caterpillar’s Power Systems group re-
ported sales 6% lower in the fourth quarter of 2012, with soften-
ing in all geographic regions except Asia Pacific. Cat noted that
dealers are not building inventory like they did at the end of 2011.
Rolls-Royce Energy revenues decreased 11% due to the delay of
several large international projects. Small regional packagers, such
as Abby Services in the U.S., and Compass and Sage in Canada,
reported slower activity. That sent them searching for more interna-
tional business and new markets, such as vapor recovery.
Exterran reduced its contract compression fleet (the industry’s
largest) by another 3% to 4,461,000 hp (3326 MW), but grew oper-
ating horsepower by 3% to 3,907,000 hp (2913 MW) as utilization
improved to 84%, nearer the industry average. International growth
rates were strongest.
USA Compression’s fleet grew 27% during the year to
919,211 hp (685 MW), although utilization fell from 95.7% to
92.8%. Compressco reported 3149 compressor units in ser-
vice, up 8%, with growth focused on Latin American, European
Norm Shade is president of ACI Services Inc. of Cambridge, Ohio.
A 43-year veteran of the gas compression industry, he has written
numerous papers and is active in the major industry associations.
APRIL 2013 12 Compressortech2
ing for new markets
and Asia Pacific markets, as well as unconventional applica-
tions supporting associated gas from liquids production, vapor
recovery and casing gas systems.
Year-end backlogs and order rates were mixed. Dresser-Rand
reported record new-unit orders, a gain of 9%, driven by stronger
worldwide energy infrastructure markets, especially oil produc-
tion and gas transmission. D-R’s year-end unit backlog was 14%
higher than 2011, and new unit orders are forecast to increase
another 10 to 20% in 2013.
Exterran’s compression fabrication backlog was up 11%
from the third quarter and 3% from year-end 2011. Manage-
ment reported the highest profitability in more than three
years, and expects further progress in 2013, mostly in the
second half of the year.
Caterpillar and Ariel projected 2013 volumes would match
2012 levels. SEC Energy reported a six-month backlog with a
full shop and a large expansion of its Houston plant and offices
near completion. Cameron’s process and compression equip-
ment orders and backlog declined 2% and 4%, respectively.
Rolls-Royce Energy, dependent almost entirely on internation-
al markets, reported orders down 9% due to delays of several
large projects.
Enerflex’s backlog decreased 31%, with orders slowing in all
areas due to lower gas prices, but especially in Canada and the
northern U.S. The decrease was also affected by a large Omani
gas processing plant that had been included in 2011 bookings.
The company expects continued softness during the first half
of 2013, but is optimistic about opportunities in the southern
U.S., South America and other international markets. Enerflex
doubled its Houston fabrication facility in 2012 to serve demand
in those markets.
Low gas prices sent many small, regional fabricators and con-
tract compression fleets searching for business in new markets.
For example, Bidell, Compass, Sage and Abby all reported their
2012 fabrication backlogs were down from 2011. Dearing Com-
pression, positioned uniquely in the Marcellus and Utica Shale
plays, was an exception.
Niche companies, such as Cobey and ANGI Energy Systems,
are benefiting from strong growth in natural gas vehicle refueling
infrastructure. Vapor recovery compression is also growing as op-
erators try to reduce fugitive emissions. CT2
lube field services The CPI lubrication group field service teams have the advantage of
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 Meltdown Looms For
Europe’s Carbon Trading
Monitoring Program > Approval for a ‘backloading’
fix won’t come easily
Government
E
urope’s greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme is
near collapse, presenting the European Union with
some tough choices.
The Emissions Trading System (ETS) was the first, and is
by far the largest, international framework for trading green-
house gas emissions allowances.
The fate of the ETS will be closely monitored in the
United States. President Barack Obama is pressing Con-
gress for global warming legislation and most plans to
reduce greenhouse emissions include cap-and-trade pro-
grams like the ETS.
Compressor manufacturers also should be watching with
interest. They would like to see market growth for compres-
sors used in CO2 injection/sequestration projects.
The EU launched the ETS in 2005. It affects nearly half
of all CO2 emissions in the 27 EU member nations, plus
Croatia, Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway.
Working from a 2005 baseline, the program’s goal is to
cut emissions from targeted industrial sectors 21% by 2020.
EU nations have allocated free carbon permits to 11,000
industrial firms and power plants.
An allowance permits a facility to emit 1 tonne of CO2 or
its carbon equivalent. Companies can sell any permits that
they don’t need. The limit on the total number of allowances
available theoretically ensures that they have a value.
The paper-trading system is a good idea — on paper. The
market mechanism should allow polluters to either invest in
emissions controls or purchase allowances from companies
who don’t need them, whichever makes economic sense.
But cap-and-trade systems work best when demand
for allowances is brisk. That’s not been the case recently
in Europe, where industrial activity still is recovering from
the economic slowdown. In particular, demand for electric
power has dropped and generating plants are the major
sources of CO2 emissions.
Since 2009, the supply of ETS allowances has consis-
tently surpassed demand — building to a surplus of about 2
billion tonnes — and thus the price of traded carbon credits
has trended downwards.
Earlier this year, the price of credits slipped to a low of
€2.80 (US$3.75) for each tonne allowance of CO2. That
was down from €9 in 2012 and €30 in 2008.
APRIL 2013 14 Compressortech2
BY Patrick Crow
In late February, the imminent collapse of the ETS forced
the EU’s Committee on Environment, Public Health and
Food Safety to draft a bailout plan. To tighten the market,
it proposed “backloading” future allowances: deferring the
issuance of 900 million tonnes of carbon permits that were
due to be auctioned from 2013 to 2015. That would be
about a fourth of the planned offering.
“The environment committee has sent a clear signal in
favor of a strong and healthy emissions trading system,”
Committee Chairman Matthias Groote said. “A stronger
carbon price will help catalyze Europe’s transition towards
a low-carbon economy.”
That bailout plan now must be approved by the European
Commission, which represents all of the governments of
EU member states, and the European Parliament. Their ap-
provals may not come easily or may not come at all.
Some members of Parliament oppose “backloading” be-
cause the temporary fix threatens to swamp the market when
the deferred permits are ultimately issued in 2019 and 2020.
In the European Commission, nations that benefit from
the current low carbon prices will argue against changing
the trading program. In the forefront will be Poland, a major
consumer of coal, which is the fuel that generates the most
carbon emissions.
The European Association for Coal and Lignite has com-
plained to the EU that “backloading” not only is contrary to
the founding principles of the ETS, but also would make the
program “a scheme subject to political manipulation.”
Environmental groups are divided. Some say the ETS
needs permanent structural reforms to be viable. Others
argue that the ETS should be scrapped and replaced with
tougher mandates to reduce pollution. They do agree that
the abundance of cheap permits has removed any incentive
for polluting firms to cut their emissions.
The EU might consider some alternatives to “backload-
ing” but all of them are at least as controversial. It could
reduce the 2020 target, permanently remove a large
block of allowances, increase the annual emissions cuts,
bring more industries into the program, or set a floor
price for the allowances.
Only one thing is clear. If the EU does nothing, ETS car-
bon prices will dip toward zero. CT2
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 Compressor Efficiency Drops With Black
Powder Build-Up > Preventative, restorative measures
can minimize iron sulfide, iron oxide
n This compressor suction valve was fouled by black powder.
T
he formation of black powder
— a chemical reaction of hy-
drogen sulfide (H2S), water and
iron — is a problem for compressors
that can escalate if preventative and
removal actions are not taken.
Black powder is a common chal-
lenge that spans all phases of the
Fred Mueller is president of Mueller Envi-
ronmental Designs Inc., Houston. Mueller
worked for several years in engineering,
operations, service and sales, incorporat-
ing his company in 1991. He holds a patent
for a helical coil separator used to remove
black powder from pipelines. E-mail him at
F.Mueller@Muellerenvironmental.com.
APRIL 2013 16 Compressortech2
contamination
natural gas industry from the wellhead
to the burner tip. Its removal is nec-
essary to improve or maintain opera-
tional efficiency and safety.
This paper assimilates information
from several sources and provides ex-
periences from operator’s perspective
on the difficulties that foreign materi-
als in the gas stream pose for produc-
tion, gathering, processing and pipe-
line transportation.
Typical contaminants in the gas
stream are water, glycol, amine,
methanol, compressor lubricating
oils, salts, chlorides, liquid hydrocar-
bons, sand, dirt, production stimula-
tors and black powder.
By Fred Mueller
Of those, black powder is the most
troublesome. Black powder contami-
nation manifests itself through re-
duced pipeline efficiency, clogged
instrumentation, fouled measurement
equipment and valves that cannot op-
erate due to an accumulation of debris.
It can clog compressor valves, com-
pressor cylinders, compressor pistons,
and filter/separators.
Additionally, black powder can af-
fect pipeline integrity programs that
rely on magnetic flux leakage inspec-
tion and geometry tools due to debris-
induced, liftoff of sensors. Sometimes
the contamination is dry and powdery.
At other times it is wet or has a tar-like
appearance. Black powder is not just
a corrosion issue; it is produced in the
gas stream from chemical reactions
or from microbial activity.
Black power can be an expensive
problem. One pipeline has stated that it
spends US$5.2 million a year in direct
costs associated with black powder re-
moval. A single compressor station that
has had a filter/separator compromised
due to filter collapse can have remedia-
tion costs of more than US$400,000.
Other expenses would include fil-
ter element replacement, solid waste
volume disposal of filter elements,
increased horsepower to pump the
same throughput, compressor valve
replacements and substitution or re-
pair of fouled instrumentation.
Chemistry
As stated earlier, black powder is
formed through the chemical reaction
of H2S, water and iron in a pipe. The
major components of these reactions
are iron sulfide (Fe + S) and iron oxide
(Fe + O). The resulting compounds
continued on page 18
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 n This orifice plate also shows black powder fouling.
mous surface area-to-volume ratio.
Subsequently, when exposed to air, it
is oxidized back to iron oxide and ei-
ther free sulfur or SO2 gas is formed.
This reaction between iron sulfide
and oxygen is accompanied by the gen-
eration of considerable amount of heat.
In fact, so much heat is released that in-
dividual particles of iron sulfide become
incandescent. This rapid exothermic
oxidation with incandescence is known
as pyrophoric oxidation and it can ignite
flammable hydrocarbon-air mixtures.
Iron sulfide in the chemical forms of
mackinawite, smythite and greigite are
typical indicators of microbial activ-
ity in the gas pipeline. Additionally, the
confirmation of sulfate-reducing bacte-
ria (SRB) and acid-producing bacteria
(APB) in the pipeline is a positive indi-
cation that microbial corrosion exists.
The SRB microbes Clostridium and
Desulfovibrio desulfuricans consume
sulfates and produce H2S. While APB
are black in appearance, therefore the ferric sulfide, smythite and greigite. Of microbes do not produce H2S, they
term black powder. these forms of iron sulfide, pyrrhotite supply nutrients and provide hospi-
exhibits pyrophoric tendencies. table environments for SRB to grow.
H2S + Fe g FeS + H2 Pyrophoric iron sulfide oxidizes
Iron sulfide exothermally when exposed to air. It is Reducing black powder
formed in the gas stream where H2S Regardless of the origin of H2S in the
2H + Fe g Fe2+ + H2 exceeds the concentration of oxygen. continued on page 20
Iron oxide As stated, due to the submicron par-
ticle size of iron sulfide, it has an enor-
Iron sulfide and iron oxide particles,
whether wet or dry, are extremely
small. Laboratory analysis of both wet
and dry samples indicates a range 0.2
< particle diameter < 4 µ, with more
than 81.6% of the particle sample
being less than 1 µ with the greatest
concentration of that particle range
being 0.2 < particle diameter < 0.4 µ.
Subsequently, dry black powder has a
smoke-like appearance.
Wet black powder may exhibit as
clumps, but when it is subjected to high
velocity or impinges upon hard sur-
faces, it may shear into smaller submi-
cron particles. When black powder is in
suspension as a liquid, it presents the
same characteristics as when dry. Typi-
cal density for iron sulfide and iron oxide
are 151 lb./cu.ft. (1.9 kg/m3) and 355 lb./
cu.ft. (4.6 kg/m3), respectively.
The common chemical forms of
iron sulfide include pyrrhotite, troilite, n There are many forms of black powder.
mackinawite, pyrite and marcasite,

APRIL 2013 18 Compressortech2

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n This pig run removed a pile of moist black powder.
gas stream, a concentration of 1 ppm
and a throughput of 500 MMscfd (14 x
106 m3/d) potentially could produce as
much as 3600 lb. (1630 kg) of black
powder in a month.
Operators who can minimize the
introduction of water and reduce the
H2S content in their gas stream will
see a resulting reduction in black pow-
der formation.
Microbiologically influenced cor-
rosion cannot exist without water, so
water should be removed wherever it
is known to accumulate.
The best barrier to black powder
production is tariff enforcement. Un-
fortunately, even when some con-
stituents in the gas stream (such as
CO2, H2S, oxygen, water, and sulfur
compounds) meet the existing tariff
requirements of a few percent to a few
parts per million, they still can allow
significant corrosion.
The greatest impediment to black
powder formation is a conservative
tariff that limits H2S to 1 ppm, total
sulfur content of five grains per 100
scf, 5 lb. of water per MMscf, 1.4% by
volume of CO2 and 10 ppm of oxygen.
Removal methods
Under current technology, black pow-
der can be removed from gas pipelines
through chemical or physical means.
In the chemical process, water or
an oil-soluble chemical agent is inject-
APRIL 2013 20 Compressortech2
ed into the gas stream. The chemical
agent should be compatible with the
solids to be removed and is based
on pipeline operating parameters.
The important operating parameters
include the type of compressor, dew
point, and waste disposal plans.
In addition to operating parameters,
the nature of the deposit is critical. Hy-
drocarbon deposits comprised of waxes
and paraffin are easier to remove with
an oil-soluble chemical while salts are
easier to clean with an aqueous clean-
ing solution. It is important to remember
that when using a water-soluble chemi-
cal agent, the pipeline must be thor-
oughly dried after debris is removed.
Another important aspect of injecting
a chemical agent into the gas stream is
solvent compatibility. Solvents include
water and methanol for water-soluble
cleaners or diesel and hydrocarbon
condensate for oil-soluble cleaners.
An effective cleaning agent must form
either a stable dispersion or a complete
solution. A solution is clear or translu-
cent in appearance with no distinct
phases. A stable dispersion for pipeline
injection applications must remain in a
homogenous single phase for a mini-
mum of 72 hours to be effective. Should
the cleaning solvent separate from the
cleaning agent, its performance will be
significantly reduced.
Physical removal of black powder
is accomplished through pigging and
filtration/separation. In the pigging pro-
cess, a tool is inserted and pushed
through the pipeline using compression.
There are two methods of pigging:
dry and chemical. The cleaning action
of the pig is a function of brushes or
cups that scrape the pipe wall. The
scraping action loosens black powder
on the metal and pushes loose debris
ahead of it.
Four aspects of chemical pigging
are important for optimal cleaning
results: solids penetration, solids sus-
pension, mixture viscosity and mix-
ture separability.
Solids penetration is the ability of
the chemicals to break the surface
contact of debris and loosen it from
the pipe sidewall. After the debris is
loosened, it must be carried down the
pipe in suspension in large quantities.
The carrying capacity of the chemi-
cal agent and solvent is much greater
than the original density. Therefore,
the mixture viscosity is extremely im-
portant; it must not increase greatly in
viscosity or surface tension.
The final aspect, mixture separa-
bility, is the tendency of the debris to
separate into distinct phases in order
to facilitate disposal. Should an emul-
sion be present, the entire quantity of
material will require disposal.
Optimally, three phases will pres-
ent — oil, aqueous, and solids. This
will enable the capture of the cleaning
agent for a subsequent chemical pig-
ging project and the removal of solid
debris for reduced volume of hazard-
ous waste material.
Physical removal of black powder
also involves a filtration/separation
function that typically is installed up-
stream of a compressor station or
gas processing facility.
Multiple filters in parallel are placed
in the gas stream to capture and retain
solid particles. They must be suitable for
submicron particle retention and they
must be able to coalesce and pass liq-
uids for capture by the mist extraction
section of the filter/separator.
Most filter element designs are un-
able to perform both processes. A
primary problem with a filter element
that is designed to remove submicron
continued on page 22
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 particles is that it can become plugged
rapidly and require frequent changing.
If operating conditions do not allow
bypassing or shutdowns, the filter
element pressure differential may
become so great that the elements
collapse, compromising the filter/
separator completely.
Several manufacturers of helical
coil, swirl tube, and cyclone separat-
ing elements are working on technolo-
gies to address these issues.
Sampling
Testing of black powder in pipelines
and compressors is essential to de-
termine the chemical pigging and/or
cleaning process that will be required.
Analysis of the chemical constituents
and particulate sizes of pipeline debris
is needed for the selection of new filtra-
tion/separation equipment.
When samples are taken for test-
ing, they must be sealed immediately.
As soon as the debris sample is ex-
posed to atmosphere, it begins oxidiz-
ing and potentially forming magnetite
(Fe3O4). If that occurs, when the pipe-
line debris is sampled and analyzed,
it is often presumed that sulfides do
not exist and only pipeline corrosion
byproducts are present.
Type of analysis performed on the
debris should include full particle iden-
tification, bulk density, and particle size
and distribution. Minimum capabilities of
the laboratory should include:
• Polarized light microscopy,
• Epi-reflected light microscopy,
• Scanning electron microscopy,
• Energy-dispersive X-ray
spectrometry,
• X-ray diffraction,
• Attenuated total reflection-Fourier
infrared spectroscopy,
• IMIX image processing software,
• and ASTM D 854-98 standard test
methods for specific gravity of soils.
Conclusion
Pipeline and compressor operators
should take a two-pronged approach
to battling black powder.
They should minimize the content
of water and H2S in the pipeline, pref-
erably through effective tariffs that
restrict the foreign constituents of the
gas of the gas stream.
When necessary, operators should
use chemical processes and pigging
methods to remove black powder
build-up from gas pipelines.
References
Baldwin, R.M.: “Black powder in the
gas industry — sources, characteristics
and treatment,” Gas Machinery Re-
search Council (1997). See: www.gmrc.
org/technology-reports.html
Brownlee, J.K.; Dougherty, J.A.;
Salma, T.; and Hausler, R.H.: “Solv-
ing iron sulfide problems in an off-
shore gas gathering system,” Nace
International (2000).
Campbell, S.: “The ins and outs of
pipeline cleaners: testing and evalu-
ation for chemical cleaners,” Nace
International (2000).
BJ Services: “Improved black pow-
der removal.” See: www.bjservice.com
Sahdev, M.: “Pryophoric iron fires,”
Cheresources Online Chemical En-
gineering Information (1991). See:
www.cheresources.com. CT2

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By Lee Levisay

For A Compressor Lee Levisay is the sales manager for

The PROS Company in Lubbock,
Screw Compressor
Texas. He is a graduate of Texas
Preventative Maintenance A&M University.

Shown here are two compressor packages Gas Expands And

that include separators. There are four stages
for successful separation.
Slows In Velocity
The First Stage of Separation

A
screw compressor can be a very fickle piece of
equipment, or it can be your best piece of equipment
and make your operations very profitable. It all de-
pends on the proper fit for the application and the mainte-
nance program.
Screw compressors were not designed for the natural
gas industry. They have been adapted for the natural gas
industry from the industrial air and refrigeration industries,
where the compressor works in a clean, closed system. The Illustration by Kathy Buxkemper of PROS Co.
natural gas industry is totally opposite, utilizing an open-
ended system that will feed the compressor package what-
ever comes from the well. Operators must be ready for all
the different gases, liquids and trash that the well will throw
at the compressor.
To ensure that you have a successful screw compressor
you must first make sure the compressor package is de-
signed properly. The screw compressor package must be
designed to control three items for a successful and profit-
able piece of equipment — separation of the liquids from
the gases, the filtration system and the temperature of the
gas. There are as many separation system designs as there
are compressor packagers and manufacturers. Some work
better than others.
continued on page 26

APRIL 2013 24 Compressortech2

The separation of the liquids from the gases Gas Slows And
There are two separation systems on a typical natural Changes Direction

The Second Stage of Separation

gas screw compressor package — the gas suction separa-
tor from the well and the oil discharge system to separate
the gas and oil after the compression process. We will dis-
cuss both because they both have to be working properly
to insure success.
The majority of the liquids from the well should be sep-
arated prior to the gas stream coming to the compressor
package. Sometimes this is not the case for wellhead com-
pression systems. The gas suction separator should be de-
signed with the four stages of separation working properly;
this will ensure the minimum amount of liquid carryover to
the compressor. It does not matter if the system has a hori-

Illustration by Kathy Buxkemper of PROS Co.

zontal or vertical separator system as long as it is designed
correctly for the application.
The first stage of separation is to have the gas enter and
immediately hit an inlet deflector, which forces the gas to
expand, change direction and slow down in velocity. This
will drop out a lot of the heavier fluids. The second stage
is to have the gas change direction and continue to slow in
velocity. The third stage is to have a mist pad so the finer
droplets of liquid can collect and drop out. The fourth stage
is to have the gas stream run through a filtration system.

The filtration system

The filtration system removes any particulate matter from
the gas stream so as to not damage the screw compressor.
The suction filtration filters should have a minimum µ rating Gas Passes Through
of no larger than 10 to 20 µ, the smaller the better. If you
have iron oxide or coal dust in your system then it is recom-
Mist Pad
The Third Stage of Separation

mended no larger than 1 to 3 µ. If your filters keep getting

plugged up, that means they are working properly.
Filters are designed very differently and have maximum
differential pressure allowances. Be sure to check with your
filter supplier and never allow the differential pressure to ex-
ceed the maximum design for that filter. If it does exceed the
maximum, the filter could collapse and send particulate mat-
ter into your compressor to damage the rotors and bearings.
That is not good and normally will lead to excessive down-
time and a screw compressor rebuild or replacement. Filters
should be checked regularly for proper operation. Illustration by Kathy Buxkemper of PROS Co.
Once the gas passes through the separator and is head-
ed to the screw compressor it should be free of liquids and
particulate matter. This is not always the case with an open
ended natural gas application.

The temperature of the gas

This is where the gas analysis is required. The operating
temperature must be 10 to 20° above the highest dew point
in the gas stream. This will ensure that the gas variables
will stay in a vapor state and not liquefy. By keeping the gas
stream variables in vapor form, they will move out of the
system with the discharge gas. If any of the gas variables
liquefy and stay in the oil, they will dilute the oil and create
lubrication problems.
continued on page 28

APRIL 2013 26 Compressortech2

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 Prior to the gas stream entering the
screw compressor, it is mixed with the
oil. The oil serves multiple functions in
the screw compressor compression
process. It is the lubricant, sealant and
coolant. It will lubricate the bearings
and other moving parts. In the screw
compressor, there are very tight toler-
ances and the oil will act as the sealant
between moving parts to create a seal
for compression. As with any compres-
sion process, heat is created and the oil
will help disperse the heat and remove
it from the compression process to pre-
vent excess heating. If the compressor
has too much gap in the clearances be-
tween the rotors and housing from ex-
cessive wear or damage, the oil cannot
seal and there will be a loss in efficiency.
After the compression process, the
oil and gas must be separated so the
gas can be sent down line and the oil
can be reused. The oil must be kept
clean and free of foreign material,
whether it is liquid or particle, therefore
the importance of the discharge sepa-
ration system being designed properly
and well maintained. The discharge
system works similar to the suction gas
separation system with a more refined
change in the type of oil will also come
with a major change in the discharge
oil separation system.
Regularly scheduled oil analysis is
the key to maintaining consistent oil
throughout the life cycle of the oil. Oil
analysis is the method for determining
the useful life cycle of the oil and com-
pressor. By analyzing the components
in the oil you will be able to determine
problems before they become cata-
strophic events. Oil analysis will point
you in the direction where issues need
to be addressed, whether they are ex-
cessive liquids in the oil (separation
and temperature) or too much particu-
late matter (filtration). If there is a high
metallic flag on the analysis, this may
tell you that the compressor is getting
near the end of its life cycle, parts are
wearing out and that a rebuild or ex-
change needs to be scheduled.
Coalescing And
Filtration
The Fourth Stage of Separation
No well-balanced, preventative
maintenance program can be com-
plete without the incorporation of the
vibration analysis. Vibration analysis
can show the operator the existence
of an issue well before it becomes a
major problem.
In summary, a well-designed and
implemented preventative mainte-
nance program will incorporate oil
analysis, vibration analysis and con-
trol of the separation, filtration and
temperature of the screw compres-
sor system. These factors will allow
the operator to schedule downtime
for maintenance and equipment ex-
changes, eliminating the midnight call
alerting the operator to a catastrophic
event. When all this is done properly,
the screw compressor will become a
very dependable and profitable asset
for natural gas production. CT2

fourth stage of separation. On the dis-

charge separation system the filtration
is designed specifically for separating
the oil and gas. This is called a coalesc-
ing filtration system. The coalescing fil-
ter is designed for the separation of the
oil from the gas and will allow the oil to
return to the system. Coalescing filters
should not be rated for greater than 1 to
5 microns and should be checked reg-
ularly. In the opinion of the author, the
smaller the better. This will prevent ac-
Illustration by Kathy Buxkemper of PROS Co.

cumulation of particulate matter in the

oil and damaging bearings over time.
The oil is the “life fluid” of the screw
compressor package. Selection of the
right type of oil for your application
is very important. Please consult a
trusted oil supplier to get the right kind
of oil for your application. If the screw
compressor package is designed for
petroleum-based oil and a decision
is made to change to synthetic-based
oil, you could experience many prob-
lems, because the discharge sys-
tem was not designed for the lighter
synthetic oils. Be aware that a major

APRIL 2013 28 Compressortech2

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• Injection molding Carbon PEEK, PEEK, MT, Nylon and X-type material parts
• Precision CNC machining of thermoplastic valve plates
• Flat and profile thermoplastic rings with precision sealing surfaces
• Compression molding of Teflon® buttons for valves and lantern rings for pumps
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Valve Kits
• Major OEM Styles: Ariel, Hoerbiger, Dresser, Manley, GE/Gemini and others.
• Kits include all OEM Kit specified items in their correct quantities such as: plates/
rings, springs (coil or plate), buttons, lift washers, gaskets, O Rings, Spirol Pins and other
items as applicable.

Metallic Plates and Rings

• Valve plates, spring, damping, wafer and cushion plates
• High quality stainless steels: 420, 410, 300-Series and 17-7 PH (others per OEM
specification)
• NACE plates and springs available upon request

Thermoplastic Plates and Rings

• All makes and thicknesses of thermoplastic plates and rings up to 15” diameter
• Materials include: Nylon, MT, PEEK-Glass Filled, PEEK-Carbon Filled and KB Delta’s
version of the X-style materials: NYX, MTX, PKX, formulated to meet OEM standards for
X-style thermoplastics.
• Grade AA Thermoplastic Plates and Rings available upon request. Our Grade AA
precision sealing surface is designed to pass the most rigorous leak tests required by
refineries and process gas applications, eliminating the need for on-site lapping.

Profile Rings
• KB Delta machines precision radius and other profile rings; specializing in Manley and Hoerbiger-style profile rings, KB Delta
matches color and material specifications as well as all critical dimensions.

Springs
• KB Delta manufactures and stocks springs for every major OEM valve type
• Spring Shapes/Styles: Conical, Cylindrical, Barrel, Hourglass, and Special Spring Shapes
• Dresser-Rand style springs (with and without nylon button inserts)
• Wire Shape Types: Round, Flat, Oval, and Special Shapes
• Material Types: Stainless Steel (17-7 PH, 302, 304, 316, ), Music Wire, Inconel (600, X-750, 718), Nimonic 90, Hastelloy (C-
276, C-4), Elgiloy (Phynox), MP35N, Waspaloy, Monel 400, Titanium Gr.5/ 6Al4V, Phosphor Bronze, Beryllium Copper, and all others
per OEM or customer spec.

Poppets
• KB Delta manufactures and stocks common Peek and Nylon poppets. Sealing surfaces are precision machined and each poppet
is inspected for proper spring deflection and sealing.

Buttons, Nubs and Inserts

• Buttons and nubs are compression molded, injection molded and precision-machined.
• Styles: Buttons, Wear Nubs, Valve Strip Wear Inserts, Guides, Stem Guides, Inserts
• Materials: Stainless Steel, Teflon, Peek, Nylon, Moly, Carbon

KB Delta Inc. is an aftermarket supplier of compressor valve parts. KB Delta makes no representation that the parts we
manufacture are OEM parts, however to our best knowledge, OEM specifications are adhered to on all of the parts we
manufacture.
 TECH

corner
A Review Of Reciprocating
Compressor Crosshead
Pin Nonreversals > Operators should be alert to
risky operating conditions
By Dwayne A. Hickman

M
any operators of reciprocating compressors are
very familiar with safety issues related to unit per-
formance, such as high pressures and high tem-
peratures, as these are fairly straightforward to conceptual-
ize and even measure in real time. Other issues, such as
low-volumetric efficiencies and static gas force rod loads,
can be readily explained and operators are often provided
a clear method, like a maximum differential pressure or a
maximum compression ratio, to help them identify safe from
potentially unsafe conditions.
Other issues, like calculating rod loads based on internal
gas pressures and inertia forces, or determining when a unit
is operating in pin nonreversal conditions, can be nonintui-
tive and complex. These issues become especially cumber-
some to manage when dealing with higher-speed units due
to their potential for operating over a very wide speed range.
For example, if a high-speed unit is rated at 1200 rpm, its
driver may be able to vary speed to the compressor across
a range of 900 to 1200 rpm. Within that range, 900 to 1075
rpm may be safe, from 1075 to 1100 rpm may be unsafe
as determined by the OEM, and from 1100 to 1200 rpm
may be safe again. Thus, even if your OEM or packager
had checked high (1200 rpm), medium (1050 rpm), and low
(900 rpm) speeds, they would have not identified the subset
of unsafe speeds. The only way to get from 900 to 1200 rpm
is to traverse through the 1075 to 1100
rpm range.
The fundamental mechanical issue
related to pin nonreversal is ultimately
just a lubrication issue. That is, proper
lubrication of the pin that connects the
connecting rod to the crosshead as-
sembly so that the rotating motion of the
crankshaft can be converted to linear motion of the piston.
While the pin may appear to fit snugly, it must have some
clearance around it so that lubrication oil can prevent metal
to metal rubbing, and hence excess friction and the result-
ing undesirable extreme temperatures to 300°, 500°, 700°F
(149°, 260°, 371°C) and beyond. Repair costs can be minor
(downtime to replace bushings and/or crosshead shoes) to
daunting (extended downtime, new rods, new crossheads,
new cylinder liners, and new crankshafts). Damage-related
costs due to crosshead failures could exceed US$1 mil-
lion per unit. Therefore, safety and good business practices
would suggest that reciprocating compressor controls in-
clude the ability to keep a unit out of potential areas where
pin nonreversals may occur.
Pin reversal calculations and concepts can quickly be-
come complex, but the basic thing to keep in mind is that
the clearance between the pin and the connecting rod (Fig-
ures 1, 1A) changes sides as the piston moves out from
the frame, stops, and then moves back towards the frame.
If the side with the clearance does not change (Figure 2),
then little to no lubrication fluid can be introduced between
the two metal parts. And when metal rubs against metal, the
resulting friction forces will lead to increased temperatures
extremely fast.
continued on page 34

Dwayne A. Hickman serves as director of

Software Development with ACI Services
Inc. He taught university math and com-
puter science courses for 13 years, and
has been in the reciprocating compressor n Figure 1. The clearance gap between pin and connecting rod switches sides when the
industry for the last 15 years. piston changes direction.

April 2013 32 Compressortech2

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n Figure 1A. This cutaway shows the crosshead pin referenced in
Figures 1 and 2.
n Figure 2. The clearance gap does not switch sides when piston
changes direction.
OEMs typically specify at least two constraints when set-
ting safety limits based on pin reversals. First, each throw
must have a sufficient number of degrees of pin reversal.
The second constraint is that opposite forces (compression
vs. tension) must be sufficient to ensure that when operat-
ing in the face of real-world phenomenon like pulsations,
dynamic pressure drops and valve wear, the predicted
amount of pin reversal should be realized.
• API618 section 6.6.4 states that the minimum degrees
of pin reversal range from 15° to 45°, depending on
bushing designs. Most OEMs require at least 30°, and
some require at least 60°.
• API618 section 6.6.4 also states that during one crank-
shaft revolution, at least 3% magnitude is required of
opposing forces, and as high as 20% magnitude de-
pending of bushing design. Most OEMs require at least
15%, and some require as high as 25%.
When calculating the degrees of pin reversal, the internal
dynamic gas pressures are applied to the outside piston
faces exposed within the head end and crank end portions
of the cylinder. These results are then applied when deter-
mining the effective gas forces acting on the pin via the pis-
ton rod (e.g. blue curve shown in Figure 3). Additionally, the
weights of the piston and rod assembly plus the crosshead
assembly contribute inertia forces acting on the same pin
(e.g. magenta curve shown in Figure 3). Those two forces
are combined to give the net forces acting on the pin (e.g.
black curve shown in Figure 3).
April 2013 34 Compressortech2
When forces act in the direction that stretches the rod,
they are called tension forces, while forces acting to com-
press the rod are called compression forces. To have any
degrees of pin reversal during a complete revolution, the
forces on the pin must reverse at least once between com-
pression and tension. This always happens when only the
inertia forces are considered (magenta curve in Figure 4).
However, since the cylinder is usually sealed and com-
pressing gas, the internal gas forces can make a good situ-
ation better, or a good situation bad.
n Figure 3. This chart displays 170° of pin reversal, with max tension
about 56% of max compression. All forces are within their limits (green
lines). This throw’s pin loading forces indicate safe operation here.
n Figure 4. This chart shows about 40° of reversal, but only about
3% opposite forces. Most OEMs would identify this as a condition
where unit operations are not permitted.
For the engineers and programmers, inertia forces are
readily calculated by the following equation:
Here, U represents the degree of crank angle and WRE-
CIP is the sum of the combined weight of the piston and
rod assembly and the crosshead assembly for the throw
being considered. (Note: No portion of the connection rod
weight is included in these calculations — those additional
weights get used in other calculations such as torsional
forces. Equation also omits unbalanced rotating weights.
Units used are inches and pounds.)
Additionally, Internal Gas Forces are based on the equation:
The sum (∑) is across all cylinders on the throw being
considered (e.g. in cases were tandem cylinders are used).
The head end (HE) and crank end (CE) pressures are in
continued on page 36
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gage pressure units, not in absolute pressure units. Crank-
case and tailrod catcher (when present) assumed to be at
atmospheric pressure.
Actual prediction of specific head end and crank end in-
ternal pressures (PressHE(u) and PressCE (u)) during the
compression cycle depend on current line pressures, gas
temperatures, unit geometry, valves, pressure drops, gas
being compressed, unit operating speed, and a few other
items. OEMs develop their own unique approach for mod-
eling these internal pressures, albeit most are very simi-
lar. Figure 5 and 6 show some typical internal pressures
(known as pressure-volume and pressure-time diagrams).
The compression (suction to discharge) and expansion
(discharge to suction) sections follow the thermodynamic
rules for the gas being compressed, are exponential, and
tend to be very consistent across the OEMs. The discharge
and suction valve open events tend to vary a bit more be-
tween OEMs (based on valve designs, passageways, valve
porting, liner restrictions, piston masking).
n Figure 5. PV diagram: blue = head end pressures, magenta =
crank end pressures.
n Figure 6. PT diagram: blue = head end pressures, magenta =
crank end pressures.
Since the results from both equations are required to de-
termine the effective forces at the crosshead pin, whenever
any condition of the unit changes (suction pressure, dis-
charge pressure, suction gas temperature, speed or load
step) these forces must be recalculated. API Standard 618,
Fifth Edition (2007) section 6.6.3, requires checking these in
at most 5° increments. If we had a six-throw unit, we would
April 2013 36 Compressortech2
need to calculate 12 PV diagrams (two ends per cylinder,
one cylinder per throw) and then six throws of inertia data.
Also, all load steps should be calculated so that the PLC
knows which ones are safe and which ones are unsafe.
Convolute this with the thermodynamic modeling needed
for the gas pressure calculations and you can potentially
slow down even a fast desktop PC. And as for PLCs, the
slowdown would be completely unacceptable. Most PLCs
do not consider pin nonreversal issues as they control the
unit. And this omission is not good.
Fortunately, pin nonreversal issues are not that common,
especially when the packager or OEM size the compressor
frame and cylinders to best meet your operating require-
ments. In general, pin nonreversals tend to happen when a
crank end is deactivated or significantly unloaded via added
clearance volume, or when tandem cylinders are used and
one of the tandem cylinders is double acting, or when small-
bore, high-pressure cylinders are used.
Unfortunately, because high-speed units typically allow for
more significant speed turndown, high-speed units are poten-
tially more susceptible to pin nonreversals. Also, due to industry
changes in lubrication fluids to meet environmental needs,
some slow-speed units that survived running units near or at
pin nonreversal areas in the past may now have problems. Fi-
nally, the number of degrees of pin reversals can change quick-
ly with pressures changes and speed changes (Figure 7).
n Figure 7. Degrees of pin reversal can fall quickly — shown above
falling from 180° down to about 40° when suction pressure varies
only about 50 psig (3.4 bar) in some areas.
Thus, severe compressor-based dangers can lurk quietly
and then suddenly wreck a unit with little warning. Coding
these unsafe areas into a PLC can be a challenge since
prediction of unsafe areas is nontrivial (Figure 8). Fortunate-
ly, there are some reasonable options available for dealing
with potential pin nonreversal concerns: real-time online
measuring systems, and preventative performance control.
One option is to install real-time internal pressure sensors.
Once calibrated, correctly installed and programmed to each
throw’s appropriate reciprocating weights, these devices
continued on page 38
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Compressors–Turbo & Recip / Steam Turbines / Gas Turbines / Engines / Control Systems / Expanders
can alarm and/or trigger a shutdown whenever internal cyl- happen. By preventing the unit from even operating in or near
inder conditions approach desired limits of safety. In fact, areas of concern, the probability of a pin nonreversal incident
even if something else, such as a broken valve, creates pin is minimized, with risks also significantly reduced.
nonreversal issues, these real-time systems can often react
fast enough to prevent serious unit harm. For compressors
running near areas of pin nonreversals, or for units where a
review has indicated that damaged valves can quickly put a
unit in pin nonreversals, these real-time systems are ideal.
Another option is to actually prevent unit operations of a
healthy unit near or at conditions leading to pin nonreversals
by having the unit controller change load steps, adjust speed
or adjust pressures to avoid letting the unit damage itself.
OEM performance software determines safe and unsafe
areas based on hardware configuration (load step), speed,
pressures, temperatures, and gas thermodynamics. A con-
trol panel does not have the luxury of being able to run such
sophisticated calculations — if it was programmed to model
complex thermodynamics, then by the time it calculated the
results the unit might already be severely damaged. Howev-
er, those supplying the units or the performance can prere-
view millions of potential operating points across the defined
operating map and develop reasonable constraint equations n Figure 8. Unlike gas rod loads, discharge temperatures, and low
to prevent operations at undesired conditions. volumetric efficiencies, the predictability of where unsafe areas ex-
For packagers, operators, and owners concerned with the ist due to pin nonreversals is not a trivial task.
damages that pin nonreversals can cause, there are reason-
able options available to mitigate those concerns. Remember, Reference: A Discussion of the Various Loads Used to Rate
quantitative risk is defined as the probability that an accident Reciprocating Compressors, K.E. Atkins, Martin Hinchliff,
will happen multiplied by the expected loss if the accident does Bruce McCain. CT2

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The OEM service Repair Coordination Centers
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reciprocating
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literature
Altronic.indd 1 3/6/13 2:54 PM

Progressive
AC Drives Vertical Pumps Cavity Pumps Mag-Drive Pumps

Toshiba Mitsubishi-Electric
Industrial Systems Corp.
has literature on its TM-
drive MVG, a medium-volt-
age, variable-frequency AC
drive for industrial power
ratings up to 10 MW. The
drive works with existing or
new induction or synchro-
nous motors.
www.tmeic.com
Afton Pumps has printed
literature on its model MPV
pumps, which are medium-
pressure vertical pumps
that combine a diffusor
bowl assembly and a steel
outer case. The literature
includes technical data and
construction details of the
pump model.
www.afton-pumps.com
Netzsch has released a
capability brochure, which
highlights the company’s
products, technology and
application areas. The com-
pany manufactures a range
of pumps, such as progress-
ing cavity pumps, immers-
ible pumps, and rotary lobe
pumps, as well as joints and
other accessories.
www.netzsch.com
Warrender Ltd. has pub-
lished a brochure on its
mag-drive pump range.
That pump range includes
compact horizontal, process
horizontal, vertical sump,
horizontal molded thermo-
plastic, vertical sump ma-
chined thermoplastic, and
multistage cast. The compa-
ny also offers replacement
spare kits and components.
www.warrender.com

APRIL 2013 40 Compressortech2

 literature
Altronic.indd 2
Centrifugal Pumps
CPC Pumps International
has released a brochure on
its capabilities. The company
offers pump designs and
pump products to serve the
hydrocarbon industry. The
brochure provides informa-
tion on the company’s pump
models, which include the
Model HR/HOR, VP-B, VP-
C, VP-M, HDR, H2R and HM.
www.cpcpumps.com
APRIL 2013 41 Compressortech2
Suction Pumps
SPP Pumps has published
literature on its pump range.
The company offers end
suction pumps, horizontal
split-case pumps, verti-
cal inline pumps, split-case
pumps, and single and multi-
stage pumps. SPP Pumps
has locations worldwide.
www.spppumpsusa.com
Rotary Lobe Pumps
Boerger has a brochure on
its rotary lobe pumps. The
company has six rotary
lobe pump series with 19
sizes, as well as a wide se-
lection of rotors, including
dual-lobe and tri-lobe vari-
ations. A glossary of pump
terms and a pump output
chart is included.
www.boerger.com
3/6/13 2:54 PM
Vacuum Pump
Systems
Dekker Vacuum Technolo-
gies provides oil-sealed liq-
uid ring vacuum pump sys-
tems. A brochure reveals
the company’s capabilities,
as well as its pumps and
systems. Dekker also offers
spare parts and accesso-
ries, and repair and mainte-
nance services.
www.dekkervacuum.com
Mexico’s Growing
Thirst > Rise in Mexican gas consumption bodes well for U.S. By Brent Haight

T
he Energy Information Adminis-
tration (EIA) released its Short
Term Energy Outlook in March.
The report highlights a rise in natu-
ral gas consumption in Mexico which
is great news for its closest neighbor,
which currently sits atop a glut of gas.
According to EIA’s report, U.S. nat-
ural gas exports to Mexico grew by
24% to 1.69 Bcfd (47.8 x 106 m3/d) in
2012, the highest level since the data

Source: EIA
collection began in 1973. With imports
now accounting for over 30% of its to-
tal supply, Mexico’s natural gas use is
also at its highest level ever.
Natural gas consumption is ris-
ing faster in Mexico than natural gas
production, and as a result, Mexico
is relying more on natural gas im-
ports from the United States. Be-
tween 2007 and 2011, natural gas
consumption in Mexico rose 4% per
year on average, while average an-
nual natural gas production climbed
only 1.2%. Growing demand in the
industrial sector drove the increases

in natural gas consumption in Mexi-
co to a record-high level in 2011, ac-
cording to Petróleos Mexicanos (PE-
MEX) — the state-run oil and natural
gas producer in Mexico.
The EIA report shows that pipeline
shipments from Texas to Mexico be-
tween 2009 and 2012 rose 34% on
average per year to 1.3 Bcfd (36.8 x
106 m3/d), which was about 75% of the
U.S. natural gas exports to Mexico in
2012. Most of the U.S. exports to Mex-
ico departed the country from Hidalgo
County in southwest Texas, where the
supplies were likely coming from the
Eagle Ford play.
Several U.S. pipeline export proj-
ects that could support additional nat-
ural gas exports to Mexico have been
announced. According to company re-
leases, these projects are expected to
be completed by the end of 2014 and,
if they are all built, could add up to 3.5
Bcfd (99.1 8 x 106 m3/d) of additional
export capacity to Mexico, doubling
the existing capacity.
One such project was announced
in February. Houston-based NET
Midstream announced plans build a
124 mile (200 km) pipeline to trans-
port natural gas from the Eagle Ford
Shale region to the Mexican border.
The deal is anchored by a long-term
agreement to transport 2.1 Bcfd
(59.4 x 106 m3/d) with MGI Supply, a
subsidiary of Mexico’s state-owned
gas company. NET Midstream’s sub-
sidiary, NET Mexico Pipeline LP, will
build the 42 in. (106 cm) pipeline from
a hub in Agua Dulce in Nueces Coun-
ty to a point near Rio Grande City in
Starr County.
Source: EIA
Although Mexico has vast natural
gas reserves, it hasn’t been able to
develop them quickly enough to meet
the country’s consumption, which has
been climbing at four times the pace
of overall economic growth at times in
the past decade.
This additional capacity would
serve an expected increase in natu-
ral gas demand from Mexico’s elec-
tric power sector. Mexico plans to
add about 28 GW of new electric
generating capacity between 2012
and 2027, mostly in northern Mex-
ico, according to Comisión Federal
de Electricidad (CFE) — Mexico’s
state-run electricity provider. CFE
estimates that this could raise natu-
ral gas needs for power generation

APRIL 2013 42 Compressortech2


Source: EIA
by 5.1 Bcfd (144 x 106 m3/d). This
level of growth would likely require
increased natural gas imports from
the United States.
Looking at the difference between
demand and local production high-
lights the need for increased imports.
BP’s Statistical Review of World En-
ergy (June 2012) reported Mexico’s
demand for natural gas in 2011 av-
eraged 6.7 Bcfd (189 x 106 m3/d). In
2012 demand increased to 7.8 Bcfd
(220 x 106 m3/d) according to PEMEX
— largely driven by higher gas fired
power generation burn to meet the
country’s growing industrial sector’s
electricity needs.
By contrast, domestic natural
gas production has fallen in Mexico
since 2009 and it fell again by nearly
5% in 2012. This declining produc-
tion has come in spite of huge natu-
COMPRESSORS and SERVICES
- Reciprocating Compressors for Process Gases
- Centrifugal Compressors for Process Gases
- Compressor Parts
BORSIG ZM Compression GmbH
Seiferitzer Str. 26, D-08393 Meerane, Phone +49 (0) 3764 / 5390-0, Fax: +49 (0) 3764 / 5390-5092
E-Mail: info@zm.borsig.de
APRIL 2013 43 Compressortech2
Borsig.indd 1
ral gas reserves. The EIA estimates
that Mexico has 680 Tcf of natural
gas including the world’s fourth larg-
est reserves of shale gas.
EIA reports list Mexico as the world’s
seventh biggest oil producer. State-
owned PEMEX has a monopoly of all
Mexico’s exploration and production
and has prioritized oil over gas produc-
tion. Add to that the fact that PEMEX
also consumes up to 40% of natural
gas production for oil recovery in its
aging heavy oil fields — effectively re-
moving it from the market and reducing
available supplies — and we see why
Mexico’s natural gas imports are rising.
Before 2006, almost all of Mexico’s
natural gas imports came from the
United States. More recently, Mexico
has diversified its supply sources by
importing liquefied natural gas from
Nigeria, Qatar, Indonesia, Peru, and
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Yemen, although the vast majority
of its natural gas imports continue to
come from the United States.
The bulk of Mexico’s LNG imports
— over 90% in 2011 — arrive at the
Altamira plant in Tamaulipas state,
on Mexico’s northeastern coast. The
plant, which has a capacity of 500
MMcfd (14 x 106 m3/d), received its
first LNG cargo in August 2006. CFE,
the state-owned electricity monopoly,
has signed a 15-year contract to pur-
chase the entire volume of natural gas
received at the terminal.
Mexico has two operational LNG re-
gasification terminals besides Altamira.
The Costa Azul terminal near Ensena-
da, on Baja California, began receiving
LNG in 2008. It is operated by Sempra
Energy. The current send-out capacity
of the plant is about 1 Bcfd (28 x 106
m3/d). Most of the natural gas imported
at Costa Azul supplies domestic cus-
tomers in northwest Mexico.
A new LNG import terminal at the port
of Manzanillo, also on the Pacific coast,
reportedly began initial operations in
2012. However, Mexican government
data do not cite significant LNG flows
into Manzanillo as of September 2012.
According to industry reports, LNG sup-
plies for the Manzanillo plant will come
from Peru under a long-term contract.
The plant was built by a consortium of
Mitsui, Korea Gas Corp., and Samsung,
with an initial capacity of 500 MMcfd
(14 x 106 m3/d). CT2
3/12/13 10:32 AM
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Mecos Acquisition Opens Opportunities
For MAN > Swiss magnetic-bearing specialist will continue
independent operations
n This compressor end cover shows a Mecos radial active
magnetic bearing.
L
ittle has changed for the Swiss
magnetic bearing company
Mecos since MAN Diesel &
Turbo acquired it last May — except
for increased coordination with its
new owner.
COMPRESSORtech2 recently in-
terviewed Uwe Lauber, CEO of MAN
Diesel & Turbo Schweiz, of Zurich,
and Florian Lösch, CEO of Mecos, in
Winterthur, Switzerland.
Lauber said MAN’s strategic acqui-
sition of Mecos reflected its philoso-
phy of having in-house all of the key
components needed to further devel-
op its centrifugal compressors used in
the oil and gas industry.
He said future orders would be
APRIL 2013 46 Compressortech2
BY ROBERTO CHELLINI
more and more oriented to the use
of high-speed, electric-motor-driven
compressors for ecologic reasons
(noise and atmospheric emissions)
and the use of active magnetic bear-
ings (AMB). The latter not only en-
able machinery to reduce emissions
because they do not require a lube
oil system, but also extend the mean
time between overhauls (MTBO).
Lauber said the market offers motors
designed for maximum efficiency that
can be used in sealed compressors
handling mid and downstream clean
gas. But in upstream applications, when
the compressor is handling untreated
wellhead gas (dirty and/or sour), reli-
ability is more important than efficiency.
That is why, in 2005, MAN began
developing high-speed, variable fre-
quency electric motors and introduced
them in the market in 2010.
“The Mecos acquisition has been a
further step in the same direction,” Lau-
ber said. “We started a very close coop-
eration in 2005 and since 2011 we have
on our test bed in Zurich a 24,000 hp (18
MW) motor compressor (Mopico) run-
ning on Mecos AMB.” The radial bear-
ings feature a 10.5 in. (270 mm) internal
diameter and a 5850 lb. (26 kN) capac-
ity while the axial thrust bearing has an
18,000 lb. (80 kN) capacity.
Alfons Traxler founded Mecos in 1988
with the specific intention of develop-
ing AMB, Lösch said. The company
achieved the first application of AMB
on a 671 hp (500 kW) turboexpander
in 1993.
Volume production of AMB for laser
power systems began in 1997. Sys-
tems for the high-vacuum pump indus-
try were introduced in 2010. Mecos now
has three AMB lines: small ones for
powers up to 135 hp (100 kW), medium
ones up to 1340 hp (1 MW) and the
large ones to 26,800 hp (20 MW).
Although MAN acquired 100% of
Mecos, Lösch said the company would
continue to operate independently in
its traditional market segments. It will
keep the name and logo that its cus-
tomers recognize.
Lauber said if other compressor man-
ufacturers wanted to develop projects
with Mecos, MAN would not considered
it a problem. “As previously stated we
have our own electric motor line, but we
continue to buy electric motors from the
marketplace, and just to mention one
name, from Siemens,” Lauber said.
Lauber said it is important for MAN
to have the magnetic bearing technol-
ogy in-house so that its teams of com-
pressor and motor specialists can work
continued on page 48
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 in close cooperation with the Mecos
team of magnetic bearings specialists.
“Winterthur is only 18 mi. (30 km) from
our main facility in Zurich, so we have
face-to-face collaboration,” he said.
Lauber said MAN’s philosophy be-
hind acquisitions is to maintain the
management and the team of spe-
cialists of the company unchanged
in order to maximize the results of
the deal. “Personnel are the core of a
company,” he said.
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Lauber said for the time being,
MAN’s major interest in Mecos is the
development of compressors for the
oil and gas industry, but in perspec-
tive, magnetic bearings also can be
of interest to other MAN businesses
such as diesel engines or gears.
Mecos personnel focus on engi-
neering and electronics. Coil windings
are outsourced to long-term partners
operating in the area that have been
selected for their quality standards.
n Large Mecos active magnetic bearings
have been checked on this compressor
test stand at MAN’s Zurich plant.
The final assembly of the bear-
ings is performed in-house, as are
the final tests. All electronic compo-
nents are tested for at least six hours
to discover possible early failures.
Functional tests are followed by en-
durance tests that include power and
temperature cycling.
For the large AMB systems, Mecos
has developed a nine-channel control
cabinet that allows simultaneous con-
trol of both the compressor (also in a
tandem configuration) and its electric
motor drive. The system, as well as
being more economic than one with
separate controls for the compres-
sor and the motor drive, guarantees
faster tuning and simplifies the motor-
compressor operation.
When the bearings must operate in
a wet or sour gas environment, sensor
isolation with special resins is essential
to prevent failures. Mecos has engi-
neered sealed sensors that can be re-
motely set through an electronic system
without touching the sensor itself.
Mecos engineers commission of
individual AMB systems although
in some cases (for bulk supplies)
the customer may commission units
under guidance from Mecos. MAN
teams now will take responsibility
for complete compressor, motor and
AMB systems. CT2
1/22/13 9:06 AM
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 Pump
Warning: Contents tech
Are Hot > Coal gasification plant uses hybrid
pumps to handle gas liquor
By Sabine Mühlenkamp

n A performance test is being conducted on a KWP

pump destined for use in the new coal gasification
plant in the east Indian state of Odisha.

Credit: KSB Aktiengesellschaft

I
n the light of limited gas and oil re-
serves, coal is experiencing a renais-
sance as a raw material. In countries
such as India, China, and Indonesia,
as well as in Malaysia and Australia,
coal gasification in particular has been
receiving lots of attention of late as a
process that yields synthesis gas (syn-
gas) for use in fuelling diverse facilities.
The primary advantage is that even
Sabine Mühlenkamp is a chemical engi-
neer working as a journalist in Karlsruhe,
Germany.
(domestic) coal of inferior quality can be
converted to syngas, hence reducing
dependence on imported oil.
The same trend is taking hold in In-
dia, too, where Jindal Steel & Power
is building a coal gasification plant to
obtain synthesis gas for producing
pig iron. Measuring upwards of 7.72
sq.mi. (20 km2), the site has room for
an air separation plant, coal-pressure
gasifiers, a power plant and the steel
mill itself plus all the requisite infra-
structure. The core components of
the process are the coal gasifiers, in
which coal is converted to synthesis
gas by means of partial oxidation with
steam and oxygen. The process takes
place at high pressure and tempera-
ture. Seven fixed-bed pressure gasifi-
ers and the requisite downstream gas
conditioning and desulfurization pro-
cesses are currently being installed. A
total capacity of 7.9 MMcfh (225,000
Nm³/h) of synthesis gas is being tar-
geted for the downstream direct re-
duced iron (DRI) process that yields
the pig iron.
continued on page 54

APRIL 2013 52 Compressortech2

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 n Designed for use in a gasification plant, this cutaway shows the interior of a
special nonclogging impeller pump type RPKx 150-400.
Handle with care
The process demands peak perfor-
mance from the plant and equipment,
the dimensions of which are accord-
ingly huge. Each pressure gasifier, for
example, is nearly 13.1 ft. (4 m) in diam-
eter. Temperatures of 1832°F (1000°C)
inside the reactor and as high as 932°F
(500°C) on the outside surface are just
the face of the challenge.
“The real problem for components
like the pumping systems is the com-
bination of abrasive, aggressive and
corrosive constituents in the gas li-
quor,” said Thomas Wallner, a Pegnitz,
Bavaria, Germany-based KSB project
engineer who has been on the project
since the start. The fluids can contain
particles of coal measuring up to 0.23
to 0.31 in. (6 to 8 mm) across and ac-
count for as much as 10% by weight.
“This combination imposes particu-
larly stringent demands on the choice
of materials and the design of the sys-
APRIL 2013 54 Compressortech2
INFO BOX 1
tem,” Wallner said. Specially designed
pumps were needed for handling the
gas liquor, because they have to last
at least 15 years, despite the harsh
service conditions.
Reliability required
Thanks to years of experience with
similar projects in South Africa, KSB
is familiar with the application param-
eters, the company said. The process
is heavily dependent on the employed
grade of coal, and coal can vary wide-
ly in composition, depending on its
origin. This factor must be kept in mind
when designing the process and the
components to ensure that each and
every solution is specifically appropri-
ate to the task.
In the present case, the pumps are a
hybrid type comprising the best traits of
the RPK volute casing pumps and KWP
nonclogging impeller pumps. Each has
a Norichrom wear plate and double me-
chanical seals. Describing the specific
properties of KSB’s favored material for
the application, Wallner said, “This KSB
cast material is unbeatable in terms of
resistance to wear and corrosion.”
continued on page 56
Process with perspectives
Altogether, 149 plants with a to-
tal of 430 gasifiers are in service
around the world, producing near-
ly 80.5 million hp (60,000 MW)
worth of synthesis gas, with other
plants coming online all the time.
While the synthesis gas produced
in Angul, Odisha, India is used for
making pig iron, pressurised coal
gasification is also used in fuel
production in coal-to-liquid plants,
and for power generation in in-
tegrated gasification combined-
cycle (IGCC) power stations. The
latter technology is generating
lots of interest because it produc-
es electricity in a more ecological-
ly viable manner than in conven-
tional pulverized coal-fired plants.
In addition, the environmentally
relevant CO2 can be captured at
low cost. Finally, pressurized coal
gasification plays a major role in
the production of biofuels.

Credit: KSB Aktiengesellschaft
n A simplified cutaway shows the interior of coal-
pressure gasifier.
The entire process runs constantly
in a potentially explosive atmosphere.
The KSB pumps need to be reliable to
keep the pressure gasifiers from fail-
ing, which is why specially developed
auxiliary shaft seal systems offering
increased redundancy are provided.
The KWPK nonclogging scrubber
pumps installed further downstream
have to contend with enormous loads.
Consequently, they are made of cast
steel and particularly wear-resistant
modified duplex Noridur DAS instead of
grey cast iron. This type of pump is nor-
mally built to pressure class PN10, but
the KSB engineers extended the range
by modifying their design and materi-
als. The process’ high solids content is
not only hard on the materials, but also
means that the pumps’ hydraulic sys-
tems and geometry, particularly of the
impellers, had to be carefully fine-tuned
to the job. Moreover, all pumps had to
have as much free passage as possible
and impart as little shear as possible to
the pumped fluid.
“The gas liquor contains sulfur and
ammonia as well as dissolved oils that
APRIL 2013 56 Compressortech2
INFO BOX 2
Details of the pressurised coal
gasification process
Lumpy coal and other solid fuels can be gasified
in counter-current fixed-bed pressure gasifiers. The
vertical cylindrical reactor has an external water
jacket. The coal is fed into the gasifier from above,
while oxygen and steam are blown in from below.
A rotating grate ensures uniform distribution of the
coal. The coal is dried and the gases desorbed in the
upper part of the gasifier.
The reaction takes place at the next lower level,
where high temperatures and pressures act on the
coal in a reducing atmosphere to produce synthesis
gas consisting of CO, H2 and small amounts of CO2
and methane. Gas purification and desulfurization
equipment is needed.
The main advantages of this method are its reliabil-
ity, relatively low initial cost and long-term operational
reliability. Moreover, coal of inferior quality can be gas-
ified. The only drawback is that the raw gas contains
tar and the throughput is limited by the maximum di-
mensions of the gasifiers. The only way to increase
the capacity is to install additional gasifiers. New ap-
proaches, however, are already being developed.
would tend to become so homoge- the pumps’ motors and the inverters
neously distributed at elevated rota- and provided EMC effects, Wallner
tional speeds that they could no lon- said. The job of connecting the alu-
ger be separated out,” Wallner said. minium cables also posed a challenge
KSB pumps also serve in the down- because they have much larger cross-
stream subprocesses. Altogether, 40 sections than the customary European
KSB pumps are employed in the core copper cables.
process, and another 60 units in such
peripheral processes as coal handling, Plenty of potential
air separation and coolant circulation in Coal gasification has plenty of po-
the DRI process. The pumps’ nominal tential, and opens up new perspectives
diameters range from DN 65 to DN 350. independent of fossil gas and oil as the
prevalent energy sources. To be cost-
Sole source effective, the relevant facilities must
In addition to supplying the pumps operate uninterruptedly for years on
and the auxiliary systems, the Peg- end. That, in turn, calls for robust, reli-
nitz-based specialists were also re- able systems consisting not only of the
sponsible for sizing and selecting the pumps themselves, but also of things
motors and frequency inverters. For like frequency inverters and mechani-
example, ambient temperatures of cal seals. The first few pumps demon-
around 122°F (50°C) made it neces- strated their reliability on KSB’s own
sary to install the inverters in air-con- test rigs in Pegnitz, and were delivered
ditioned cabinets away from the plant, in April 2011, with the entire plant com-
which put 1476 ft. (450 m) between missioned that same year. CT2
 Pump
tech
Wärtsilä Pumps
It Up > Company providing 43 pumps for
Norwegian Sea-bound FSU
By Brent Haight

n Wärtsilä’s Svanehøj range of electrically driven

deep-well pumps can be delivered according to API
610 standards.

W
ärtsilä Hamworthy Ltd. will
supply a series of pumps to
be installed on a new floating
storage unit (FSU) being built by Sam-
sung Heavy Industries in South Korea
for Statoil. When completed, the FSU
will be located on the Heidrun oil and
gas field in the Norwegian Sea.
The Heidrun field has been produc-
ing oil and gas since October 1995
from a floating tension leg platform
with a concrete hull. Heidrun was dis-
covered in 1985 by Conoco, which
served as operator for the exploration
and development phase. A total of 76
wells are planned on the main field, in-
cluding 51 producers, 24 water injec-
tors and one gas injector.
Gas from Heidrun is piped to Tjeld-
bergodden in mid-Norway and pro-
vides the feedstock for Statoil’s meth-
anol plant there. The field is also tied
to the Åsgard Transport system. Heid-
run gas is piped through this trunkline
to Kårstø north of Stavanger and on
to Dornum in Germany — a total dis-
tance of roughly 870 mi. (1400 km).
Delivery of the Wärtsilä equipment
is scheduled for February 2014.
The order includes 38 deep-well
cargo pumps produced by Wärtsilä,
at Wärtsilä Svanehøj in Denmark,
three fire water pump skids and two
ballast pumps. The latter items are
produced by Wärtsilä, at Wärtsilä
Pumps in Singapore.
“The 2012 acquisition of Hamwor-
thy added years of experience and
continued on page 60

APRIL 2013 58 Compressortech2

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 extensive know-how on pump tech-
nology to our in-house competences,”
said Timo Koponen, vice president
Wärtsilä, Flow & Gas Solutions. “This
contract is further testimony to the
reputation of our pumping solutions,
and strengthens our position as a ma-
jor player in the offshore oil and gas
industry. The reliability, ease of instal-
lation, and cost effectiveness of these
solutions were all contributing factors
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April 2013 60 Compressortech2
WaukeshaBearings.indd 1
This is not the first pump-related
contract between Wärtsilä and Sam-
sung. Wärtsilä and Samsung Heavy
Industries signed a cooperation
agreement in 2010 to develop gas-
fueled ships. The collaboration has
been beneficial to myriad Wärtsilä
business units, including Hamworthy.
Wärtsilä Hamworthy offers a wide
range of deep-well pumps for process
and cargo handling for offshore appli-
cations. The company has delivered
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3/5/13 10:57 AM
pumps to Samsung Heavy Industries’
yard for other floating production, stor-
age, and offloading (FPSO) vessels
for the offshore sector.
For FPSOs/FSOs requiring a distrib-
uted pump system, Wärtsilä offers the
Svanehøj range of electrically driven
deep-well pumps. Wärtsilä Svanehøj
deep-well process and cargo pumps
are designed for continuous operation
with pumping mediums such as crude
oil and produced water and oil. The
type OPC pumps (offshore process
and cargo) can be delivered accord-
ing to API 610, and are designed with
a capacity from 706 to 63,566 cfh (20
to 1800 m3/h).
According to Wärtsilä, its shaft lubri-
cation system enables less onboard
maintenance to the electric system.
The pump housing is easily dismantled,
and cards on the converters are easily
interchanged. During the operational
phase, the electrical equipment offers
environmental sustainability, since CO2
emissions are minimal due to the higher
efficiency and lower power utilization,
and there is no risk of hydraulic oil spills,
according to Wärtsilä.
Wärtsilä Svanehøj deep-well and
booster pumps have been developed
specifically for LPG/ethylene, small
LNG and combined LEG/chemical
carriers:
• Fully pressurized tankers, with the
cargo at ambient temperatures
and a tank pressure of up to 261
psi (18 bar).
• Fully refrigerated atmospheric
tankers, with the cargo cooled
down to the saturation tempera-
ture, typically -54°F (-48°C).
• Semi-refrigerated tankers, with the
cargo maintained in liquefied form
by a combined cooling/pressure
process at temperatures down to
-155°F (-104°C).
• LNG tankers, with the cargo
cooled down to -261°F (-163°C).
Deep-well pumps are designed to
meet the requirements for low tem-
perature-resistant materials, using a
gas-tight shaft sealing system with a
pressurized quenching fluid, and an
extremely low NPSH to pump gases
at a condition very close to their boil-
ing point, according to Wärtsilä. CT2
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 Pump
Unusual PD Pump Pulsation
tech
Solutions > Pulsations in piping systems can cause
serious problems that sometimes require
creative solutions
By Eugene Broerman III and Sarah Simons

Editor’s comment: This article first appeared in the No-
vember 2012 issue. It is being reprinted because of errors that
occurred in the graphics during production, which now have
been corrected. We apologize for any confusion these errors
may have caused.
A more unusual pulsation suppression device is a low-pass
acoustic filter. The low pass filter consists of one large volume
split into two or more volumes connected with an internal choke
tube (Figure 2) or two volumes connected with an external
choke tube (Figure 3). The low pass filter attenuates frequen-
cies above the filter response frequency (Hicks and Grant,

A
coustic pulsations are not as frequent or common a
source of vibrations or dynamics problems in plung-
er pumps or other liquid pumping systems as they
are for gas piping systems.
However, when resonant pulsations do develop in a liquid
pumping system they tend to be higher in amplitude and
can cause more severe problems (e.g. cavitation) than in
gas piping systems (Heveron, 1978). Therefore it is very
important to have effective pulsation suppression solutions.
One common pulsation suppression device is a gas-liquid
dampener (Figure 1). A gas-liquid dampener consists of a liq-
uid volume and a gas-filled bladder precharged to a fixed per-
centage of line pressure. The precharged gas creates a rela-
tively large effective liquid volume to absorb pulsations. The
gas volume acts as a spring compressing and expanding with
line pressure changes and acts as a flow-smoothing device.
This type of pulsation device is best for use in applica-
tions that have little space for the dampener because it is a
small device that has an equivalent volume many times the
size of an all-liquid volume. A detailed discussion of various
types of dampeners and how they work is given by Wachel
and Price (1988).
1979). The concept is analogous to a low-pass electrical filter
or mechanical system where the volumes are springs and the
choke tube is a mass (Blodgett, 1998).
For single-acting positive displacement pumps, the response
frequency of the acoustic filter needs to be placed below the
first pump running order (pump speed/60 times the number of
plungers) to filter out all acoustic piping frequencies that may
coincide with a pump running order. For low speed pumps or
pumps with a large speed range, sizing the acoustic filter vol-
umes to ensure that the response frequency is below the first
pump running order often results in very large volumes that
are unrealistic to install at the pump flange. For that reason,
this type of pulsation control device is most feasible for higher
speed pumps and/or multiplunger pumps (where the first pump
running order is at generally 5 Hz or higher and therefore small-
er chamber volumes are needed) and/or onshore applications
that have the space necessary for large volumes.
Acoustic filters need to be carefully sized and designed,
continued on page 64

Eugene (Buddy) Broerman III is a senior research engineer in

the fluid machinery systems section at Southwest Research In-
stitute (SwRI) in San Antonio, Texas. He has performed many
acoustic analyses of machinery piping systems for compres-
sors and pumps. He also has been a principal contributor in
the research and development of advanced pulsation con-
trol system prototypes and other pulsation related research.
Sarah Simons is a scientist in the SwRI fluid machinery sys-
tems section. She also has performed many acoustic and
thermal analyses of complex existing and new machinery pip-
ing systems, and currently is involved in pulsation research.
This article is based on a paper the authors presented at the
recent Gas Machinery Conference in Austin, Texas. For more n Figure 1. This sketch shows a typical
information, contact the authors at eugene.broerman@swri.org gas-liquid dampener.
or sarah.simons@swri.org.

APRIL 2013 62 Compressortech2

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 n Figures 2 (left) and 3 (right). These are examples of single volume and
two volume all liquid acoustic filters.

because they have internal choke tube responses that will charge operating pressure range that varied from 696.2 to
have the effect of “passing” relatively discrete, unattenuated 4550 psig (48 to 314 barg). The suction pressure was fixed
frequencies into the attached piping system. Therefore, it is at 36.3 psig (2.5 barg). The installed gas-liquid dampener
important to model the filter and attached piping system with for each existing pump had a gas volume of two liters and
a computer simulation tool to ensure that the pass band fre- was precharged to 80% of 4003 psig (276 barg).
quencies do not cause problems in the piping system (McK-
ee and Broerman, 2009). Because of the design complex- Duplex Pump Details Operating Conditions
ity and space requirements, acoustic filters are rarely used;
however, they are an ideal solution in many cases since they
2 Parallel Pumps 50.7 psig (3.50 barg)
are maintenance free and extremely effective. (Plunger) Suction Pressure

Unusual application of a gas-liquid dampener 80°F (26.7°C)

2 Plungers Per Pump
Two positive-displacement duplex methanol pumps oper- Suction Temperature
ating in parallel in the same discharge piping system were
experiencing small-piping connection failures and high vi- 700 to 4550 psig (48 to 314 barg)
1.65 in. Bore (4.19 cm)
brations even with a gas-liquid dampener installed. The du- Discharge Pressure
plex pumps are described in Table 1.
A field study (Figure 4) measured approximately 225 psi 140°F (60°C)
4.72 in. Stroke (12.0 cm)
(15.5 bar) pk-pk pulsation amplitudes, which could equate Discharge Temperature
to 4086 N of shaking force, in the main 2 in. (50.8 mm) line
170 rpm 11 gpm (3 m3/hr)
for the pumps operating at a fixed speed of 170 rpm.
The operating company wanted to install two additional n Table 1.
triplex pumps operating in parallel with the existing duplex
pumps. Before installation of the new pumps, the company The operating company also wanted to install two new
requested a pulsation analysis of the existing duplex pumps positive-displacement triplex pumps operating in parallel
to eliminate the current pulsation problem and a preventative in the same piping system with the existing duplex pumps.
pulsation analysis of future triplex pumps to ensure effective Before installing the new pumps, the operating company
attenuation of any excessive or undesirable pulsations. requested a solution for better pulsation control.
The unusual problem this station had was a large dis- continued on page 66

n Figure 4. Field study data is given for duplex methanol pumps. Note: High 1x = possible
valve leakage; unclear if dampener was correctly precharged when data was taken.

APRIL 2013 64 Compressortech2

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 n Figure 5. Tables show
pulsation reduction data.

Since this was an offshore installation, there was not Unusual pulsation control device
enough space for an all-liquid filter for pulsation control. Eight positive-displacement triplex pumps operating in
Pressure pulsations can often be significantly reduced parallel at 303 rpm as described in Table 2 were experi-
by the use of an orifice plate; however, orifice plates encing high suction and discharge piping vibrations and
alone were not effective enough. Using a gas-liquid failures of discharge vessel drain connections and gussets.
dampener was determined to be the best solution for The discharge side of these pumps had a single three-
pulsation control. chamber vessel acoustic filter installed that was inade-
When choosing a dampener size, the large pressure quately designed. A field study of one of the eight pumps
range of this system had to be taken into account. To deter- captured a measurement of 27 mils p-p at 15 Hz (first pump
mine the optimal size, an understanding of how and when a running order) at the discharge valve flange and 19 mils p-p
dampener is effective is needed. When the precharge pres- at 15 Hz at the discharge recycle valve.
sure of a dampener is greater than line pressure (which was The vibration severity chart in Figure 6 shows a graph
the case for most of the pressure range with the installed with acceptable and danger or correction levels of vibration
dampeners), the dampener is ineffective. Gas-liquid damp- at each frequency; the vibration measurements observed
eners typically close off when the line pressure drops below during the field study are plotted on the chart. Each of those
the dampener precharge to keep from failing the bladder two measurements was in the correction range of the chart.
inside the dampener. The discharge vessel outlet piping pulsations were mea-
When the precharge pressure is less than line pressure sured to be 58 psig (4 barg) p-p at 15 Hz. This raised safety
the liquid pressure compresses the bladder in the dampener. and reliability concerns and SwRI was contacted to help
This decreases the gas volume, and therefore the effective improve the system vibrations such that the piping failures
volume, directly in proportion to the increase in line pressure continued on page 68
per the ideal gas law. Thus, if the gas-liquid dampener is pre-
charged to the lowest pressure in a large range, the highest
Triplex Pump Details Operating Conditions
pressure could compress the bladder too much, such that
the bladder ruptures and/or the equivalent volume of gas in
the bladder is too small to be effective. 8 Parallel Pumps 160 psig (11 barg)
Given the wide pressure range for this application, 696.2 (Plunger) Suction Pressure
to 4550 psig (48 to 314 barg), it was determined two gas-
80°F (26.7°C)
liquid dampeners were needed. One 1.3 gal. (3.5 L) damp- 3 Plungers Per Pump
Suction Temperature
ener precharged to 80% of the lowest operating pressure
would be open when operating over the lower half of the 3000 psig (207 barg)
pressure range 696.2 to 2103 psig (48 to 145 barg). At 2.25 in. Bore (5.7 cm)
Discharge Pressure
2103 psig (145 barg), the 0.9 gal. (3.5 L) dampener was
less effective, so a 1.3 gal. (5 L) dampener precharged to 140°F (60°C)
80% of 2103 psig (145 barg) would provide pulsation con- 5 in. Stroke (12.7 cm)
Discharge Temperature
trol for the upper half of the operating pressure range 2103
to 4550 psig (145 to 314 barg). Figure 5 shows the pulsation 303 rpm 75 gpm (17 m3/hr)
reduction data predictions for the new triplex pumps operat-
ing at 140 rpm. n Table 2.

APRIL 2013 66 Compressortech2

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will no longer occur. By designing a better pulsation control
device, the cause of the vibrations was significantly reduced.
When SwRI analyzed the existing acoustic filter (Figure
7) to determine why it was ineffectively attenuating pulsa-
tions in the system, it was noted that the resonant frequency
of the existing acoustic filter was not placed below the first
pump running order. This was seen in the high amplitude
response of the first running order in the field data. Also, the
existing pulsation bottle had multiple pass band frequencies
associated with its multiple choke tubes. It is best practice
to minimize the number of frequencies that the filter will
“pass” (not attenuate) into the attached piping system.
SwRI designed a larger diameter single-volume, two-
chamber acoustic filter as shown in Figure 8 with lower
APRIL 2013 68 Compressortech2
n Figure 6. This chart shows vibration severity.
pressure drop than the existing filter. The original pulsation
filter reduced the pressure by 100.1 psi (6.9 bar), which was
approximately 17.4 psi (1.2 bar) above the pressure drop
associated with the recommended vessel.
The client initially installed the new acoustic filter on only
one pump to verify its effectiveness at attenuating pulsations
in the piping system. After installation of this new design, the
client was so pleased with the system that they installed the
new filter on all eight pump discharge piping systems.
Conclusion
Pulsations in piping systems can cause serious problems
that sometimes require creative or unusual solutions. Add-
ing two or more gas-liquid dampeners when operating over
a large pressure range or using an acoustic filter when a
maintenance free solution is needed can solve unusual
pulsation problems that are not sufficiently attenuated with
typical solutions.
It is very important when sizing dampeners to understand
the acoustics and filtering properties of each specific type
of dampener to ensure pulsations are adequately damped
and to avoid making costly mistakes.
continued on page 70
n Figure 7. The original, ineffective acoustic
filter design is shown.
 CATALYST EMISSIONS
EDUCATION PROGRAM
A scheduled series from Catalytic Combustion’s “Catalyst 101”
QUALITY CATALYSTS SINCE 1950
BLOOMER, WI 715-568-2882 • GILLET TE, WY 715-933-2641 • F T. W O R T H , T X 7 1 5 - 9 3 3 - 1 5 5 9

such as ethane, propane, butane, hexane, etc., are present.

UNDERSTANDING The chemistry of what happens in the cylinder when the spark
plug fires is rather complex. Because it is rare for a complete

CATALYSTS site specific chemical breakdown of the hydrocarbons in the

exhaust to be available, a simplifying assumption is made that
the hydrocarbons survive to be emitted in the same proportion
A Handbook for the User as they exist in the fuel gas. From this information, the required
conversion efficiency for each species will be made so that the
Part 22 – More Sizing Details, Hydrocarbons catalyst will hit the permitted emissions.
for Lean Burn Engines
A Data Driven Process
It would be much easier if every molecule reacted exactly the Figure 1 is a graph showing the conversion efficiency of
same way when it reaches the surface of the catalyst. Since they various hydrocarbons as a function of the Gas Hourly Space
don’t, the engineer sizing a catalyst has to evaluate what is in the Velocity (GHSV). This is the type of data that the engineer will
exhaust and what performance is required in order to meet the use to size the catalyst. The most conservative approach sizes
permit limits. The process is especially challenging when evaluating the catalyst by using the GHSV for the compound expected to
high-level hydrocarbon conversions for oxidation catalysts on lean- be in the exhaust that is the hardest to convert. Provided the fuel
burn engines. constituents do not change over time, this conservative approach
does compensate for
Defining the Target FIGURE 1 changes in their relative
Often a lean burn engine’s concentration so that the
emission of concern is CO catalyst will always meet
alone, so the sizing process the permit.
is straightforward. However, A more sophisticated
there are instances approach calculates
where the control of the a GHSV based on the
hydrocarbon emissions blended contribution
becomes the primary issue of each constituent
because of where the species to the required
engine is located. conversion efficiency.
After learning what Such a process will yield
engine is involved and what a higher GHSV and
to expect for a catalyst inlet thus a smaller catalyst
temperature, the engineer compared to the method
next needs to know whether your permit is written for Non- above, but it is typically used for sites where the fuel composition
Methane Hydrocarbons (NMHC) or Non-Methane, Non-Ethane is very stable.
Hydrocarbons (NMNEHC), and what is the emissions limit. Your As an example, let’s stipulate that the raw NMNEHC emissions
permit may use the term VOC or Volatile Organic Compound, which for an engine are 0.45 g/bhp-hr and the permitted emissions
the EPA defines as NMNEHC. Because the EPA doesn’t consider are 0.12 g/bhp-hr, requiring a conversion efficiency of 73.3%. In
formaldehyde a VOC, for simplification purposes this article will Figure 1, you see that the GHSV for propane is 71,000, butane is
omit formaldehyde. However, be aware that the new RICE MACT 83,000 and pentane is 97,000. So, depending upon what is in the
rules and individual states may have additional restrictions that fuel, the size of the catalyst can vary considerably.
govern its emission. Proper design for a lean-burn engine requires more effort, but
The engine’s spec sheet or technical information will reveal giving your catalyst company all of the appropriate information
its total expected raw hydrocarbon emissions. A fuel analysis for better enables them to select the correct catalyst to keep you
the site should also be provided to reveal what hydrocarbons, out of trouble on your hydrocarbon emissions.
For your catalyst questions, contact:
John W. Robinson Jr., V.P. Catalyst Group • 715-568-2882 Ext. 127 • Fax: 715-568-2884 • jrobinson@catalyticcombustion.com

www.CatalyticCombustion.com IN THE NEXT ISSUE …My Backpressure is Killing Me

Advertisement

References
Heveron, G.C., 1978, “Pulsation Dampeners and Stabiliz-
ers Help Protect Pump Systems in Nuclear Plants,” Power
122 (10), pp. 28-32.
Wachel, J.C. and Price, S.M., 1988, “Understanding How
Pulsation Accumulators Work,” Pipeline Engineering Sym-
posium, PD-Vol. 14.
Hicks, E.J. and Grant, T.R., 1979, “Acoustic Filter Con-
n Figure 8. This is the newly
designed acoustic filter.
trols Recip Pump Pulsations,” Oil and Gas Journal, Volume
77, Issue 3, pp. 67-73.
Blodgett, L.E., 1998, “Reciprocating Pump Dynamic
Concepts for Improved Pump Operations,” 15th International
Pump Users Symposium Proceedings.
McKee, R. and Broerman, E., 2009, “Acoustics in Pump-
ing Systems,” Proceedings of the Twenty-Fifth International
Pump Users Symposium, pp. 69-74. CT2
2012 edition XX www.ctssnet.net ctss
 Lubes Evolve With Higher Turbine
Performance > Oils redeveloped to accommodate hotter firing,
smaller reservoirs
I
t is widely known that the prevention
of a gas turbine failure is crucial to
operators and original equipment
manufacturers. One of the key factors
to a turbine’s reliability is also one of
the least visible parts of the power gen-
eration process: lubricating oil.
Theoretically, turbine oils should
last for years, although exactly how
long is subject to a variety of factors,
especially as the fluid must have good
thermal and oxidation resistance.
“Modern lubricants need to keep
pace with advances in turbine tech-
nology,” said Peter Smith, Shell’s tech-
nical manager for industrial special-
ties, Shell Lubricants, which focuses
on turbine, electrical and process oils.
“Gas turbine firing temperatures are
increasing to up to 1450°C (2642°F)
and, although the oil is not directly ex-
posed to this temperature, this means
that the whole gas turbine system is
under much more stress than ever be-
fore,” Smith said.
“Therefore, lubricating oils have to
be more resistant to such things as
APRIL 2013 72 Compressortech2
n Shell has 60 years of experience in de-
veloping oils for gas turbines and is cur-
rently redeveloping its top-tier Turbo GT
for use in industrial light- and heavy-duty
gas turbines and turbo compressors.
deposit formation due to oxidation and
thermal degradation. Firing tempera-
tures in gas turbines over the years
have gone up by hundreds of degrees.
The temperatures have increased so
much because operators want to pro-
duce even greater megawatts of pow-
er. For example, a Siemens gas turbine
can produce up to 375 MW [503,000
hp]; the lubricants have to be able to
withstand the demands placed upon
them in such conditions.
“As OEMs and operators try to
achieve higher and higher efficien-
cies from their gas turbines, we can
provide a lubricant able to help them
achieve that, especially as some oper-
ators want more than 50,000 operat-
ing hours from their lubricants before
a service. Of course, OEMs want their
gas turbines to last longer and provide
maximized reliable service between
extended maintenance intervals.”
Shell said it is currently redeveloping
its top-tier Turbo GT using its propri-
etary additives and Group 3 base oil.
It is being designed for use in industrial
BY IAN CAMERON
light- and heavy-duty gas turbines and
turbo compressors. According to Shell,
Turbo GT has up to 50% better oxida-
tion stability compared with the indus-
try standard for gas turbines.
Shell uses gas to liquid (GTL) tech-
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process that converts gas and feed-
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plant in Qatar makes synthetic oil
products from natural gas, including
cleaner-burning diesel and oils for
advanced lubricants.
“Another trend we are noticing dur-
ing discussions with turbine manufac-
turers concerns the growing demand
for smaller lubricant reservoirs for gas
turbines,” Smith said.
“Not only do OEMs want to optimize
the power and efficiency of their ma-
chines, but they want to control the
cost of manufacturing their gas tur-
bines. They prefer smaller lubricant
reservoirs as smaller amounts of lu-
bricants can now be considered using
the latest generation of top-tier oils. If
the reservoirs are smaller, then the
turbines can be downsized and the
cost of components reduced.
“Good surface properties of the oil,
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tial. If these are poor, that can lead to
foaming of the oil. Under changing load,
entrained air can be released, causing
bubbles and foaming. In highly loaded
regions, this can cause the air and oil
vapor bubbles to literally implode and
burn, thus potentially causing cavitation
damage to the turbine’s bearings.”
Shell has 60 years of experience in
developing oils for gas turbines and
supplies fuel and lubes to more than
1500 power plants in more than 80
countries — some 100 people work
in its power sector product area. The
company has technology centers in
the U.S., U.K., Germany, India, China,
and a joint venture in Japan. CT2
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and free radical chemistry.

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Cook Compression has begun sup-
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Also, Cook Compression Russian Op-
erations has been established in Moscow,
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continued on page 75

APRIL 2013 73 Compressortech2

Antwerp_Third.indd 1 3/13/13 12:43 PM
Turbine-Driven Compression
For China > Rolls-Royce secures additional orders for turbine-driven
compressor packages in China
R
olls-Royce has announced
a US$75 million contract to
supply PetroChina with equip-
ment and related services to move
gas through Line III of the West-East
Pipeline Project (WEPP), the world’s
longest pipeline.
It will supply PetroChina with six
RB211 gas turbine-driven RFBB36
compressor units for WEPP Line III.
When completed in 2015, the 4350
mi. (7000 km) WEPP Line III will link
China’s western Xinjiang autono-
mous region to Fuijan province in
the Southeast, transporting up to 1.1
Tcfy (30 x 109 m3/yr).
Rolls-Royce has provided equip-
ment and services to WEPP since
2004. Including the latest contract, it
has sold 37 RB211 units to WEPP.
APRIL 2013 74 Compressortech2
n This Rolls-Royce RFBB36 gas compressor was installed at the Zhongwei
compressor station on the WEPP Line I gas pipeline in China.
“WEPP natural gas will boost China’s
economic growth and ensure greater
security of electricity supply to China’s
fast-developing cities,” said Andrew
Heath, Rolls-Royce president, energy.
“In terms of servicing the installed
base, in addition to our in-country field
service representative based at the
site to provide ongoing service for the
pipeline, we work with PetroChina to
train their operators before they begin
to manage the equipment at the sites
along the pipelines.
“In addition, we are providing licens-
ing support to a maintenance repair
and overhaul facility that PetroChina is
building in Langfang, Hebei province,
not far from Beijing, expected to be
operational in mid-2013. All of these
factors strengthen our role on the proj-
By Ian Cameron
ect and our relationship with and sup-
port to PetroChina.”
Efficiency is a key factor in the proj-
ect, Heath said.
“The high efficiency of the Rolls-
Royce RB211 units and our compres-
sors means more gas will reach the
consumer, ultimately increasing gas
volumes and potential profit for the
operator,” he said. “As gas prices con-
tinue to increase, efficiency really be-
comes the most crucial factor driving
the value equation.
“The high simple-cycle efficiency
of the engine also makes it ideal as a
driver of pipeline compressors. Its low
weight and the ability to quickly remove
the gas generator for transport and
maintenance is another key feature for
this application, which, like the WEPP
installations, are often in remote loca-
tions far from maintenance facilities.”
Commenting on the specific proj-
ect tasks faced by the engineering
teams, Heath said: “Along with the
station design teams we faced several
challenges, including the desert sand
storm environment experienced at
many of the stations in or close to the
Gobi desert and in the winter months’
extremely cold temperatures.”
Heath said the RB211 gas turbines
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Formed in 1973, Nidec has expand-
ed from its original product base of mo-
Corrosion
tors Ad_Layout
for information 1 6/20/2012
and 1:33 PM
communication
technologies to motors for home appli-
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Page 1 continued on page 93

Problem Solving
would have to operate in temperatures
from -40° to 104°F (-40° to 40°C).
“Transportation is another challeng-

Synthetic Lubricants
ing issue, as on some parts of the
pipeline route the low loaders carrying
the turbines and compressors could
travel at less than 30 mph (50 kph) and

Corrosion Protection
sometimes down to walking pace. On
the western section of the line there
was no land access so roads had to be Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and carbon dioxide
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APRIL 2013 75 Compressortech2

Summit.indd 1 1/18/13 9:59 AM
 TECH

corner
Vector Analysis Of Crankshaft
Web Deflections
Deflections> can be converted
into calculated stress values
on a throw-by-throw basis
By Mark Noall and David Maas

C
rankshaft web deflection measurements have his- 10 integral engine failed. In an effort to better understand
torically been used to evaluate crankshaft align- why we had two crankshaft failures on the same engine, op-
ment and as criteria to take action to prevent crank- erating history, mechanical maintenance records and web
shaft failure [1]. deflections were reviewed from 1993 to 2010. The historical
Research has correlated web deflection measurements data when combined with optical, laser and wire-line frame
to peak stress levels in the crankshaft fillets. Web deflec- measurements made after the 2010 failure provided valu-
tions can now be converted into calculated stress values able insights into the root causes of these failures.
on a throw-by-throw basis. These calculations account for One of the pertinent findings was that both failures did
variations in pin and stroke dimensions and provide more not occur in a high-stress area of the crankshaft, as calcu-
reliable criteria to evaluate the risk of failure. lated from web deflection readings. One of the failure loca-
Web deflection readings from one throw to the next can also tions closely coincided with a web deflection “reversal.” The
point to a bending reversal in the crankshaft. For example a other failed where the crankshaft was bridging a bearing.
bending reversal occurs when the web deflection of one throw
shows the web opening at the bottom while the adjacent throw
shows the web opening at the top. Bending reversals in crank-
shafts may be part of the crankshaft failure mechanism.
Crankshaft reversals cannot be detected with the web
deflection to stress calculations, as they do not take into
account the influence of the adjacent throws. One effective
way to identifying the locations of these reversals is to con-
struct a maximum web deflection vector graph and com-
pare the throw-to-throw vertical and horizontal components
for changes in direction.
In 1998 and again in 2010, the crankshaft in a Clark TLA-

Mark Noall is pipeline engineer with KMI Pipeline. His respon-

sibilities include technical support for reciprocating and tur-
bine engine driven compression in West Texas and southeast
New Mexico. He has 30 years of experience in the energy
industry and has a Bachelor of Science degree in mechani-
cal engineering from Brigham Young University. David Maas
is a mechanical supervisor for Kinder Morgan Inc. He gradu-
ated from Colorado State University with a Bachelor of Sci-
ence degree in electrical engineering and a master’s degree
in mechanical engineering. His graduate work was done at
the university’s engines and energy conversion laboratory.
This article is based on a paper the authors presented at the
Gas Machinery Conference in Austin, Texas, last October.
Contact the authors at mark_noall@kindermorgan.com or
david_maas@kindermorgan.com.
n Figure 1. Web location is shown on the crankshaft.
Measuring web deflections
Web deflections are a measure of the change in distance
between the crankshaft webs. The change in distance oc-
curs as the crankshaft moves through 360° of rotation. The
maximum web deflection across a throw is the difference
between the maximum and minimum distances between
the webs. (See Figure 1.)
When the engine frame and bore lie in a straight line the
crankshaft will also be straight. The distance between the
webs will not change and the web deflection readings will
be zero. If the engine frame is misaligned the crankshaft will

April 2013 76 Compressortech2

 Recognized
n Figure 2. Web deflection is shown in three conditions.
Leader
not lie in a straight line. For example, if the frame sags in the
middle so will the crankshaft. A sagging crankshaft results
in the webs opening at the bottom and closing at the top.
(See Figure 2.)
Web deflections are measured with a micrometer placed
across the crankpin throw. The pointed ends of the microm-
eter are placed in punch marks on the webs. (See Figure 3.)
The punch marks are typically located at the diameter of
the main bearing journals. Prior to taking measurement the
gauge is spun to seat the points in the punch marks.
The crankshaft is manually rotated and deflection read-
ings, measured in “mils” (0.001 in. or 0.0254 mm), are typi-
cally taken every 45°. Connecting rods attached to the crank-
pin prevent data collection over the full 360° rotation. Often,
deflections can be measure only for 180° of the rotation.

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Web deflections and crankshaft stress

When a bend or bow exists in the crankshaft, most 918-252-7545

of the bending occurs in the webs. The webs have the
www.r-f.com
smallest cross section of the crankshaft and are there- info@r-f.com
fore subject to the highest cyclic bending stresses. The Tulsa, OK
continued on page 78

APRIL 2013 77 Compressortech2

Reynolds.indd 1 11/16/12 12:00 PM
Gas Machinery Conference paper, “An Improved Criteria
for Assessing Crankshaft Misalignment,” developed this
relationship [2].
The stress is concentrated in the webs at the fillets be-
tween the main and crankpin journal. Elevated bending stress
in the webs combined with hundreds of millions to billions of
crankshaft revolutions or bending cycles can eventually lead
to a high-cycle fatigue failure. High-cycle fatigue failures are
almost exclusively across crankshaft webs. (See Figure 4.)
n Figure 4. This is the usual location of fatigue failure across
crankshaft web.
Maximum web deflection
Figure 5 shows a typical set of web deflections as ini-
tially recorded. Connecting rods attached to the crankpin
prevented data collection over the full 360° rotation. Deflec-
tion readings were measured every 45° from 135° to 315°.
Measurements were taken in mils.
The maximum web deflection across a throw is the dif-
ference between the maximum and minimum measured
n Figure 5. This is a set of initially recorded web deflections.
APRIL 2013 78 Compressortech2
deflections over the full 360° rotation. But what if the mini-
mum or maximum deflection reading occurs at an angle
that can’t be accessed by the deflection gauge? How can
the maximum deflection value be determined if it cannot be
measured? The answer to this problem comes in the form
of a mathematical curve fit that calculates the maximum de-
flection and the angle at which it occurs.
The sinusoidal curve fit
As with many rotational systems, web deflection measure-
ments exhibit a sinusoidal behavior. (See Figure 6.) Measure-
ments taken at regular crank angles will fall on a sine wave.
The maximum deflection will be the difference between the
minimum and maximum values of the sine wave.
n Figure 6. These readings were taken while the crankshaft is be-
ing rotated to generate a sine wave.
The sine wave for web deflections can be written as fol-
lows using a sine function that operates on degrees of an-
gle rather than radians.
Where A is the zero-to-peak amplitude of the sine wave
and 2A is the peak-to-peak value or maximum web deflec-
tion.w (phi) is the phase angle and C is an offset value
from arbitrarily setting the deflection micrometer to zero at
the first measurement angle.
Fitting the web deflection data to a sine wave is a matter
w
of calculating the amplitude A, the phase angle, , and the
offset, C, to minimize the error between the data set and the
equation. This can be accomplished iteratively or by solving
a set of linear equations.
Three data points are needed to solve for values of A, w
and C. A sinusoid can be perfectly drawn through any three
data points. It is recommended that four or more readings
be measured on each web. This allows for a correlation co-
efficient to be calculated which expresses how well the data
exhibits a sinusoidal behavior. The correlation coefficient
R2 is a measure of the error between the data points and
the sine curve. An R2 value of 1.000 indicates a perfect cor-
relation, whereas values less than 0.900 could indicate er-
rors in data collection or other problems such as damaged
bearings or excessive crankshaft run out.
 The maximum web deflection, 2A , is used to calculate the
w
peak fillet stress of the throw. When 2A and are viewed as
a vector with magnitude and direction, and in conjunction with
similar data from each throw of the crankshaft, additional infor-
mation can be inferred about the crankshaft alignment.

Vectors
w
The phase angle , tells us where in the 360° of crank-
shaft rotation, the sine function, starts. Reviewing Table 1 of
basic sine function results, it’s clear the maximum value of a
sine wave is one and occurs at an angle of 90°.

Sin (0°) = 0.000

Sin (45°) = 0.707
Sin (90°) = 1.000 Maximum Value
Sin (135°) = 0.707
Sin (180°) = 0.000
Sin (225°) = 0.707
Sin (270°) = 1.000 Maximum Value
Sin (315°) = 0.707
Sin (360°) = 0.000
n Table 1. This table shows basic sine function results.

The phase angle simply shifts where, in the 360° of rota-

tion, the maximum value occurs. So +90° is the angle of
maximum web deflection or greatest distance between the Samsung.indd 1 3/15/13 9:44 AM

webs. Conversely -90° is the angle where the webs are

closest together.
The example below shows a maximum web deflection
occurring at 253°. The w
value of the vector is 163°.

So, w +90° indicates the direction of the maximum de-

flection vector and the amplitude 2A indicates the magni-
tude of the vector. This technique enables constructing web
deflection vectors for each of the throws of the crankshaft.
The vectors now can be compared from one throw to the
next. The horizontal and vertical components of these vec-
tors can provide additional insights into crankshaft align-
ment. First, consider three simple examples. The real world
is combination of these examples.
continued on page 80

n Figure 7. These are typical web deflection readings of the max

deflection vector.

APRIL 2013 79 Compressortech2

 We Manufacture and
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n Figure 8. This is the sagging crankshaft.
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• All throws have the same deflection.
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respect to a specific throw it is a valid simplification
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• All throws open at the top and close at the bottom.
• All throws have maximum deflection vectors pointing up.
• The vertical components are equal to the maximum de-
flection values.
• The horizontal components are zero.
• All throws have the same deflection.
• All throws open to the right and close to the left.
• All throws have maximum deflection vectors pointing to
the right.
• The vertical components are zero.
• The horizontal components are equal to the maximum
deflection values.

APRIL 2013 80 Compressortech2

Hahn_April.indd 1 3/18/13 1:36 PM

n Figure 10. This is the side bowed crankshaft.
n These tables show web deflections.
APRIL 2013 81 Compressortech2
Real world example
Table 2 shows “as found” web deflection readings mea-
sured during an annual mechanical inspection of a Clark
TLA 10 engine. The deflections were measured at 45°
intervals and recorded in mils. At first glance throws two
and three have deflections of 2, throw six has a deflection
of -2.75 and throw nine has a deflection of -2. This table
contains the web deflections, sinusoidal curve fits, cor-
relation coefficients, calculated crankshaft stress, max
deflections and angles.
The sinusoidal curve fit of the deflection data shows
continued on page 82
 The Energy Flows Through Us ®

little change to the max deflection on throws two, three

and nine. However throw six changed from a max de-
flection of 2.75 to 4.5 mils. The correlation coefficients
show a good sine wave agreement for throws one, two,
three and 10. The data for throws four through nine have
correlation coefficients less than 0.9, indicating question-
CONVENIENTLY LOCATED NEAR THE able data or potential problems. The calculated stress on
EPICENTER OF THE MARCELLUS GAS PLAY throw six is 10,216 psi (705 bar). All other throws range
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The industry’s
reference tool n Figure 11. The chart shows crankshaft deflection vectors.
for packagers, purchasers and
Crankshaft web deflection vectors
training providers is now online!
Now look at the maximum deflection vectors for each
throw and their associated vertical and horizontal com-

CTSSnet.net
ponents. The stress vector on throw six is primarily in
the horizontal direction. This indicates that something
might be pulling or pushing on the side of the engine
frame. It is important to note that the highest max web
COMPRESSION TECHNOLOGY SOURCING SUPPLEMENT
deflection on the crankshaft, at throw six, yielded the
largest stress and longest vector.

Predicting crankshaft alignment

The vertical and horizontal crankshaft profiles can
be approximated by using crankshaft geometry and the
vertical and horizontal components of the max deflec-
tion vectors.
The horizontal and vertical crankshaft profiles, shown
in Figure 12, provide valuable insights to the shape of the
crankshaft and what might be influencing the crankshaft
alignment. The horizontal profile shows an abrupt bend
at throw six and a crankshaft side displacement of 26
mils. The vertical profile shows the crankshaft is 10 mils
Visit Us At CTSSnet.net low at bearings two to five and bearings nine to 11 are
5 mils high.

APRIL 2013 82 Compressortech2

CTSS_House_Quarter.indd 1 3/20/13 2:18 PM

Kiene 1/4 ad 5/22/02
n Figure 12. Horizontal profile (top) and vertical profile (bottom)
are shown.
n Figure 13. This is an example of the “S” shaped crankshaft.
• All webs deflections have the same amplitude.
• The left half of the crankshaft is bowed up.
• The right half of the crankshaft is sagging.
• The horizontal components are zero.
continued on page 84
APRIL 2013 83 Compressortech2
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 • There is a reversal in the direction of the vectors be-
tween webs five and six.
• The “reversal” occurs at a point of inflection.

Case history (Roswell #3 1993 – 1998)

• 1958 — engine installed.
• 1994 — engine regrouted on epoxy chocks.
• 1998 — crankshaft failed.
• 1998 — installed used crankshaft and re-grouted on
epoxy chocks.
• 2004 — engine regrouted on shimmable chocks.
• 2010 — second crankshaft failed.

n Figure 14. This graph shows the stress occurring in each web.

The fracture location of the 1998 crankshaft failure did not

occur in the throw with the highest stress. The crankshaft
failed at throw nine. See Figures 14 and 15. For the five
years preceding the failure the average calculated stress at n Figure 16. The horizontal profile (top) and vertical profile
throw nine was 2700 psi (186 bar). (bottom) are given.

The horizontal graph has no indication of any problem

n Figure 15. Arrow points at the web failure of throw nine.
The horizontal crankshaft profile shows a side bow of
26 mils with an abrupt change in direction at throw six.
at throw nine. The vertical crankshaft profile shows a
slight “S” shaped curve at the fracture location. Based
on these two graphs and the calculated stress there
was no reason to suspect that throw nine was subject
to any undue stress levels that might initiate a cyclic
fatigue crack.
The only irregularity we could find was that the frac-
ture location coincided with an obvious crankshaft re-
versal between throws nine and 10. Resolving the max
web deflection vectors clearly shows a reversal in the
vertical direction. (See Figure 17.) It is strongly be-
lieved this “reversal” played a key role in the crack ini-
tiation, the fatigue crack propagation and the eventual
failure of the crankshaft.
Conclusion
Web deflections, sinusoidal curve fits, correlation co-
efficients, calculated crankshaft stress, max deflections

APRIL 2013 84 Compressortech2


n Figure 17. This chart shows crankshaft deflection vectors. Note
the two vectors indicating location of crankshaft reversal.
and angles are valuable diagnostic tools to evaluate the
crankshaft alignment. The information they provide is
throw specific and independent of the other throws on
the crankshaft. Plotting the maximum deflection vectors
and their vertical and horizontal components provides a
way to identify “reversals” in the crankshaft profile.
The 1998 Roswell unit No. 3 crankshaft failure did not
APRIL 2013 85 Compressortech2
FLP_april.indd 1
coincide with the calculated peak stress. The crankshaft
failed in an area where there was a “reversal” between
adjacent throws nine and 10. “Reversals” in the crank-
shaft web deflections could be contributing factors to
crankshaft failures. Web deflection vector analysis can be
an additional set of metrics to evaluate crankshaft align-
ment and risk of crankshaft failure.
Additional work
• Apply this analysis to other engines that have experi-
enced crankshaft failures and see if similar conclusions
can be drawn.
• Mathematically compare adjacent max web deflection
vectors to develop a quantitative measure.
• Determine if there a correlation between “reversals” and
main bearing bridging.
References
1. Advances in Crankshaft Reliability Methods. Harrell,
John P. Jr.; Wattis, Gregory N. and S.; Rennick, Timo-
thy. 1999. Houston: Gas Machinery Research Council,
1999.
2. An Improved Criteria for Assessing Crankshaft Mis-
alignment. Harrell, John P. Jr.; and Wattis, Gregory,
2000. Colorado Springs, Colorado: Gas Machinery
Council, 2000. CT2
12/20/12 10:03 AM
 FEATURED
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Vibration Monitoring System
IMI-Sensors, a division of PCB
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The system can be applied to several
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The system uses the Echo wire-
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APRIL 2013 86 Compressortech2
Antwerp_Sixth.indd 1
Thermal Mass Flowmeters
Cook Compression has released
the Sentrix thermal mass flowmeter,
which is designed for measuring vent
gas flow and helping compressor op-
erators satisfy Environmental Protec-
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Sentrix flowmeters use thermal
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ATEX Cycle switch
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Level Meter
Krohne Inc., a global technology
specialist in the development, manu-
facture and distribution of measuring
instruments for the process indus-
tries, has released the OptiFlex 2200
C/F level meter for liquids and solids.
The device features software-based
dynamic parasite rejection technology
that eliminates false reflections caused
by environmental disturbances and
product build-up. It is the newest addi-
tion to the company’s time domain re-
flectometry guided radar level meters.
OptiFlex 2200, designed for tank
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Alignment Supplies Inc. has added
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an option package for advanced us-
ers. The system differentiates itself
from the core ALiSENSOR Level
system by replacing the 3.9 in. (100
mm) fixture base with the VF fixture
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package, which features a cross-
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straightness, level, squareness, flat-
ness, plumb, shaft straightness or
level, horizontal spindle direction
and vertical spindle direction.
view engine performance by reveal-
ing 20 J1939 parameters broad-
cast from the ECU. Operators can
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to scroll through the parameters,
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shutdown conditions. It also can in-
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an additional MeCAN module, as
well as replace the existing hour-
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Other features include displaying
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The VF fixture package will be offered

as an accessory available to customers
who already own the ALiSENSOR level
with the 3.9 in. (100 mm) fixture base,
and will also be available to new cus-
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Diagnostic Display

FW Murphy has introduced the

PowerView model PV25, a diagnostic
display designed for Tier 4/Euro Stage
3B/4 and below engines. The PV25,
which displays engine parameters
and diagnostic trouble codes, is part
of the company’s existing PowerView
display portfolio.
The display allows operators to

APRIL 2013 87 Compressortech2

ECOM.indd 1 6/5/12 1:11 PM
 IEA Urges More Competition In Asia
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the use of transparent hubs to bal-
ance producer portfolios;
• Gas transport and commercial ac-
n Asia Pacific gas demand will continue to outstrip tivities should be separated and
production. Source: International Energy Agency. prices deregulated at the whole-
sale level;
• Singapore holds the best initial

T
he International Energy Agen-
cy (IEA) has reported that the
Asian market needs a natural
gas trading hub that reflects supply/
demand fundamentals.
The region’s gas market is charac-
terized by long-term contracts, most
of them designed to establish the
economic bases for expensive lique-
fied natural gas (LNG) production and
transportation projects that serve Ja-
pan, Korea and other nations.
“Asia is expected to become the
world’s second-largest gas market by
2015,” the report said. “And yet this
market is dominated by long-term
contracts in which the price of gas is
linked, or indexed, to that of oil.
“In recent years, this has helped
keep Asian gas prices much higher
than those in other parts of the world,
leading to serious questions about the
sustainability of the system and its ef-
fects on Asian competitiveness.”
The IEA study outlined how the Asia
Pacific region’s natural gas market
could evolve from one in which prices
are linked to crude oil to one featuring
a more competitive and dynamic net-
work of trading hubs that better reflect
local gas demand and supply.
IEA said long-term contracts can
play a beneficial role in providing in-
vestment security, but their current
pricing does not accurately reflect gas
market fundamentals or the competi-
tiveness of gas relative to other fuels.
Moreover, without a competitive spot
market for natural gas, there is little
incentive and little scope to change
current commercial practices.
“This leaves both consumers and
producers with insufficient room to ex-
plore different options, and limits the
degree to which natural gas can serve
as a flexible source of energy for both
growing and mature economies,” it said.
The study found:
• Current market structures discour-
age gas consumption and impact
Asian competitiveness vis-à-vis
more flexible markets in the U.S.
and even Europe;
• Experience by the Organization
for Economic Cooperation and
Development suggests that the
prospects for gas hub development,
with Japan, Korea, and China as
likely competitors in the future.
“The prospects are there, but even
the prime candidates will need to do
more,” lEA Executive Director Ma-
ria van der Hoeven said. “China’s
fast-growing domestic gas network
is still underdeveloped, and the en-
tire production chain remains heavily
regulated. Singapore’s small domestic
market means that to grow as a hub
it must rely on re-exports, which are
hindered by regulation.
“Last but not least, Japan has a
great potential to act as a hub, but
it will have to take some important
steps. Domestically, that means im-
proving infrastructure access and
further developing its domestic power
market. But externally, it also means
engaging with exporters to affect the
terms of gas contracting so as to im-
prove efficiency while maintaining
energy security. The LNG producer-
consumer dialogue initiated recently
by Japan can be effective to facilitat-
ing that engagement.” CT2

APRIL 2013 88 Compressortech2

 Case Study: Torsional
Analysis > Investigation of torsional influence on vibrations of motor-
driven reciprocating gas compressor
By Nathan W. Poerner,
Chris D. Kulhanek and
Dr. Klaus Brun, Ph.D.

n Figure 1. This graphic shows torsional

spectrum peaks during shutdown.

M
ost turbo and reciprocating of these speeds can coincide with lat- Operating at these critical speeds
machines operate over a eral or torsional resonant frequencies can be damaging to the machine
wide range of speeds. Some (aka critical speeds) of their shafts. or its seals and bearings, and must
be avoided. Thus, it is important to
Nathan Poerner is a research engineer in the Fluids and Machinery Engineering De- be able to accurately predict critical
partment at Southwest Research Institute. He received his B.S and M.S. degrees in speeds of a machine prior to instal-
mechanical engineering from Texas Tech University. Dr. Klaus Brun is the director of the lation in the field. This is especially
Machinery Program at Southwest Research Institute. He is the chairman of the ASME- true for reciprocating machines that
IGTI board of directors and the past chairman of the ASME Oil & Gas Applications are subject to high-amplitude, low-
Committee. Chris D. Kulhanek is a research engineer in the Fluids and Machinery En- frequency excitations from the cylin-
gineering Department at Southwest Research Institute. He received his B.S. and M.S. ders of either the engine driver or the
degrees in mechanical engineering from Texas A&M University. driven compressor. Excessive tor-

n Table 1. The chart displays predicted torsional natural frequencies (critical speeds).

APRIL 2013 90 Compressortech2

CT170.indd 1 3/20/13 4:36 PM

sional vibrations have led to coupling appears at 101 Hz. These peaks down is typical due to differences in
breakages and sometimes can inter- show up similarly on both the motor loading and temperatures, also veri-
act with lateral vibrations resulting in and compressor torsional measure- fied by the torsional model. The ac-
catastrophic shaft failures. ments, although the peak at 101 tual torsional mode can be expected
These critical speeds can be al- Hz is much more prevalent on the to exist within this range (11 to14 Hz).
tered by adjusting the rotating mass compressor side, which was due to These measured critical speeds were
(inertia) or torsional stiffness of com- the particular shape of the resonant significantly different from values previ-
ponents in the system. Some com- mode. Two peaks were also present ously analytically predicted (18 and 75
mon modifications include adding in the startup data, with the first peak Hz) by a third party. This large difference
flywheels or other masses to the sys- at 14 Hz and the second again at 101 was initially thought to indicate possible
tem and the use of flexible couplings Hz. The shift in frequency of the first damage to the coupling’s elastomeric
(usually with some kind of elastomer- mode between start-up and shut- continued on page 92
ic material) that changes the stiffness
between the driver and equipment
shafts. Critical speeds and torsional
response of the system are typically
predicted using a computer model via
a finite element method (FEM) that
divides the rotating elements into dis-
crete sections with assigned masses
and stiffnesses. With any computer
model, there is some uncertainty of
QUALITY LUBRICANTS YOU CAN DEPEND ON.
the predictions due to both the analy-
sis method and the input boundary
conditions; it is imperative to validate
computational predictions using field
testing. The following presents a tor-
sional analysis case study where
field data and analysis predictions
were compared to validate the fidelity
of the predictions.
The subject study began when the
lateral vibrations of an electric motor
that was part of a reciprocating gas
compressor package with an elasto-
meric coupling reached levels that
tripped a local vibration alarm. To in-
vestigate the theory that these vibra- Stocking
tions were being generated due to locations in
torsional vibrations, measurements the U.S. &
of the torsional and lateral vibrations Canada
of the system were recorded during
numerous startups and shutdowns SERVICES
of the unit, and also while the unit Customized Lubricant Application Selection
was run over its effective operating- Oil Analysis • Lab and Problem Application Support
speed range. New Product Development
Torsional vibration data recorded
during the start-up and shutdown of a PRODUCTS
unit is critical for determining the tor- Semi Synthetics • Synthetic Polyalkylene Glycols (PAG’s)
sional critical speeds, as one or more Synthetic Polyol Esters (POE’s) • Synthetic Diesters
orders of running speed are likely
to pass through the modes. As an
Synthetic Polyalphaolefin (PAO’s)
example, data from one of the shut-
downs of the current study is shown 866.366.5699 • Fax: 281.367.5685 • Synthosol.com
in Figure 1. In this data, there are two
peaks that are prevalent: the first ap- mpe@mastersprocess.com
pears at 11.25 Hz, and the second

APRIL 2013 91 Compressortech2

MasterSynthetics.indd 1 1/15/13 10:02 AM

material. To investigate this difference
and determine if a drastic change in
the elastomer was at fault, Southwest
Research Institute (SwRI) created its
own torsional analytical model using
SwRI’s proprietary torsional software
and the manufacturer’s machine data.
From this model, SwRI was also able to
investigate the effect variable elastomer
stiffness and orientation of the coupling
would have on critical speeds.
Results in Table 1 show that the fre-
quencies of the first and second criti-
cal speed with the nominal stiffness
and the coupling oriented with heavy
side on the compressor match excep-
tionally well with the measured values;
n Figure 3. The chart displays
motor torsional spectral response
during speed sweep.
APRIL 2013 92 Compressortech2
that is 13.8 Hz, which is within the
range of measured values, and 97.2
Hz, which differs by less than 5%. Ad-
ditionally, the mode shapes for each
of these critical speeds also match the
relative observed torsional levels.
With the same stiffness but op-
posite orientation (heavy side on the
motor end) the first two critical speeds
were predicted to nominally be 18.7
Hz and 82.7 Hz, which matches the
previously predicted values. Check-
ing with the facility did confirm that the
heavy side of the coupling was, in fact,
on the compressor. Therefore, it was
concluded that the coupling elasto-
meric material had not degraded, and
n Figure 2. The chart shows
motor DE horizontal vibrations
during speed ramp.
the coupling was operating in the best
possible configuration.
It was still left to determine whether
it is a torsional effect that is driving
the lateral vibrations of the motor. The
measured lateral vibrations indicated a
strong 3x response that decreased in
amplitude with speed; the most severe
of these vibrations was observed at the
motor drive end in the horizontal direc-
tion (Figure 2). An operating deflection
shape of the motor at this frequency re-
vealed that the motor was vibrating in
a yawing motion; a lateral motion that
is not likely to be excited by a torsional
vibration of the motor shaft.
This frequency also falls in between
 the first two torsional critical speeds
PRIME
and does not coincide with either critical Movers
speed over the entire operating range.
Still, the measured torsional vibrations J-W Energy
of the motor shaft for the same time J-W Energy Co. President G. Gene his tenure, the company has grown from
(Figure 3) do show a peak at the 3x fre- Gradick has been given the additional US$70 million to more than US$800 mil-
quency; but given the layout of the unit duties of chief executive officer with lion in gross revenue and from US$147
(six-throw unit in offsetting pairs), a 3x the responsibility of managing day-to- million to US$1.5 billion in assets.
response was expected. However, the day operations. Prior to joining the company, Gradick
amplitude of the torsional vibration at 3x Gradick joined6/1/10
Centa.qxp J-W Energy PM asPage was
in 1998
12:02 1 president of Delhi Gas Pipeline
does not vary relative to speed like the chief operating officer and was promot- Corp. He is a mechanical engineering
lateral vibrations did, so it was unlikely ed to president in January 2005. During graduate of Texas A&M University.
that any coupling between the lateral
and torsional vibrations of the motor
was occurring at this frequency.
Some additional torsional peaks
did show changes over the speed
ramp. Specifically, the 9x and 10x or-
ders show drastic peaks as they pass
through 101 Hz. But as found earlier,
this was the frequency of the second MAKE A CONNECTION
critical speed, and since there are
no related peaks found in the lateral
vibrations, it was concluded that this
response was not coupling with lateral
vibrations on the motor, either.
The results from this torsional field
testing and analytical comparison
showed excellent coincidence between
SwRI predictions and field measure-
ments when proper boundary condi-
tions are applied. Specifically, the first
critical speed of the unit was measured ,QQRYDWLYH ÀH[LEOH FRXSOLQJV IRU
in the range of 11 to 14 Hz, and the SRZHU JHQHUDWLRQ DSSOLFDWLRQV
second critical speed was near 101 Hz.
‡ 2YHU  XQLTXH FRXSOLQJ GHVLJQV
A torsional model of the system con-
‡ 2YHU  PLOOLRQ XQLWV VROG
firmed these by predicting the first criti-
‡ 7RUVLRQDO 9LEUDWLRQ H[SHUWV
cal speed at 13.8 Hz and the second at
7UXVW &(17$ ± 7KH *OREDO ,QQRYDWRU
97.2 Hz and indicated that the coupling
Since 1970
was operating as intended. The lateral
yawing vibration that was occurring on
the motor at 3x running speed actu-
ally falls in between the first two critical
speeds and causes no interference.
Furthermore, the expected 3x tor-
sional vibration that did exist due to the
machinery did not indicate any cou-
pling with the lateral vibrations. Hav-
ing determined that there was no sig- CENTAMAX – HTC
3RZHU 7UDQVPLVVLRQ
“High Thermal Capacity”
nificant coupling between the torsional
design - patent pending /HDGLQJ E\ ,QQRYDWLRQ
and lateral vibrations, it was ultimately ,PSURYHG DLU ÀRZ SDWWHUQV
determined that the vibrations on the for higher Power Loss
motor were developing as a result of Catalog downloads at ZZZFHQWDLQIR
Sizes thru 45 kNm nominal
forces being transmitted by lateral vi- torque Email inquiries to LQIR#FHQWDFRUSFRP
brations, and involve coincidences with Torsionally very soft –
linear characteristic 2570 Beverly Dr. #128, Aurora, IL 60502 T 630.236.3500
lateral mechanical natural frequencies
in the system. CT2

APRIL 2013 93 Compressortech2

CT170.indd 4 3/20/13 4:37 PM

 snapshot

APRIL 2013
95
Oklahoma School Tops Out Building

Oklahoma State University Institute of Technology students and staff

gather at a topping out ceremony for the gas compression training
center on the Okmulgee, Oklahoma, campus. The structural steel
framework was completed on Feb. 11. The 24,000 sq.ft. (2200 m2)
building is due to be finished in May.

Compressortech2
 12
11 1
10 2
3 Scheduled Downtime DJ Slater, Puzzlemaster

8 4 Visit www.compressortech2.com for answers.

7 5
6
Puzzling Maintenance
Adjust Interval
M I S F I R E T S O C O M P O N E N T S Analysis Lubrication
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R V I S U A L R E G R A H C S I D E A F Capacity Malfunction
O M N N I Z I N T E R N A L T T H U T I Changes Method
Check Misfire
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Clean Monitor
R T I D I A G N O S T I C Z P S U O I T Condition Operate
A A C C Y T I L I B A I L E R O R I L E Components Optimize
M U A H C E C N A M R O F R E P S T A R Composition Overhaul
E L T A K M G N N B D O H T E M A A I V Compressor Package
Consideration Performance
D A I N H P M B U I L D U P C O N R C A
Cost Potential
A V O G E E O L P F I C O A H C A E E L Critical Pressure
R E N E L R P F U E L N P J Q N L D P Y Diagnostic Preventive
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P P N O I T I D N O C O M P R E S S O R Evaluate Reliability
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C F N W O V E R H A U L W M O N I T O R Indication Upgrade
Inspection Utilize
K Y K V P R E S S U R E T A R E P O N N
Internal Visual

NEW2013_SpanishAd.indd
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 U.S. Energy Corp 1k x 1" 3/11/03 11:06 A

Marketplace
EXPLOSION PROOF

Custom
AC&DC ENGINE STARTING SYSTEMS
• STARTER MOTORS • ALTERNATORS
• SWITCHES • CLASS I, DIV. 1&2, GROUP D

Reprints
UNITED STATES ENERGY CORPORATION
1600 MISSILE WAY, ANAHEIM, CA 92801
(714) 871-8185 • (714) 871-9229 FAX
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APRIL 2013 97 Compressortech2

EGCR.indd 1 2/8/13 8:38 AM
Advertiser’s Index
*Further information on this company’s products can be found in the 2012 Edition of the Global Sourcing
Guide (at GSGnet.net) and 2013 Compression Technology Sourcing Supplement (at CTSSnet.net).
Aavolyn Corporation ............................................63 * Dresser-Rand ..................................................35, 37 Lufkin Industries, Inc. ...........................................82
www.aavolyn.com www.dresser-rand.com www.lufkin.com
ACI Services, Inc. ..................................................22 Eastern Gas Compression Roundtable ..............97 MIRATECH .............................................................11
www.aciservicesinc.com www.egcr.org www.miratechcorp.com
Altronic, LLC ....................................................40-41 ECOM America ......................................................87 MOTORTECH GmbH..............................................15
www.altronic-llc.com www.ecomusa.com www.motortechamericas.com
ARIEL .......................................................................1 E Instruments International .................................79 Murphy, FW ..........................17, 19 & Fourth Cover
www.arielcorp.com www.E-Inst.com www.fwmurphy.com
Argentina Oil & Gas Expo 2013 ...........................89 Elliott Group ......................................Second Cover Neuman & Esser Group .......................................39
www.aog.com.ar www.elliott-turbo.com www.neuman-esser.com
ARMCO Compressor Products Corp. .................25 Ellwood Crankshaft Group ..................................80 Nidec ASI S.p.A. ....................................................67
www.armcocompressor.com www.ellwoodcrankshaftgroup.com www.nidec-asi.com
Arrow Engine Company .......................................71 Exterran ............................................................44-45 Petro Canada – Suncor ........................................59
www.ArrowEngine.com www.exterran.com sentron.ca
AXH air-coolers .....................................................73 FLP, Fluid Line Products .....................................85 Reynolds French ...................................................77
www.axh.com www.fluidline.com www.r-f.com
BG Service Co. Inc, The .......................................27 Gas Drive Global LP .............................................61 * Rolls-Royce .............................................................9
www.bgservice.com www.gasdriveglobal.com www.rolls-royce.com
BETA Machinery Analysis ...................................53 GE’s Waukesha gas engines .................................5 Rottler Manufacturing ..........................................47
www.BetaMachinery.com www.ge-waukesha.com www.rottlermfg.com
BORSIG ZM Compression GmbH ........................43 GE Oil & Gas .........................................Third Cover Samsung Techwin Co., Ltd. .................................65
www.geoilandgas.com www.samsungcorp.com
www.borsig.de/zm
GUARDIAN Engine + Compressor Control ........57 Southwest Research Institute .............................55
Burckhardt Compression AG ..............................33 www.guardiancontrol.com
www.burckhardtcompression.com pulsations.swri.org
Hahn Manufacturing Company ............................80
Cameron ...........................................................50-51 www.Hahnmfg.com Summit Industrial Products .................................75
www.c-a-m.com www.klsummit.com
Harsco Industrial Air-X-Changers .......................23
Catalytic Combustion Corporation .....................69 www.harscoaxc.com SYNTHOSOL .........................................................91
www.catalyticcombustion.com www.mastersprocess.com
ITW Chockfast Grout ............................................83
CECO, Compressor Engineering Corp. ..............10 www.chockfastgrout.com Tech Transfer, Inc. ...............................................2-3
www.tryceco.com www.techtran-hou.com
KB Delta Compressor Valve
CENTA Corporation ..............................................93 Parts Mfg. .........................................................30-31 Testo, Inc. ..............................................................48
www.centa.info www.kbdelta.com www.testo350.com
Compressor Products International ...................13 Kiene Diesel Accessories, Inc. ............................83 Turbomachinery/Pump Symposia .......................94
www.c-p-i.com www.kienediesel.com turbolab.tamu.edu
Continuous Control Solutions .............................21 Korea Rotating Machinery Symposium ..............79 Universal LLC ........................................................38
www.ccsia.com www.krmea.or.kr www.UniversalAET.com
Cook Compression ...............................................49 Kobelco/Kobe Steel Ltd. ......................................29 * Voith Turbo Inc. ....................................................70
www.cookcompression.com www.kobelcocompressors.com www.voithturbo.com
DCL International Inc. .............................................7 LIONOIL ...........................................................73, 86 Waukesha Bearings ..............................................60
www.dcl-inc.com www.lionoil.be www.waukeshabearings.com/CT

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E-mail: slizdas@dieselpub.com • Address: 20855 Watertown Road, Suite 220, Waukesha, WI 53186 2012
 Cornerstones Of Compression story continued from page 100
cu.in. (57.5 L) was introduced.The direct ancestor of the fu-
ture VHP engine series was the model VLRO. Introduced in
1954, it was the first V12 (12-cylinder vee) version of the 8.5
x 8.5 series. With a displacement of 5788 cu.in. (94.8 L), it
doubled the power output of the popular 6LRO.
According to the Waukesha Engine Historical Society,
Waukesha went to a new model designation scheme in
1963. The 6LRO was renamed the F2894, the 6LRZ be-
came F3520, and the VLRO became L5788G.
That same year, the model L7040 was introduced as
a 9.375 in. (238 mm) bore x 8.5 in. (216 mm) stroke V12
engine with a displacement of 7041 cu.in. (115.4 L). The
1964 Diesel and Gas Engine Catalog listed the 7040G gas
engine with a rating of 1186 hp (884 kW) at 1200 rpm for
continuous duty and 1005 hp (749 kW) for “extended con-
tinuous duty” with the footnote “for extended engine life.”
In 1967, Waukesha extensively redesigned the 12-cylinder
engine series. Among the improvements were open cham-
ber diesel technology, four valve heads, angle-split serrated
rods, new manifolds and a stronger lower end.
The F2894 and F3520 six-cylinder engines were also
completely redesigned in the same manner, and togeth-
er with the L5788, were designated as the VHP family of
engines. Traditionally, the letters VHP stood for Very High
Power, but historical accounts vary as to the source of
the name. All the engine models in the VHP family were
renamed, with the L5788 becoming L5790 and the L7040
becoming L7042.
Also in 1967, the GSI turbocharged and intercooled ver-
sions of the VHP were developed with increased power rat-
ings and performance. A 1969 advertisement showed the
L4042GSIU rated at 1300 hp (969 kW) at 1200 rpm. It also
alluded to a 16-cylinder VHP, rated up to 2250 hp (1678
kW) to be available in 1970. Actually developed in 1969, the
P9390 V16 engine is the largest of the VHP engine series
with a 9388 cu.in. (153.8 L) displacement.
With demand for lower emissions, a series of VHP “lean-
burn” gas engines was first introduced in the mid-1980s.
The VHP lean burn models were designated as 2895GL,
3521GL, 5108GL, 5790GL, 7042GL and 9390GL. In 1998,
the Series Four six- and 12-cylinder 9.375 in. (238 mm)
bore, models 3524GSI and 7044GSI, respectively, went
into production with new improved cylinder heads.
In the 1980s, the largest VHP engines — the 16-cylinder
P9390GSI and P9390GL — had a continuous rating as high
as 2063 hp (1538 kW) at 1200 rpm. Similarly, the L7042GSI
and L7042GL were rated as high as 1547 hp (1154 kW) at
1200 rpm.
Waukesha continued to manufacture both diesel and
gaseous-fueled versions of the VHPs for a number of years,
but eventually discontinued building diesels to focus on their
major niche in the gaseous engine market.
Today, under GE Power & Water, the Waukesha gas en-
gine series ranges from 160 to 4835 hp (119 to 3606 kW) for
driving gas compressors in applications from the wellhead
through processing, storage and distribution pipelines.
Central to this lineup is the versatile, gaseous-fueled six-,
12- and 16-cylinder VHP Series with both rich-burn and
lean-combustion systems. Total production volumes are not
available, although GE indicated that from 1985 through
mid-2012, some 10,849 VHP engines were produced, with
7120 for gas compression applications.
The VHP V12s remain popular, a half-century after their
introduction. The L7042GSI has evolved to a current rat-
ing of 1480 hp (1104 kW) at 1200 rpm with an 8:1 com-
pression ratio that provides a wider range of fuel tolerance.
Introduced in 2001, the upgraded rich-burn Series Four
L7044GSI is rated at 1680 hp (1253 kW) at 1200 rpm. CT2

Model No. Of Bore Stroke Displacement Compression Combustion Max Rated Power
Cyls. in./mm in./mm cu.in./L Ratio hp/kW

F3514GSI 6 9.375/238 8.5/216 3520/58 8:1 Rich Burn 740/552

F3521G 6 9.375/238 8.5/216 3520/58 10:1 Rich Burn 515/384
F3521GL 6 9.375/238 8.5/216 3520/58 10.5:1 Lean Burn 738/550
F3524GSI 6 9.375/238 8.5/216 3520/58 8.0:1 Rich Burn 840/626
L5774LT 12 8.5/216 8.5/216 5788/95 10.2:1 Lean Burn 1450/1081
L5790G 12 8.5/216 8.5/216 5788/95 10:1 Rich Burn 845/630
L5794GSI 12 8.5/216 8.5/216 5788/95 8.25:1 Rich Burn 1380/1029
L5794LT 12 8.5/216 8.5/216 5788/95 10.2:1 Lean Burn 1450/1081
L7042G 12 9.375/238 8.5/216 7040/115 10:1 Rich Burn 1025/764
L7042GL 12 9.375/238 8.5/216 7040/115 10.5:1 Lean Burn 1480/1105
L7042GSI 12 9.375/238 8.5/216 7040/115 8.0:1 Rich Burn 1480/1105
L7044GSI 12 9.375/238 8.5/216 7040/115 8.0:1 Rich Burn 1680/1253
P9390GSI 16 9.375/238 8.5/216 9388/154 8:1 Rich Burn 1980/1476
P9390GL 16 9.375/238 8.5/216 9388/154 10.5:1 Lean Burn 1980/1476

n Current VHP Engine Series Specifications – 1200 rpm rated speed.

APRIL 2013 99 Compressortech2

CT158.indd 2 3/25/13 8:44 AM

 C ornerstones Of Compression

n This 1380 hp (1029 kW), 1200 rpm Waukesha L5794GSI gas engine, one of the cur-
rent VHP models, drives an Ariel JGE-4 compressor in a gas compression application.

Waukesha VHP Series

Gas Engines > After a half-century, workhorse V12s
are still popular By Norm Shade

T
he Waukesha VHP series natural gas engine was intro-
duced in 1963. Since then it has been applied in some
of the harshest and most demanding gas compres-
sion, power generation and mechanical drive applications.
In particular, the model 7042 V12 has been widely used
for driving gas compressors. In 1969, the Diesel and Gas
Turbine Catalog featured an installation of two dozen 7042s
rated at 1000 hp (746 kW) at 1000 rpm driving Worthing-
ton CUB compressors in reinjection service at the Kaybob
South gas field in Alberta.
But the VHP’s roots go back as far as the early 1920s,
when Waukesha Motor Co. introduced multicylinder internal
combustion engines to the oil fields of East Texas. As the
oil operators needed more power, Waukesha introduced an
engine with 8.5 in. (216 mm) bore and 8.5 in. (216 mm)
stroke in 1930. That six-cylinder model 6LRO, with a dis-
placement of 2894 cu.in. (47.4 L), became the standard of
the oil fields.
Enjoying a niche in the oil patch, by 1935 Waukesha
evolved this frame size into the model 6LRH engine, a low-
compression, fuel-injected, spark-ignited, multifuel engine
that could burn just about any kind of fuel. In 1949, the
model 6RLD, the first diesel version of the 8.5 x 8.5 engine,
went into production. That same year, a 9.375 in. (238 mm)
bore version, the model 6LRZ with a displacement of 3520
continued on page 99

APRIL 2013 100 Compressortech2

GE is helping to overcome the difficulties of producing and
transporting offshore natural gas by providing technology
in which gas is liquefied at sea then shipped globally.
Building on its combined LNG and offshore technology
expertise, GE has been selected for the world’s first FLNG
projects. Together with its partners, GE is supplying faster
and proven solutions to produce LNG.

Visit us at LNG 17 in Houston, Texas on April 16 – 18.

geoilandgas.com

©2013 General Electric Company

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