LEARNING ree eer ae Ere ieko Ree ee ee ae Peete care eum Cee ee tee e cuca Eerie itech ewe Pouca aaa oa Perce arses Srnec on ean seo ern! Beni? Reina ose Peek orcie cs Sia!i i I i i 5 i i 2 | Inthe ust we capa we ckedat wo very laments aiorecprocatcaus | snddeagune different descritions of how learning coours. sation. This imoressive-sounding | aen/An eons Operent conditioning focuses exclusively on the mouthful 's not as diffu 0 Inte bocce role of observable, external events on learning understand as it sounds. Triadic an now behaviors end strengthening or weakening simply means having three ele- | feral cues ing is the insight it provides about how environ- that tho elements influence one | Ses femforeemart. ‘existing ones. The sirength of operant cancition- ments, and reciprocal indicates | Seerroplehesetare ‘mental consequences effect leaming. Its main another. The entire term means weakness is that it offers no insights into what that one's internal processes, faveation people do with that information. behavior, and social environment | Mhesanéepial Information-processing theory, on the other {the “triecie” part of the term) can | emmvenente hend, focuses almost exclusively on the role of attect one another (the “recioro- | heh species ihr internal processes in learning. In this view, people cal” parti to produce learning (the | setmenespablites ate exposed to stil and whether ere how they “causation” per. To simply our | lagen arane attend to, encode, store, and retrieve thet informa- writing and your reaging, we wit | Segayullsey tion influences what they know end can do. But refer to Bandura's model of viadic | Braet sndsceal informetion-processing theory has very tle to sey reciprocal causation as the triadic ‘about how the social setting in which behavior ‘model Peary ‘occurs influences whet people learn, Bendura and others (2.9. (atneran That brings us to this chapter, where we Pejares, 2009; Schunk, 1998, eeuecrmstiat will examine a third approach that shares com- 2001; Zimmerman, 2000) are par- | foreman men ground with operant conditioning and infor- ticularly interested in using social | Per ownbetaver. ‘mationsprovessing theory but goes beyond both. cognitive theory to describe how ©“ Known initaly 2s social learning theory and more people become selfregulated recently es social cognitive theory, this explane- —_leemers. tion of learing was based onthe premise tat neither spontaneous behavior nor reinforcement r , is necessary for larring to our. New behaviors LO Self-Regulation and could also be learned by observing and imitatinge Self-Efficacy, and How ‘model. The current version of social cognitive the. They Affect Learning ary incorporates elements of both operant cond geal eognitve the athe ‘ it cognitive theory assumes that people, toning end inforration processing, and emphe. Neen EN EE Eee eit Albert Bandura (1888, 1997, 2001, 2002) is tial control we have over our own behavior, end factors: (1) personal characteristics, such as the - The Nature of Self-Regulation (2) Sehavioral patterns; and (3) the social environ. What does self-regulation mean? Basically, it ‘ment, such as interactions with others. Bandura refers to the ways in which we alter our behav- calls the process of interaction among these three {or in order to achieve a goal in response to dif- ferent forces without being prompted to do so. Triadic reciprocal ‘The cruise control feature in your car is @ simple nonhuman example. You set it at, say, 65 miles causation: behavior is ‘per hour, and the computer adjusts the throttle the result of interactions ‘to maintain that speed as the car travels up and among personal down hills or encounters strong winds. In simi- aor lar fashion, people regulate their own behavior as characteristics, behavior, they encounter different forces. A teacher who and environmental factors modifies a particular day’s lesson plan to cepitalieeon students’ interest in a major news story, monitors students’ reaction to the new lesson, com- peres her students’ and her own performance against an internal standard, and rewards herself if she feels that standard has been met is illustrating the essence of self-regulation. But students who have to be constantly reminded to set aside sufficient time for home- ‘work and to eliminate distractions are not demonstrating seit reguleted behavior. In essence, self-regulation involves spontane- ously bringing appropriate personal resources to bear on a problem. et of conatos. ao eee breparestonandie porter os ‘When epplied to the classroom, self-regulated earning involves, among other things, knowing under ‘what circumstances to use particular learning tech- riques end why they work (part of the metacognition ‘concept we introduced in the previous chapten), analyz- ing the characteristics of learning tasks, using various ‘techniques for learning new information, using various techniques for remaining calm end confident, estimat- ing how much time it will take to complete @ tesk, moni- toring one's progress, knowing when and from whom, ‘to seek help, and feeling a sense of pride and satistac- tion about accomplishing one’s learning goals (Paris & Paris, 2001; Pressley & Hilden, 2006; Schunk, 2001; Zimmerman & Kitsantas, 2005}, “Being able to regulate one’s cognitive processes is 2 critically important capability for students to aequire for at least three reasons: 1. As students get older, and especially when they get into the riddle end high school grades, they are "expected to essume greeter responsibilty for their learning than in earlier grades; thus, they receive Jess prompting and guidence from teachers and parents. 7 2. As students move through the primary, elemen tary, middle school, and high school gredes, they 188 have to lean and be tested over increasingly larger amounts of more complex material. With less parental end teacher supervision, the temptation 10 put off studying or to do it superfcaly increases. Unfortunately, the damaging long-term conse- quences of poorly regulated academic behavior {low grades and ciminished opportunities for higher ‘education end employment] are not immeiately ‘poerent. 2. Because of the ranid pace of change in today’s world, ingividvals increasingly need to be seit- - directed, autonomous learners not just during their ‘school years but over their Ifetimes (Zimmerman, 11990, 2002) ‘Although the skill of selfegulation is important to academic success, some students are better at it then’ others, The characteristic that is most strongly related to and best explains differences in self-regulation is per- ceived self-efficacy. In the next section, we describe self-efficacy and its relationship to self-regulation, ‘Should the development of self regulated leaming skills be she 2 an eee TERA Gen Tag rae The Role of Self-Efficacy in Self-Regulation ‘Self-efficacy refers to how capable or prepared we believe we are to handle particular kinds of tasks (Bandura, 1987, 2001, 2002). For exemple, @ student may have a high level of self-efficacy for mathematical reasoning—a feeling that she can master any math task ‘she might encounter in @ particular course—but have low level of self-efficacy for critical analysis of English litereture. Self-regulation is important because students are expected to become increasingly independent learners as they progress through school Self-efficacy beliefs occupy @ centrel role in social ‘cognitive theory because of their widespread end signif: cant effects, They help influence whether people think optimistically or pessimistically, act in ways that ere CChaoter 9: Soci Cognitive TheoryFIGURE 8.1 Antecedents and Effects of Sel-Efficacy Se aiilea beneficial or detrimental to achieving goals, approach 1 or avoid tasks, engage tasks with e high or low level of motivation, persevere for a short or lengthy period of time when tasks are cifficult, and are motivated or demoralized by failure. These beliefs are often called the single most important fector that affects the strength of ® person's sense of agency. Students who believe they are capable of success- fully performing @ task are more likely than students with low levels of selt-efficacy to use such self-regulating skills a8 concentrating’on the task, creating strategies, using appropriate tactics, managing time effectively, ‘monitoring their own performance, and making what- ever adjustments are necessary to improve their future: learning efforts. By contrast, students who do not believe they have the cognitive skills to cope with the demands of a particular subject are unlikely to do much Chapter : Social Cognitive Theory serious reading or thinking about the subject or to spend much ‘time preparing for tests, Such stu- dents are often referred to es lazy, inattentive, lacking intietive, end dependent on others. They often find themselves in a vicious circle as their avoidance of challenging tasks and their dependence on others recuces their chances of developing self-regulation skils ‘and a strong sense of solf-fficacy (Bandura, 1997; Pejares, 2009). Self-efficacy can be affected by one or more of several fac- tors and, in tum, can affect one (or more of several important self- regulatory behaviors (see Figure 91). “Factors That Atfect Set Efficacy Four factors that effect self-efficacy are shown on the “Antecedents” side of Figure 9.1 Performance accomplishments. One obvious way in which we develop a sense of what we can and cannot do in various areas is by thinking about how ‘well we have performed in the past on e given task oF a set of closely related tasks. If, for example, my friends are always reluctant to have me on their ‘eam for neighbornoad baseball games, and if | strke out or around out far more often than | hit, | will probably conclude that | just do not have whatever ‘kil it takes to be a competitive baseball player. Conversely, if my personal history of performance in ‘school includes mostly grades of A and | consistently rank emong the top 10 students, my sense of acz- demic self-efficacy is likely to be quite high. Verbal persuasion. A second source of influence ‘mentioned by Bandura—verbal persuasion—is also feirly obvious. We frequently try to convince a child student, relative, spouse, fiend, or coworker that he or she has the ability 1o perform some task at an acceptable level. Perrans you can recall feeling somewhat more confident about handling some task (such as college classes) after having several family members and friends express their conf- dence in your ebilty Self-efficacy beliefs influence the use of self-regulating skills. 189ee ener See ae) 3, Emotional arousal. & third source of influence is more subtle, It is the emotions we feel as we pre- pare to engage in a task. Individuals with low selt- efficacy for science may become anxious, fearful, or restless prior to attending chemistry class or taking an exam in physics. Those with high selt-etficscy may feel assured, comfortable, and eager to dis- play what they have learned. Some individuals are acutely aware of these emotional states, and their emotions become a cause 2s well as 2 result of their high or low self-efficacy. 4. Vieatious experience. Finally, our sense of self- efficacy may be influenced by observing the suc cesses and failures of indlviduels with whom we identify. This is what Bandura referred to as vicars ‘ous experience. If | take note of the fact that 2 sibling of neighborhood friend who is like me in many respects but is @ year older hes successfully adjusted to high school, | may feel more optimis- tic about my own adjustment the following year. We will have more to say a bit later in this chapter ‘about the role of observing and imitating @ model. Pause! On the basis of your own experience, do you agree that personal experience Reflect is the most imoortant factor affecting solfefficacy? What steps can you take 10 raise the prob- ability that your students will experience more suc> cesses than failures? Of these four self-efficacy factors, personal accom- plishment is the most important because it carries the 190 greatest weight. As important as itis to feel calm and be free of crippling fear or anxiety, to have parents, peers, and teachers express their confidence in us, and to have successful models to observe, actual failures are likely to override these other influences. In other words, our feelings, the comments of others, and the actions of models need to be confirmed by our own performance if they are to be effective contributors to self-efficacy. ‘Types of Behavior Affected by Self-Efficacy The four ‘types of behavior that are at least partly influenced by an individual's level of self-efficacy are shown on the “Effects” side of Figure 9.1 1. Selection processes: By the term selection pro- cesses, we mean the way a person goss about selecting goals and activities. Individuals with a strong sense of self-efficacy, particularly if it extends over several areas, are more likely than others 10 consider 2 variety of goels and participate in a variety of activites. They may, for example, think about e wide range of career options, explore several majors while in college, take a variety of ‘courses, participate in cifferent sporting activities, engage in different types of social ectivities, and have a wide circle of friends. Self-efficacy influenc CeCe etme anal: cognitive processes, perseverance, Pe mety tee 2. Cognitive processes. Individuals with high self- efficacy, compared with their peers who ere low in self-efficacy, tend to use higher-level thought processes (such as analysis, synthesis, and evalua- tion) to solve complex problems. Thus, in preparing ‘a classroom report or a paper, students with low self-efficacy may do little more than repeat a set of facts found in various sources. In contrast, students, with high self-efficacy often discuss similarities and differences, inconsistencies and contradictions, and make evaluations about the valicity and usefulness Of the information they have found. Another cogni- tive difference is that people high in self-efficacy are more likely to visualize themselves being successful at some challenging task, whereas individuals low in self-efficacy are more likely to imagine disaster. This leads to differences in the next category of behaviors—motivation. Chapter 8: Social Cogritive TheoryFIGURE 9.2 Phases and Categories: of the Self-Reguiation Cycle covethiought Le * ivi ieret ints + leamig-vieted ts, performance: cvirad gals + esnterolgicalbelets * atuingctcomas to effort. _ ably. tase feat, ek 3. Motivational processes. Those who rate their capa- bilties as higher then average can be expected to ‘work harder and longer to achieve a goal than those who feel less cepable. This difference should be particulary noticeable when individuels experience frustretions (poor-quality instruction, for exemple} and setbacks (such as a serious illness). 4 | Affective processes. Finally, when faced with a challenging task, the individual with high selt-ff- cacy is more Ikely to experience excitement, curi- osity, and an eagemess to get sterted rather than the sense of anxiety, depression, and impencing Gisester thet many individuals with low self-efficacy ‘eal Before leaving this discussion of seli-efficacy, we ‘would like to make one last point ebout its role in self regulated behavior. As important as self-efficacy is, you should realize that other factors playa role as well n addition to feeling capable of successfully completing a particular task, students also need to possess besio knowledge end skils, anticipate that ther efforts will be appropriately rewarded, and value the knowledge, skll, or activity that they have been asked to learn or com- plete (Pajares, 2009). Chapter 8 Soci! Cognitive Thoeey Now that we have established the importance of self-efficacy to sel-reguletion, we can turn our atten- tion to the nuts and bolts of self-regulation, Let's do this, by asking the following question: If we were to build an ideal model of a seltregulated learner, what capabilities ‘would it include and at what points in dealing with a task would they be used? The model we describe here comes largely from the work of Barry Zimmerman (2000, 2002), a leading social ‘cognitive theorist and researcher. The Components of a Self-Regulatory System Self-regulatory processes and their related beliefs cen be grouped into one of three categories, each of which, ide- ally, comes into play at cfferent points in time in the course of pursuing @ goal (520 Figure 8.2). Notice how we queitied the fist sentence of this peragraph by saying thatthe various categories of self reguletory processes ideally come into play at Gifferent points during the process. Keep in mind that lesrne's can, for exemple, cycle back tothe forethought phase from the perfor- mance phase before going on to the seltretlec- tion phase, begin a tesk without doing a task enaly- sis, or make seiHudgments and seltraactions at any point in the process (Muis, 2007). As its name implies, the fore- _ thought phase occurs prior to the beginning ofa task. At this point we would like to see learners think about what they want to accomplish (set goals) and heauahegwcgorg ase the Gate Tame stage. These rial steps = wells the ones to come later, will be of little value to learners if they aren't moti- vated 1 se thar, Ts a why selmotvaral blots 210 part of hs phase, Sa-otteacy Dafa, ae you ean probaly guess om whet you reat sate, perinca He EtG ae ate wermalee oe eear dere EAL GAiary socmessloomts erect rao recto (out te cononquamens sachin ia tel fh ca reo rie, Ncoaeed or shi ngs husron sur utah noeation or Settrgultedlearing in stun n which sara fewateere ether ureveluble or oatractne, Gol oreriatons an be leary seread wr petfornenta otentad.Inchivale who have aang orentaion are Fated long pntaiy ots ea reverds ettr understand of ho weld wich thoy Ne, creased competence] end ere more apt to octet to une’ oo gi procesven th are pevfomanceorerted nde, whose gale 191to achieve @ higher score or grade than others. Epistemological beliets refer to what @ person believes ‘about the nature of knowledge and how we come to know things. We can believe, for example, that know! exige is certain (there is @ correct, clear-cut answer for every question or problem that, once known, does not change) or that it evolves as scholars conduct further inquiries. We can believe that the acquisition of know edge ocours either quickly or gradually. We can believe that authority figures are the sole source of all knowl ledge or that knowledge is also acquired through per- sonal observation, experimentation, end reasoning. And ‘we can believe that knowledge is composed of mostly Unrelated pieces or that itis organized, like schemes, into integrated end interrelated bodies. ‘The significance of epistemological beliefs is that ‘they have been shown to affect all aspects of self-reg- ulated learning. For example, students who believe that knowledge is @ collection of mostly unrelated facts are more likely to use rote rehearsal tactics than are stu- dents who believe that knowledge is best thought of as interrelated bodies of information whose structure is likely to change over time. In the course of doing a reseerch project, students who believe that knowledge is certain and unchanging may see nothing wrong with consulting our-of-date reference materials. Students who believe that learning either ocours quickly or not at all ate less likely to persevere with difficult tasks or to tty a different approach when their first approach fails then ere students who believe that learning ocours grad ually and with effort (Muis, 2007) 32 Phase At this point, the learner is faced with the task and actually has to do something (sound familiar?) The first part of this phase is to approech the task in a disciplined manner. This involves focusing attention on the task (ignoring distractions, executing the task et e slower pace than normal, and not thinking about prior mistakes or feiled efforts), describing either silently or out loud the steps involved in cerrying out the task, and using specific tactios to either memorize information in verbatim form or comprehend idees and how they relate to one another (we discuss these later in this chapter) ‘The second part of this phase, self-observation (also known as self-monitoring}, involves keeping track of ‘one’s performance and the conditions that affect it and ‘trying out different self-regulatory behaviors. Self-regulated learners focus on the task, process } information meaningfully, _ and monitor themselves. “Solf-Refleetion Phase Once the task hes been com pleted, the leerer should take stock of what wes done, whether the results were acceptable, and whether changes are called for. In all likelinood, the first thought that will oss the student's mind is, was the result acceptable? A fair question, but one that con be enswered in different ways. One answer may be in terms of how well the student mastered the teacher's objectives, Another answer may involve a comparison with the student's past performance. A third answer Performance Assessment: Student Presentation in a High School English Class Go to the Education CourseMate website end watch the video, study the entfacts in the case, and reflect uoon the following questions: 1. How do the class presentations inthis Video Case allow stu- dents to practice their settreguiation skils? 2. How does the peer assessment component ofthis litereture lesson iaat the saiecton phase of Zimmermon's model? 2 3 2 oO 2S 3 = a rs = SI wm ia =] 3 a 192 Chapter: Soziel Cognitive Theorymay involve a comparison with classmates, If the tsk involved a group effort, a fourth answer may be in terms of the student's contribution to the group, ‘The next step in this self-evaluation process may be a consideration of the factors that played a major role in one's success or felure. This involves identifying what are called causal atvibutions. Whether we judge our performance to be a success of 2 failure will ikely be attributed to one or more of the following causes: abil ity, effort, task difficulty, and luck [we describe these in more detail in Chapter 11]. Self-reinforcement refers to whatever positive thoughts and feslings we experience 28 a result of meeting or exceeding our expectations. Lastly, the ideal learner craws some conclusions about ‘whether and how to improve his or her self-regulatory skils, ‘As we noted earlier, learning to become a self regulated learner (the terms self-directed, eutonamous, ‘and strategic learer are elso used) is one of the most important outcomes of schooling. These skills are essential to achieving success in school end in lif. That being the case, it’s time to examine what you can do to help students acquire this critical cepebilty LO2 Helping Students Become Self-Regulated Learners How Well Prepared Are Students to Be Self-Regulated Learners? We would lke to be able to tell you that most students possess the self-regulated learning (SRL) skilis we have discussed, but unfortunetely, we cannat. Although evi- ence exists thet students are more likly to use effec- tive learning skils as they get older (Greene & Azevedo, 2008; W. Schneider, Knopf, & Stefanek, 2002) and that some students behave strategically by using ciffer- ent learning skils for diferent tesks (Hadwin, Winne, ‘Stockley, Nesbit, & Woszezyna, 2001}, many do not do s0 either systomaticay or consistently. Their atternpts at encoding rarely go beyond rote rehearsal (for exam- ple, rereading a textbook chapter, simple organizational ‘schemes (outlining), and various cuing devices (underin- ing or highlighting), and they have @ poor sense of how well prepared they are to take 2 test (Bond, Miller, & Kennon, 1987; Callender & McDanie|, 2005 te ears ree Butler, & Roediger, 2009; Kornell & Bjork, 2007; McDaniel, Howard, & Einstein, 2009; Peverly, Brobst, Graham, & Shaw, 2003; Winne & Jamieson-Nos|, 2002, 2003}. Because ofits complexity, you can expect exper- tise in SAL to develop gradually over many years. Based (on research on the development of related skils, itis estimated that students will need at least several years of systematic strategy instruction to became highly pro- ficient self-regulated leamers (K. R. Harris, Alexander, & Graham, 2008; Pressley & Hilden, 2006; Winne & ‘Stockley, 1998). This chapter's Case in Print reveals that many students stil seen to lack SRL skills when they reach college. One reason for this state of affairs is thet very li tle instructional time (ebout 10%) is devoted to teach- ing SAL skills (Hamman, Berthelot, Saia, & Crowley, 2000; Moely et al, 1992). Another reason is that teach- ers sometimes make it difficult for students to formu- late and use effective strategies by nat aligning course STS erm ia tu eu Le make appropriate attributions for success and failure, reinforce themselves, and make decisions CUT RCC ML cote mses M (Chapter 8: Socal Copnitive Theoryee Ieomingsttesy goals, classroom instruction, test Agenalpion is Content, and test demands. That ae ig teachers may tel students that Senpneeesare thir goals for students to under- stand concepts, integrate ideas, feemingtee and app wnat hey have learned ‘that a leemer uses. to other tasks and subjects, but Veareorelgtet then emphasize the memorize a tion and recall of fects both in dlaes and on tests. Under these Rconpronereon circumstances, students ere likely GeIeece tote unsue as to vren ype of HES esting) | demand should gover how they Gupeetmelsess study, so they settle on a "middle- ‘section of text and ‘of-the-road” approach that does: SeeasrO —_finico we nether Goekeno & oe van Hout.Wotters, 2007), To help students become effective self-regulated leamers, you will obviously need to teach them the skills that are part of the self-regulation cycle that we described earlier, A good place to start is with some Of the more useful tactics for memorizing and compre~ ending information. The Nature of Learning Tactics and Stratesies (GLaSsyenATARsUTRACOSTTILe al strate cies, it specifies what will be done to achieve the goal, ‘where it will be done, and when it will be done. -enutherTecios.ao the “What” par fe eteteGy™ ‘As you can see, tactics have an integral connection to stretegies. They are the learning tools that move you closer to your goal. Thus they have to be chosen so as to be consistent with the goals of a strategy. If you had +0 recall verbatim the preamble 10 the U.S. Constitution, for example, would you use a leaming tactic thet would help you understand the gist of each phrase or one that ‘would allow accurate and complete recal? It is surpris- ing how often students fall to consider this point. Types of Tactics Most learning tactics can be placed in one of two cat egories based on the tactic’s primary purpose: * Memoryédirected tacties, which contain techniques that help produce accurate storage and retrieval of information, end ‘© Compreensionsirected tactics, which contain ‘techniques thet aid in understanding the meaning of ideas and their interreletionshios (Levin, 1982) Because of space limitations, we cannot discuss all the tactics in each category. Instead, we have chosen to briefly discuss a few thet either are very popular with students or have been shown to be reasonably effec- tive, The first two, rehearsal and mnemonic devices, are memory-dlrected tactics. Both can take several forms ‘nd ere used by students of almost every age. The last two, selfquestioning and concept mapping, are com- prehension-directed tactics used frequently by students from the upger elementary grades through college. Strategy: plan to achieve a long-term goal Tactic: specific technique that helps achieve an immediate objective Rehearsal The simplest form of rehearsal—rote rehearsel—is one of the earliest tactics to appear during childhood, and almost everyone uses it on occasion. It is not 2 particularly effective tactic for long-term storage: ‘and recell because it doesn't produce distinct encoding (oF good retrieval cues. But itis a useful tactic for pure poses of short-term memory. A slightly more advanced. version, cumulative rehearsal, involves rehearsing @ small sat of items for several repetitions, dropping the iter at the top of the list and adding a new one, giv- ing the set several repetitions, dropping the item at the head of the set and adding a new one, rehearsing the set, and so on (Pressley & Hilden, 2006; Schiagmiler ‘& Schneider, 2002). Even among college students lyes, reader, this means youl, rehearsal, in the form of rereading sections of text, is @ very popular tactic (Callender & McDaniel, 2008). Mnemonic Devices A mnemonic device is a memory- directed tactic that helps a learner transform or organize information to enhance its retrievability, Such devices can be used to learn and remember individual items of information (a name, a definition, a datel, sets of infor- ‘mation (alist of names, a list of vocabulary definitions, o CChepter & Socal Cognitive Theory‘TABLE 9.1 Five Types of Mnemonic Devices inemonie ay Leonean Poreeice ey anos Basie Vee ea reer ree eterno eo ces Rye eet Ecoe er er ey eric arene ets roa eet ees ea Peete ree Beara es Eee sens comer) ae eects pore) coe oy eer Peron ieee tony Pree eer yay eccree tet of the rooms of one's house) are Pano er rre) Coenen tats CoCr enone generated and “placed” each ina Separate location. Third, the learner Poteet ony Seer erry) eee ear rears Pere rir ner is ee peso fics Pee eerie foreign language vocabulary, but enc Serine Beers ea eer Pocieoeamer ast ee eraay pcr anger nes CS Ccocn cen er eer eer ny Pros tira erst) Reports Peer! Keyrord method So Uses Sra reece Peer reread Serer ee Bice ieee iad Preteeetecraitiond ois tessear errr Peer a ee) recs Oe eto Se ees cet CUTE react pee eee Cee ean iss ere ere ee re Per root Ere meecra ies, and orien) Oran ead Pecos rs eres eee ere eurearteer oes Sore eee] oneness ee ene Ect sey ‘mouth Place this image in your ene es eres one nt eereer rrr rere ou second location bookshel, erent PO Orne eer Porcher Roar! Peon ca Dee anes Peer erie oar pte ener og Peri cereteed nn Peer Te Pcie eet Doe eer omer Tg Pees) eee tt For kindergarten treugh four Poe Seta) Seer rset) core Se eee oon aerate Ricerca rey Prone reread Pena eres Bren bor See ne ieee reer overeat Pa eee pooee ae SOURCES: Atkinson (1875: tnson& Ravgh (1975; Beleza (B81; Camoy, Lovin, & Lavin {160c Raugh& Atigon (1975; Yates (1966 sequence of events), and ideas expressed in text. These devices range from simple, easy-to-learn techniques to ‘somewhat complex systems that require 2 feir amount of practice. Although mnemonic devices have been described and practiced for more then 2,000 years, they were rarely made the object of scientific study unti the 1960s (see Yates, 1986, fora detailed ciscussion ofthe history Chapter 9: Social Cogitive Theory of mnemonics). Since that time, mnemonics have been frequently and intensively studied by researchers, and several reviews of mnemonics research have been done (for example, Bellezza, 1981; Carney & Levin, 2002; Levin, 1993; Snowman, 1986). Table 9.1 provides