Materials and Structures / Mattriaux et Constructions, Vol.
37, November 2004, pp 591-596
Evaluation of water absorption of concrete as a measure
for resistance against carbonation and chloride migration
G. De Schutter and K. Audenaert
Magnel Laboratory for Concrete Research, Ghent University, Belgium
ABSTRACT
The pore structure of concrete is known to be of high
importance for the durability of the material. A les caract6ristiques de la structure des pores. Beaucoup de
characterisation of this pore structure by means of a simple test
is often investigated, in order to find a very simple compliance
criterion with respect to concrete durability. Within some
daily-used Belgian technical guidelines, the water absorption
by immersion is considered to be a relevant parameter in this
respect. Based on an extended experimental research
programme, with tests on 22 different concrete mixes
(traditional concrete and self-compacting concrete), t h e
relation between water absorption by immersion and some
concrete durability issues is investigated. Within these tests,
accelerated carbonation and chloride migration tests are
realised. Furthermore, some technological parameters are
investigated, related with the volume to surface ratio of the
specimens used for the water absorption test. It is concluded
that the influence of the volume-to-surface ratio of the
specimens is not significant when considering the natural
scatter on the test results. Furthermore, the water absorption
by immersion is not a reliable parameter for the estimation of
the concrete durability. The water absorption by immersion
gives an estimation of the total (reachable) pore volume of the
concrete, but gives no indication on the concrete permeability,
which is more important with regard to durability.
1. I N T R O D U C T I O N
It is generally accepted that the durability of concrete is
related to the characteristics of its pore structure.
Editorial Note
Prof. Dr. It. Geert De Schutter is a RILEM Senior Member. He is the Chairman of RILEM TC DSC "Durability of self-compacting
concrete' and also participates in RILEM TCs 195-DTD 'Recommendation for test methods for autogenous deformation and thermal
dilation of early age concrete ', 188-CSC 'Casting of self-compacting concrete' and 196-ICC 'Internal curing of concretes '.
He was afffarded the Robert L'Hermite Medal in 2001.
1359-5997/04 9 RILEM
RI~SUMI~
Il est bien connu que la durabilit6 du b~ton est corrdl6e avec
recherches ont dOjh 6tOfaites concernant la caractdrisation de
cette structure h I'aide d'un essai simple, et ceci, afin de trouver
un critkre d'acceptation simple garantissant la durabilitd.
Parfois, l'absorption d'eau par immersion est considdr~e
comme un paramdtre important clans ce contexte, it l "aide d'un
programme expOrimental de recherche sur 22 compositions
diff6rentes (comprenant b6ton traditionnel et b6ton auto-
plaganO la relation entre l "absorption d'eau par immersion et
deux aspects de la durabilit~ du bOton a Ot6 ~tudi6e. Le
programme exp6rimental inclut des essais accOl6r6s de
carbonatation et de p6n6tration de chlorures. En plus, quelques
paramOtres technologiques ont 6tO examines, comme le rapport
entre le volume et la surface des 6chantillons. De ces essais, il
est conclu que le rapport volume~surface n 'est pas un paramktre
signifiant, tenu compte de la variabilitd des rd,sultats individuels.
De plus, l'absorption d'eau par immersion n'est pas un
paramktre fiable pour l'estimation de la r~sistance contre la
carbonatation et la migration de chlorures. L "absorption d'eau
par immersion donne une idde globale de la porosit~ totale du
b6ton. Malheureusement, l'absorption d'eau par immersion
n "estpasfortementcorr616e avec lapermdabilit6 ; celle-ci est un
param~tre plus important pour la durabilitO.
Degradation mechanisms of concrete often depend on the
way potentially aggressive substances can penetrate into the
concrete, possibly causing damage. This is e.g. the case for
carbonation (penetration of carbon dioxide) and chloride
591
De Schutter, Audenaert
induced corrosion (penetration of chloride ions). The
permeability of the concrete is depending on the porosity,
and on the connectivity of the pores. The more open the pore
structure of the concrete, the more vulnerable the material is
to degradation mechanisms caused by penetrating substances.
A detailed discussion of the relation between permeability
and porosity is out of the scope of this paper. Reference can
be made to literature [1].
A detailed characterisation of the pore structure of the
concrete can be realised by means of advanced techniques
like electron microscopy or X-ray computed tomography [2].
However, these techniques are rather cumbersome, and are
neither available nor useful for daily concrete practice: A
reliable and practical representation of the effect of the pore
structure on durability by means of one simple test result
would clearly be a major step forward for concrete practice.
The use of practical test results, as a criterion for
durability of concrete has been the topic of previous
publications [3-7]. It is well established that the durability
of concrete is to a great extent determined by the ability of
potentially aggressive substances to penetrate into the pore
system of the concrete. This is the reason why testing of
transport parameters for concrete, such as permeability,
diffusivity or absorption behaviour, has often been done on
the basis of durability considerations [3]. A problem with
this approach however is the lack of data on correlation
between the transport characteristics and the resistance of
the concrete to different degradation mechanisms [3].
In Belgium, the water absorption by immersion is daily
used as a practical compliance criterion with regard to concrete
durability. This can be seen in numerous technical
prescriptions (and even in some codes) regarding concrete
products for infrastructure, sewer systems, stables and
buildings (NBN B21-011 (1994) "Tuyaux en brton non arm6
non soumis/t pression interne", PTV 101 (1998) "Chambres
de visite prrfabriqures en briton", PTV 102 (1999)"Elrments
de pertuis rectangulaires prdfabriqurs en brton arm6", PTV
200 (1997) "E16ments de structure prrfabriqurs en brton arm6
ou prrcontraint", PTV 201 (1997) "E16ments prdfabriqurs de
planchers alvroles en brton arm6 et prrcontraint", PTV 202
(1999) "Prrdalles en brton arm6 et prrcontraint (6galement
destinres aux ouvrages d'art"), PTV 203 (1997) "E16ments
prdfabriqurs en bdton arm6 et prdcontraint pour stabulations",
PTV 21-601 (2001) "E16ments architectoniques et industriels
prrfabriquds en brton ddcoratif',...). In this approach, the
water absorption by immersion is determined according to the
Belgian Standard NBN B15-215 (1989). Requirements are
typically twofold: a limiting value for the individual test results
(e.g. limited to 6%), and a requirement for the mean test result
(e.g. limited to 5.5%). Based on practical experience however,
this approach was criticised recently. On this occasion, an
experimental evaluation is made of the usefulness of the water
absorption by immersion as an indication for concrete
durability.
2. WATER ABSORPTION BY IMMERSION
The water absorption by immersion is determined
according to the Belgian Standard NBN B15-215 (1989).
Principally, the test consists of two major steps: saturating
the specimens followed by drying. First, the concrete
specimens are immersed in water until the change in mass
592
during 24 hours is less than 0.1%. The obtained saturated
mass is called Ms. Afterwards, the specimens are dried in a
ventilated oven at a temperature of 105_+5~ until the
difference in mass during 24 hours is less than 0.1%. The
dry mass is called Mo. The water absorption by immersion
(W) is expressed as the water uptake relative to the dry mass:
W- Ms - MD (1)
MD
According to the Belgian Standard, the specimen shape is
not strictly regulated. The ratio of volume to surface (V/S
ratio) however has to be within the range of 12 to 20 ram.
Within the experiments, as described hereafter, also V/S
ratios outside this range will be tested, in order to study the
influence of this parameter. The volume of all the specimens
considered is within the range of 800 to 1200 cm 3, in
accordance with the Belgian Standard.
3. C A R B O N A T I O N AND CHLORIDE
MIGRATION
In Belgium, as in many other countries, reinforcement
corrosion is the main cause of damage to concrete
structures [8]. The hundreds of papers published in the last
two decades on the subject of reinforcement corrosion are a
testimony to the international scale of the problem. It is
well known that this degradation process can be initiated by
two different mechanisms: carbonation and chloride
penetration. Atmospheric carbon dioxide reacts with the
calcium hydroxide, leading to a reduction of the pore
solution pH values. The result is a depassivation of the
steel in contact with the carbonated zones. The chloride
ions may be present in the concrete mix, through the
aggregates, the mixing water, or an accelerating admixture.
However, this is fortunately not common. More frequently,
chlorides penetrate from outside, either due to the presence
of seawater, or because of the application of de-icing salts.
As these two mechanisms - carbonation and chloride
penetration - are responsible for the most common damage
problems related to reinforced concrete structures, they will
be focused on within the experimental part of this research.
4. E X P E R I M E N T A L P R O G R A M
4.1 Technological parameters
In a first part of the experimental program, the influence
of some technological parameters on the determination of
the water absorption by immersion is investigated.
Specimens of different sizes are considered, and the
influence on the resulting water absorption is evaluated.
These tests are realised on concrete mixes 1, 2 and 3, as
given in Table 1.
The specimens tested are cylindrical cores, drilled from
the centre part of concrete cubes with side length 150 mm or
from the central part of concrete prisms 150 m m x 150 m m x
600 ram. Different combinations of diameter and height are
considered, with diameters ranging from 50 mm to 113 ram,
and heights ranging from 50 mm to 250 ram. The V/S ratio
Materials' and Structures / Matdriaux et Constructions, Vol. 37, November 2004

Table 1 - Concrete mixes temperature, relative humidity and carbon

Mix Cement type Cement Water W/C Sand Sand Gravel dioxide concentration. From the age of 21
content content type content content days on, the specimens were preconditioned
(kg/m 3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) at 20~ 60% R.H. From the age of 28 days
1 CEM 1 42.5 R 350 161 0.46 0/5 840 1120 on, the concrete specimens were stored in
2 CEM 1 42.5 R 350 161 0.46 0/2 84O 1120 the carbonation chamber. The tests were
3 CEM 1 42.5 R 350 161 0.46 0/4 840 1120 performed at 20~ 60% R.H. and 10%
4 CEM 1 42.5 R 270 124 0.46 0/5 840 1120 carbon dioxide concentration. The
5 CEM III/A 42.5 LA 350 161 0.46 0/5 840 1120 carbonation rate, expressed in mm/~/year,
6 CEM III/B 32.5 350 161 0.46 0/5 840 1120 was determined for test periods up to 32
7 CEM 1 42.5 R 360 165 0.46 O/5 64O 1225
weeks. Values within the range from 5 to
8 CEM III/A 42.5 LA 360 165 0.46 0/5 640 1225
60 mm/qyear were obtained.
9 CEM 1 42.5 R 400 165 0.41 0/5 626 1200
The chloride migration was tested by
10 CEM 1 42.5 R 360 165 0.46 0/5 853 689
0/5 853 689 means of an accelerated non steady state
11 CEM I 52.5 R 360 165 0.46
12 CEM III/A 42.5 LA 360 165 0.46 0/5 853 689 migration test based on electrochemical
13 CEM I 52.5 R HSR 360 165 0.46 0/5 853 689 principles [9], as described in the Nordtest
14 CEM 1 42.5 R 300 165 0.55 0/5 853 689 Standard NT BUILD 492. The tests were
15 CEM 1 42.5 R 400 165 0.41 0/5 853 689 realised on cores with diameter 100mm
16 CEM 1 42.5 R 450 165 0.37 0/5 853 689 and height 50mm drilled from concrete
17 CEM 1 42.5 R 360 165 0.46 0/5 853 689 cubes with side length 150mm. At the age
18 CEM 1 42.5 R 360 165 0.46 0/5 853 689 o f 28 days the specimens were vacuum
19 CEM 1 42.5 R 300 137 0.46 0/5 923 755 saturated with a saturated Ca(OH)2
20 CEM 1 42.5 R 400 192 0.48 0/5 782 640 solution. Afterwards an electrical
21 CEM 1 42.5 R 360 144 0.40 0/5 865 707 potential (between 10V and 60V) is
22 CEM 1 42.5 R 360 198 0.55 0/5 835 683 applied across the specimens during 24
hours. This electrical field forces the
ranged between 8.3 m m and 19.2 mm, which was partly less chloride ions to migrate into the
than prescribed by the Belgian Standard. On these cylindrical specimens. After 24 hours, the specimen is axially split,
cores, the water absorption is experimentally determined at and the chloride migration is determined by spraying a
an age o f 28 days. silver nitrate solution on the freshly split surface. The
chloride migration coefficient can be calculated from the
obtained migration depths [10]. The experimentally
4.2 Relation with carbonation and chloride
obtained results for the different concrete mixes varied
migration between 4 and 22 10-~2mZ/s.
In order to investigate the relation between water For mixes 1 to 6 the water permeability was also tested
absorption by immersion and durability issues like according to the Belgian code N B N B15-222 (1970). The
carbonation and chloride migration, 22 different concrete test is performed at 28 days, on a concrete cylinder with
mixes were experimentally evaluated, as given in table 1. diameter 113mm and height 120mm. The test specimen is
Both traditional concrete (mixes 1 to 9) and self- preconditioned under water for 7 days, at a temperature of
compacting concrete (mixes 10 to 22) were considered. It 20•176 Afterwards, the top surface of the cylinder is
is relevant here to consider also self-compacting concrete, exposed to water pressure according to the following time
as the technical documents cited in the introduction also schedule: 48 hours at 1 bar, 24 hours at 3 bar, and 24 hours
apply to this new cementitious material. Furthermore, it at 7 bar. During the test, the volume o f penetrated water is
has already been shown that the pore structure o f self- measured (expressed in cubic centimetre, cc). After the
compacting concrete might be somewhat different from that test, the specimen is split, and the migration depth o f the
o f traditional concrete [2]. water is measured (expressed in mm).
As explained before, the experimental program mainly All tests were realised at an age o f 28 days, as explained
consisted o f water absorption tests by immersion (values before. In this way, for each o f the mixes the durability
between 3 and 6.5%) and accelerated carbonation and tests are realised on material with a similar pore structure as
chloride migration tests. However, some other parameters, used for the determination o f the water absorption by
like the air content o f the fresh concrete (values between 1 immersion, enabling a fair evaluation.
and 3.5%) and the compressive strength at 28 days (values
between 35 and 70 N/ram 2) were also determined. For
5. R E S U L T S
mixes 1 to 6, also the water permeability was tested.
For mixes 1 to 6 the water absorption by immersion was
determined on cylindrical specimens with diameter 50mm 5.1 Technological parameters
and height 56mm, yielding a V/S value equal to 8.6 mm.
For mixes 9 to 22, concrete cubes with side length 100 m m The experimentally obtained results concerning the
were used, with V/S equal to 16.7 mm. For all mixes the influence of technological parameters are given in Table 2.
test age was 28 days. Each of the results is the mean value obtained on three
The carbonation of the different mixes was tested in a different specimens. While the Belgian Standard NBN B15-
specially developed carbonation chamber, with adjustable 215 (1989) requires a V/S ratio between 12 and 20 ram, also

593
De Schutter, Audenaert

Table 2 - Experimental results concerning 1.20

technological parameters v
1.15
Specimen specifications Water absorption (%) ~
~. 1.10
Diameter Height
(mm) (mm)
WS
(mm)
Mix 1 Mix 2 Mix 3
O
7, 1.o5
Ie=o.,948I-
50 50 8.3 5.3 5.5 5.3 ~,. r
50 56 8.6 5.3 5.7 5.7
50 250 11.4 5.0 5.8 5.3 X 9
=~ 0.95
80 71 12.8 5.2 5.9 4.9
80 159 16.0 4.9 5.6 4.9 0.90 Xe 9
80 239 17.1 4.9 5.2 4.8
0.85 x 3 ~ 84
113 80 16.6 6.0 5.5 5.0
113 100 18.1 4.6 5.6 4.8 0.80
113 120 19.2 4.6 5.6 4.9 5 10 15 20
V/S (mm)
some values outside this range (lower than 12 mm) have been
considered within the tests. When the results are standardised Fig. 1 - Influence of volume to surface ratio on water absorption.
relative to the results obtained on the specimens with diameter
80ram and height 71mm, the situation of Fig. 1 is obtained.
Only a minor correlation is obtained between the technological
parameter V/S and the water absorption. Although the plotted
results are mean values of three different tests, the scatter is
high, and is certainly more important than a possible influence
3," 2 .h
#p*
,~, -
*
81 *
of WS in the range considered. By performing statistical
testing on the obtained test results, it can be shown that the 0
influence of V/S in the range considered is not significant with 3 4 5 6
respect to a level of significance of 1%.
Water absorption (%)

5.2 Relation with carbonation and chloride Fig. 2 -Relation between water absorption and air content of the
fresh concrete.
migration
The experimentally obtained results concerning the 80
influence of water absorption by immersion on the durability
of concrete are given in Table 3. Fig. 2 shows the relation
between the air content of the fresh concrete and the water 560
absorption by immersion at 28 days. No correlation is noticed
between both parameters. A better correlation is obtained
40
between the compressive strength and the water absorption, as
shown in Fig. 3. As can be expected, higher water absorption '-""" 30 l -
points at a higher porosity, and thus a lower concrete strength.
However, the correlation is still not very high (R2=0.52). O
In literature, water permeability is accepted as a parameter o 10 I,
related with concrete durability. For mixes 1 to 6 the water 0~
permeability was tested as explained before. For these mixes, 3 4 5 6 7
Fig. 4 shows no relation between the entrained water quantity
Water absorption (%)
within the test period and the water absorption by immersion.
Fig. 5 gives a similar result, now looking at the entrained water Fig. 3 - Relation between water absorption and compressive
in terms of penetrated distance during the test. According to strength.
these results, there seems to be no relation between the water
absorption by immersion and the water permeability. A 40
0
35
Althoughpermeability, of course, plays a role in the absorption
.~ 30 R2= 0 . 0 3 4 6 ~ - -
of water, the water absorption by immersion clearly is not a
very sensitive parameter with respect to water permeability. f
The water absorption gives an idea of the total reachable pore
volume (time being no parameter in the test method), but is not
representative for the permeability of the concrete (for which 5 i
time is an important parameter). As for durability the 0 ~
permeability is more impo~nt, it can be expected that water 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
absorption by immersion is not a representative parameter in Water absorption (%)
this respect. Fig. 4 - Relation between water absorption and water permeability
(quantity).

/ 594
M a t e r i a l s ' a n d S t r u c t u r e s / Matdriaux et Constructions, Vol. 37, November 2004

significant correlation
Table 3 - E x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s c o n c e r n i n g i n f l u e n c e o n d u r a b i l i t y
exists between carbonation
Water Air content Compressive Water Water Carbonation Chloride
and water absorption (R 2
absorption of fresh strength at 28 penetration penetration (mm/~/year) migration
Mix about 0.28) or between
at 28 days concrete days (N/ram :) (cc) (mm) (1012mVs)
(%) (%) chloride migration and
1 5.2 2.7 50.6 22 53 7.2 water absorption (R 2 about
2 6.0 3.4 46.2 22 52 18.0 0.20). This might be
3 5.3 2.5 49.1 38 65 7.2 explained by the earlier
4 4.1 2.0 55.7 21 53 7.2 finding that the water
5 5.8 2.1 39.8 13 63 32.5 absorption by immersion is
6 5.8 2.1 37.1 18 69 57.7 not a representative
7 4.9 1.8 45.9 15.5 14.2
parameter for the
8 4.6 1.2 48.8 6.4 11.7
permeability of the
9 4.7 1.3 50.7 - 5.6 8.6
concrete. Furthermore, the
10 4.8 2.2 54.0 - 14.7 11.5
important effect o f e.g.
11 5.0 2.0 54.1 - 21.7 8.1
cement type with respect to
12 5.1 2.4 62.9 23.6 4.6
carbonation mechanism and
13 4.4 1.6 65.0 20.1 11.3
chloride binding capacity of
14 5.0 2.6 46.4 46.4 16.6
15 the concrete is not included
4.7 1.6 64.2 13.2 8.2
16 4.2 1.8 68.7 7.4 in
8.1 the simple water
17 5.1 1.2 55.3 - 19.1 absorption test. The effect
14.0
18 3.4 3.0 68.1 9.2 of carbonation on the pore
4.3
19 4.2 2.2 58.0 10:6 system o f the concrete e.g.
21.4
20 6.0 2.8 53.6 16.5 depends on the cement type
17.1
21 4.2 2.1 68.7 13,0 applied.
10.3 Carbonation
22 6.1 1.5 46.4 32.5 normally
16.9 reduces the
- = Not determined permeability of Portland
cement based concrete, but
80 the opposite effect can be observed for blast furnace slag
70
cement based concrete [3, 11, 12]. The chloride binding
E capacity of the concrete also significantly depends on the
E 60
cement type. High sulphate resisting Cement types, with a low
=
~3 50
C3A content, have a much lower chloride binding capacity [3].
40
These effects cannot be captured by a mere water absorption
E test by immersion. The non-capability o f permeability-related
~= 3 o
test methods to take account of the effect of cement type on
20 concrete durability is also illustrated in [4].:
10
The prediction capacity of the water absorption by
immersion with respect to the durability of the concrete is
certainly not better than the prediction capacity of the
4.5 5 5.5
compressive strength. Moreover, the applicability of concrete
Water absorption (%)
strength itself as an indicator for concrete durability is also
Fig. 5 - Relation between water absorption and water doubted in literature [13, 14]. This poo r correlation is also
permeability (depth). illustrated in Figs. 8 and 9 showing the carbonation and
chloride migration as a fimction of 28 days compressive

60 ' - - 25
o" 50

g 4o 20
'~ _~ 0.2788(
Q
R = 0.2037
.o 0
10 - -

0
3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5
Water absorption (%) o
'E
0
Fig. 6 - Relation between water absorption and carbonation. "~ 5 t
t~

This is further confirmed when looking at the results

obtained within the carbonation and chloride migration tests.
4 5 6 7
Fig. 6 shows the relation between carbonation and water
Water absorption ( % )
absorption by immersion, while in Fig. 7 a similar relation is
given for the chloride migration. It can be concluded that no Fig. 7 - Relation between water absorption and chloride migration.

595
De Schutter, Audenaert

70 self-compacting concrete), the following conclusions can be

made:
60 o I Within the tested range, the influence of the volume to
surface ratio (V/S) of the concrete specimens on the water
50
absorption by immersion is not significant (with respect to
~40 i the level of significance of 1%) when considering the
natural scatter on the test results.
3o The water absorption by immersion is not a reliable
parameter for the estimation of concrete durability issues
like carbonation and chloride migration. The water
absorption by immersion until saturation gives an
estimation of the total (reachable) pore volume of the
0 , I
concrete, but gives no accurate indication on the concrete
30 40 50 60 70 80 permeability, which is more important with regard to
Compressive strength (N/ram =) these durability issues.
Fig. 8 - Relation between compressive strength and carbonation.
REFERENCES
25

[1] Ye, G., 'Experimental study and numerical simulation of the

E 20 development of the microstructure and permeability of
I
I cementitious materials', doctoral thesis, TU Delft, 2003.
0

= 15
0
IR2=030
:=
m Conference on the Design and Use of Self-Consolidating
,m 10
E
"0
..-.
o 5
c-
O [4]
40 50 60 70 80
Compressive strength (N/mm =)
Fig. 9 - Relation between compressive strength and chloride
migration.
strength. The obtained correlation values are rather low,
although somewhat higher than in the case of water absorption
by immersion as independent wxiable. Although some general
trend might be noticed when comparing e.g. carbonation with
compressive strength, this approach can be criticised
fundamentally, as also illustrated in [3].
The experimental results, obtained on 22 different concrete
compositions, show that the water absorption by immersion is
not a representative parameter for the durability of the concrete.
The water absorption by immersion gives an estimation of the
total (reachable) pore volume of the concrete, but gives no
indication on the concrete permeability, which is more
important with regard to durability. Absorption tests could be
used as quick test methods when the results give an idea of the
absorbed water in a certain time period [6]. However, when the
absorption test only gives an idea of the total water content in
saturated conditions, after a longer time period, no indication is
obtained for durability. The rate of water absorption is more
important, not the final value, as shown in [7].
6. C O N C L U S I O N S
[2] Boel, V., Audenaert, K. and De Schutter, G., 'Pore structure
of self-compacting concrete', First North American
Concrete, Evanston, 12-13 November 2002, 15-20.
[3] Kropp, J. and Hilsdorf, H.K. (eds.), 'Performance criteria for
concrete durability', in RILEM Report 12 (E&FN Spon,
London, 1995).
Hilsdorf, H.K., 'Durability of concrete - a measurable
quantity?', IABSE Symposium 'Durability of structures',
Lisbon, 1989, 111-123.
[5] Wirquin, E., Hadjieva-Zaharieva, R. and Buyle-Bodin, F., 'Use
of water absorption by concrete as a criterion of the durability of
concrete - application to recycled aggregate concrete', Mater.
Struct. 33 (July 2000) 403-408.
[6] Balayssac, J.-P., Detriche, Ch.-H. and Grandet, J., 'Validity of
the water-absorption test for characterizing cover concrete',
Mater. Struct. 26 (May 1993) 226-230.
[7] De Souza, S.J., Hooton, R.D. and Bickley, J.A., 'A field test
for evaluating high performance concrete cover quality',
Can. J. Civ. Eng. 25 (1998) 551-556.
[8] de Hainaut, K., 'Inventarisation of damage to concrete
structures' (in Dutch), Master's thesis, Magnel Laboratory
for Concrete Research, Ghent University, Belgium, 2001.
[9] Luping, T. and Nilsson, L.-O., 'Rapid determination of
chloride diffusivity of concrete by applying an electric field',
A CI Materials Journal (1992) 49-53.
[10] Luping, T. and Nilsson, L.-O., 'Ionic migration and its relation
to diffusion', in 'Ionic and Mass Transport in Cement Based
Materials', The American Ceramics Society, 2001, 81-96.
[ 11] De Schutter, G., 'Quantification of the influence of cracks in
concrete structures on carbonation and chloride penetration',
Magazine of Concrete Research 51 (6) (Dec. 1999) 427-435.
[12] Maekawa, K. and Ishida, T., 'Service-life evaluation of
reinforced concrete under coupled forces and environmental
actions', in 'Ionic and Mass Transport in Cement Based
Materials', The American Ceramics Society, 2001, 219-238.
[13] Neville, A.M., 'Maintenance and durability of structures',
Concrete International (Nov. 1997) 52-56.
[14] Lamond, J.F., 'Designing for durability', Concrete
International (Nov. 1997) 34-36.

Based on an extended experimental research program, with

tests on 22 different concrete mixes (traditional concrete and
Paper received." November 27, 2003; Paper accepted December 22, 2003

/ 596