FLUID-DYNAMIC DRAG theoretical, experimental and statistical information presented by Dr.-Ing. S. F. HOERNER 1965FLUID-DYNAMIC DRAG Practical Information on AERODYNAMIC DRAG and HYDRODYNAMIC RESISTANCE by SIGHARD F. HOERNER Dr.-Ing Published by the Author 1965COPYRIGHT 1992 BY LISELOTTE A. HOERNER COPYRIGHT IN GREAT BRITAIN ‘Text and/or illustrations of this publication may not be reproduced, neither as a whole nor in part, without the specific permission of the copyright holder and publisher. PRODUCED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Library on Congress Catalog Card Number 64-1966 The book is only for sale by mail order, directly from HOERNER FLUID DYNAMICS PO. Box 21992 Bakersfield, CA 93390 Phone/Fax: (661) 665-1065 Should this address expite, the new location may be found in listings such as the Membership Roster of the American Instiure of Aeronautics and Astronautics (ATAA, ia New York City, with offices in Los Angeles and Brussels) or in copies of the book recently purchase.FOREWORD In the second edition of his book, Dr. Hoerner has added two chapters on hydrodynamics; the title has been changed accordingly. It is certain that this expansion of scope will meet with approval from all who are working in the field of “fluid dynamics I see no reason for any material change in the foreword given in the first edition (“Aerodynamic Drag”, May 1951). What is said there, applies to the second edition with obvious minor modifications. I have, therefore, suggested that it be so revised and included as follows. When Dr. Hoerner asked me to read his manuscript and write this foreword, I consented to do so, but with some misgivings regarding the nature of a book carrying the title AERODYNAMIC DRAG. AL though Dr. Hoerner is known as a highly competent aerodynamicist, it did not seem possible within the scope of the title to do much more than prepare another compilation of drag data. My first impression on reading the text was one of great surprise at the magnitude of the author's achievement. He had succeeded in producing an outstanding treatment of the subject; so that we now have aan entire book concerned with but one of the six components of the total aerodynamic force. And it is not just another book. It is an ex- ceptionally well written, systematic treatise showing a splendid balance between the theoretical and the experimental approach. The presen- tations are always made with great clarity, even in those cases where the author has had some obvious difficulties working in a new language. Itis safe to predict that this volume will be well received, not only by aeronautical engineers but also by all who have any concern what- ever with aerodynamic or hydrodynamic drag. The whole field of trans- portation is involved, and many will find here for the first time a readily usable compilation of basic data. I take great pleasure in being the first to congratulate Dr. Hoerner on his contribution to aeronautical progress. Only those who have tried to evaluate, to compile, and to corre- late data in the form as it has been done in this book, can fully appre- ciate Dr. Hoerner’s effort. WASHINGTON, D. C.— August 1957 WALTER S. DIEHLACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. During the years of his work in applied aerodynamic and inydrodynamic research, the author had the opportunity of doing himself, and of directing ‘thers in performing erodynamic investigations of a more general nature, ‘This book is the result of such original work as well as that of the author's analysis and evaluation of material from other sources. The author is paticularly indebted in this respect to the ‘National Advisory Commietee for Aeronautics (now NASA, Washington, D. C.) for the large volume of information made available in theie publications, and to the American Instirate of Aeronautics and. Astronautics (New York City) for their assistance in ‘obtaining information from publications of every type. The author acknowledges also his indebredness co Walter §, Dichl (Captain USN, Ret, formely Chief of Research and Development, Bureau of Aeronautics) auchor of “Engineering Aerodynamics’, for his encouragement whea first publishing this book.AUTHOR'S PREFACE In 1951, the author introduced the first edition of his book, entitled “Aerodynamic Drag”, in part as follows: It is the author's objective in this book, to present information on drag or fluid-dynamic resistance in a comprehensive, generally-valid and in- telligible manner to students, engineers and researchers. The text is not always a “handbook”, however, giving ready results. The reader is expected to work out the desired information himself, considering cause and effect involved in the problem he wants to solve. It is primarily the aeronautical engineer who is interested in aero- dynamic drag problems, so that he can predict and possibly improve the performance of airplanes. The principles of aerodynamic drag, many detailed data, and some special sections in this book should, however, find interested readers in several other fields of engineering as well —in the design of automobiles, in shipbuilding, in the construction of chim- neys (wind loads), in the design of high-speed railroad trains, in ma- chines applying aerodynamic or hydrodynamic forces, and finally in the design of ventilation systems. “Aerodynamic Drag” was originally written in 1945 and 1946, as a re- sult of the author's experience in German research: and industrial or- ganizations (such as Junkers and Messerschmitt). Many additional and more recent data have been added, however, during the translation in the following years. Subsequently, the technical publishing houses in New York City were not found to be confident enough to bring out a book as specialized as this one. The author, therefore, decided to do the publishing himself. ‘The following information is now added on “Fluid-Dynamic Drag” Progress in aerodynamics is rapid in these years. The volume of infor- mation published during the last five years is very large. A second edi- tion of “Aerodynamic Drag” could, therefore, not very well be a reprint. Instead, every section of the text has been worked over and numerous improvements and additions have been made, in an effort to keep the publication up to date. This is particularly true in compressive and su- personic aerodynamics, which are now presented in three chapters.Besides air, the medium of water is most predominant in practical ap- plications of fluid dynamics. The author was happy, therefore, to have the opportunity during the last years in New York City, to participate in research and design of ships and hydrofoil boats — and to acquire in this way personal experience in water flow too. Asa result, two chapters on hydrodynamic resistance have been added to the essentially acrody- namic content of the first edition. The title of the second edition has been adapted accordingly. Another chapter has also been added, presenting wind loads on various types of structures, especially buildings. After acquiring some experience as his own publisher, the author could not resist repeating the procedure in the second edition. Appearance of the text and readability of the illustrations have been improved. The author feels much indebted to the typesetter, the printer and the book- binder — for having produced the book very skilfully. The 1965 edition differs from the preceding one, as follows; A num- ber of misprints and some mistakes have been eliminated. “Drag in cavitating flow”, in Chapter X, has been rewritten. Hypersonic char- acteristics such as in missiles and re-entering vehicles, are presented in an added chapter. The “atmospheric properties” in Chapter XIX, have completely been rewritten. A section has been added, dealing with the aerodynamic drag of satellites. Chapter XX is also new. In- formation on various subjects of drag, ranging from base-vented hydrofoils to characteristics at supersonic speeds, has been collected in this chapter. NEW YORK CITY — AUGUST 1964 SIGHARD F. HOERNER ‘THE AUTHOR studied mechanical engineering at the Institute of Technology in Min- chen (Dipllng.), he earned a degree as Dr-Ing. in aerodynamics at the Institute of ‘Technology in Braunschweig, and he obtained a degree as Dr.-Ing habil. from the TH Berlin, He served at one time as research assistant at the Deutsche Versuchsanstalt fir Luftfahrt (DVL, near Berlin), as aerodynamicist in the Fieseler Corporation (working ‘on the first STOL airplane, the “Stork’") and later for a time as head of design aerody- hnamics in the Junkers A.G, He was then research aerodynamicist at the Messerschmitt (AG. After World War I, the author was invited to come to the United States, where hhe worked in aerodynamics at Wright Field, Ohio. For some years he has been acting as specialist for acrodynamics and hydrodynamics in the field of naval architecture at Gibbs 8 Cox, Inc., New York City.CONTENTS. TABLE OF CONTENTS (pages are numbered by chapters) CHAPTER |— GENERAL INFORMATION 1. NOTATION ~ ABBREVIATIONS bibliographical references, abbreviations 1 1 equations and graphs, angles, subscripts 2, GLOSSARY OF TERMS AND NAMES boundary layer, cavitation, circulation 13 compressibility, induced, laminar 14 pressure rotation, schlieren, separation 15 streamlines, turbulence, vorticity, wind 16 tunnel, personalities in fluid dynamics 16 3. DRAG AND THEORETICAL ANALYSIS action and reaction, momentum transfer 7 statistical methods, approach in this book 18 4, NON-DIMENSIONAL COEFFICIENTS dynamic pressure, drag area 18 force coefficients, pressure coefficient 19 5. PHYSICAL SIMILARITY LAWS Reynolds number, compressibility, rarefied ..... 1-9 gases, cavitation, free water surface 110 6. PROPERTIES OF AIR AND WATER dynamic pressure, viscosity, speed of sound ..... L-1 dynamic pressure and viscosity in water : CHAPTER Il — SKIN-FRICTION DRAG 1. AT VERY SMALL REYNOLDS NUMBERS in two-dimensional flow, past disk, B'layer 21 2. GENERAL BOUNDARY-LAYER DATA. velocity distribution in, total thickness of 22 sub-layer, displacement, momentum thickness, 2-3 3, FRICTION WITH LAMINAR BILAYER laminar skin-friction drag coeficient 24 4. WITH TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER theore 1 functions, practical equations 25 local coefficient, transitional coefficient 26 5. FRICTION OF 3-DIMENSIONAL BODIES pressure gradient, Bilayer displacement 27 cylinder in axial flow, longitudinal edges 28 6. TRANSITION OF B'LAYER FLOW turbulence, stability limit, transition turbulence, surface roughness, protuberances, single elements, forced transition 210 7. LAMINAR-FLOW FOIL SECTIONS possibilities, pressure gradient, transition 241 location of thickness, influence of lift 242 stream turbulence, surface roughness 218 permissible roughness, boundary-layer suction .. 2-14 suction volume, surface-roughness stimulation. 2-15 CHAPTER Ill — PRESSURE DRAG 1, AT VERY SMALL REYNOLDS NUMBERS sphere and disk, pressure due to friction 31 stagnation pressure (Barker), floating dust 31 two-dimensional, intermediate R’numbers 2, MECHANISM OF FLOW SEPARATION boundary-layer theory, pressure distribution... $3 mechanism, separation, drag due to separation 3-4 8. VARIOUS VORTEX SYSTEMS vortex types, sphere, vortex street, frequency ... 3-5 general street characteristics, splitter plate 36 4. CRITICAL REYNOLDS NUMBER spheres, laminar separation, turbulent Bilayer 3-7 surface-roughness, stream turbulence, cylinder. 3-8 5. DRAG OF ROUND BODIES separation, rearside pressure, cylindrical 39 shapes, elliptical sections, cross-flow principle... $-10 Rnumber, ellipsodial bodies, half bodies 341 parallelsided shapes, rounding radius 312 rotating bodies, “how fast a man falls” 313o-8 6. DRAG OF VARIOUS TYPES OF PLATES at small R’numbers, turbulence, “aspect ratio” $-15 rearside pressure, at an angle, with hole, caps. 3-16 7. DRAG OF WEDGES AND CONES angle of flow, freestreamline, brake, wedges .. 3-18 8. BASE-DRAG CHARACTERISTICS (a) Base Drag of 3-Dimensional Bodies jetpump mechanism, “insulating” Bilayer ..... 3-19 base drag of bodies, effect of boat-tailing (b) Base Drag in 2-Dimensional Shapes sheet-metal joints, blunt trailing edges Jaminar mixing, cut-off trailing edge optimum T'edge thickness, thick sections 9, DRAG OF NON-SOLID BODIES loss coefficient, free-flow principle streamline grids, fine fabrics, compressibility drag in free stream, parachutes, drag of flags 10, REDUCTION OF PRESSURE DRAG (a) Mechanical Devices moving skin, turbulence generators, ring, vanes 9-26 (b) Boundary-Layer Control discharging fluid, suction method, sphere with . 3.26 suction, cylinder suction, thick foil section ....... 3.27 11. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES forebody drag, about Leonardo da Vinci 3.28 CHAP IV—WIND FORCES ON STRUCTURES 1, WIND CHARACTERISTICS speed distribution, boundary layer on ground... 4-1 2. VARIOUS BUILDINGS houses, hangars, tall buildings 43 8. CYLINDRICAL STRUCTURES. storage tank, chimneys, oscillations, smoke 44 stacks, pipe line, cables, galloping lines 45 4, STEEL STRUCTURES beams, girders, bridge structure, radio masts... 4-6 5. OTHER STRUCTURES ‘open roofs, spherical shapes, Statue of Liberty. 4.7 FLUID-DYNAMIC DRAG CHAPTER ¥ — SURFACE IRREGULARITIES 1, DRAG DUE TO SURFACE ROUGHNESS (a) Permissible Grain Size, Reynolds number 5-1 critical roughness size, physical grain size 52 (b) Skin-Drag Coefficients; terminal drag sand roughness, concentration, grain shape permissible size, Gyslope, polytropic roughness 2. DRAG OF SURFACE IMPERFECTIONS (a) General; independent drag coefficient 56 (b) Spanwise Protuberances; sheet-metal joints 5-7 (©) Spotlike Protuberances; rivet heads 58 critical Reynolds number, longitudinal elements 5.9 (@) Drag of Holes and Gaps; transverse gaps. 5-10 3. IMPERFECTIONS, STREAMLINE SHAPES (a) Imperfeetions and Protuberances sheet metal wing, dirt and ice formation ...... 5:11 (b) Drag of Control Gaps; gap definition ...... 5-13 edges, flow through gap, B'layer interference ... 5-14 CHAP VI— DRAG OF STREAMLINE SHAPES A. DRAG OF WING- AND STRUT SECTIONS 1 Drag as a Function of Reynolds Number turbulence, Reynolds number phases 2 As a Function of Thickness Ratio ‘wing tips, lateral edges, optimum wire, critical 6-4 Reynolds number, laminar airfoils, roughness... 6-6 3. Applications of streamline Sections airfoilection families, fairings, struts 69 B. SECTION DRAG AS A FUNCTION OF LIFT insects, birds, optimum lift coefficient, camber 6-10 sharp leading edge, wing flap, slats and slots... 6-13, C. DRAG OF STREAMLINE SHAPES various shapes, low Reynolds numbers, thickness 6-16 laminar boundary layer, optimum shape 618 D. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION stimulation, wingtip drag, reversed 0012 620CONTENTS. CHAPTER VII—DRAG DUE TO LIFT 1. INDUCED DRAG AND ASPECT RATIO lifting line, downwash, induced angle, A’ratio. 7-2 2. INFLUENCE OF SHAPE ON DRAG (2) Plan Form and Tip Shape life distribution, cutouts, tip vortex. flow 74 plan form, sweep, optimum shape, tip tanks... 7-7 (b) Twist and Related Characteristics wing twist, wing flaps, aking.off, climbing ...... 7-8 (©) Form of Lifting Line angle of sweep, negative sweep, dihedral angle 7-9 (@) Characteristics of End Plates height ratio, area ratio, inboard plates 710 single end plates, viscous drag of E’plates ..... 7:10 (6) Rotating Cylinders drag due to lift, Fletiner rotor 7.10 3. IN VARIOUS WING ARRANGEMENTS (a) Biplanes and Similar Configurations biplane, multiplanes, ring foil, ground effect ... 7-12 (b) Wings in Tandem and Similar Arrangements tandem configuration, horizontal tail 74 (© Airplanes Flying in Formation wing gap, flying side by side, stagger 75 4. DRAG IN SMALL ASPECT RATIOS (a) First Drag Component circulation in small aspect ratios 716 first drag term, flat plates 77 (b) Second Drag Component zero aspect ratio, momentum, lateral vortex... 7-18 second component, flat plates, delta wings ...... 7-19 (©) Lift of Streamline Bodies second lift component, due to lift, rotation... 7-20 (@) Parasitic Wing-Tip Drag second lift term, influence of wingstip shape... 7-21 5, SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES characteristics of birds, blade rotors 722 CHAPTER VIII — INTERFERENCE DRAG 1, BETWEEN PAIRS OF BODIES shielding effect, tandem struts, side by side... 8-2 2, DRAG OF HALF BODIES ON WALLS. dynamic pressure, plates, flow pattern 83 half bodies, optimum, fairings, trailing edge... 8-4 3. ON THREE-DIMENSIONAL BODIES added body, Bilayer thickness, buoyancy effect pressure gradient, thickness, turbulence fuselage with canopy, fuel tank of Me-109 gun turret, interference method, long bodies 4, WINGS (STRUTS) AND WALLS in corners, boundary layer, influence of lift... 8-10 inclined struts, strut junctions, tail 841 configurations, fairings, junction angle 312 5, INTERFERENCE DRAG ON WINGS protuberances, induced interference drag... 8-13, horizontal tail drag, glide-path control 8 6. DRAG OF WING-BODY CONFIGURATIONS wing fuselage junctions, engine nacelles 815, tail surfaces, propeller blades, “oO” flow 816 wing-fuselage angle, induced drag due to body 8.17 engine nacelles, interference method 819 CHAPTER IX—INTERNAL-FLOW SYSTEMS A, MECHANICS OF DUCTED SYSTEMS loss coefficient, diffuser, rate of flow on intake flow, internal losses, outlet pressure. 9-2 B. DRAG OF RADIATOR INSTALLATIONS 1. Considerations for the System surface cooling, ducted systems, radiator size... 9-8 2. Internal Radiator Drag radiator cores, diffuser, boundary-layer control 9-4 ‘momentum, outlet pressure, drag due to leaks. 94 3. External Radiator Drag drag near w/V = 0, belly-type radiator 96 tring radiators, wing radiators, lift effect 960-10 C. DRAG OF ENGINE INSTALLATIONS 1, Engine Cowlings internal characteristics, conductivity o7 external drag, streamline cowling 98 2 JetEngine Installations nose inlet, internal characteristics, scoop intake 9-9 wing-root inlet, lift due to, flush intake 910 D. HEAT AND COMPRESSIBILITY EFFEC 1, Influence of Cooling Heat radiator core, propulsion, air-cooling out 2, Influence of Compressibility temperature, radiators, air-cooled engines ...... 9-12 FE. DRAG OF IN. AND OUTLET OPENINGS 1. Drag of Air Scoops ‘momentum drag, external drag, internal losses 9-13 2 Drag of Ventilation Systems (a) Inlet Openings scoop intakes, flush inlets, internal flow oud (b) Outlet Openings streamline openings, thrust due to exhaust, vents 9-16 CHAPTER X— HYDRODYNAMIC DRAG A. FULLY SUBMERGED BODIES drag of fish, critical R’number, foils in water ... 10-1 surface roughness, guide vanes, torpedo 102 B, DRAG IN CAVITATING FLOW 1, Fundamentals of Cavitation mechanism of cavitation, cavitation number ... 10-4 critical speed due to cavitation, erosion 105 2. Onset of Cavitation cavitation number, in 3-dimensional shapes... 10-5 vortex cavitation, past disk, round bodies 106 in streamline sections, “delay” of cavitat 107 3. Drag Coefficient in Cavitating Flow sharp-edged bodies, circular cylinder 107 spheres, missile, size of cavity 108 4, Cavitating Hydrofoils inception of cavitation, cavitating flat plate... 10-9 cambered foil sections, finite-span foils 10.11 in small aspect ratios, at zero aspect ratio ......10-12 FLUID-DYNAMIC DRAG C. DRAG OF SURFACE-PIERCING SOLIDS 1, Wave and Spray Drag Froude number effect, wave drag, spray drag ...10-13 2, Drag Due to Ventilation ‘mechanism of ventilation (cavitation), half-body 10-14 depth of pocket, cylinder, surface-piercing .....10-15 ventilated strut, ventilation plate 10-16 inelined shaft characteristics, angle of yaw ......10-16 CHAPTER XI— WATER-BORNE CRAFT ‘A. RESISTANCE OF DISPLACEMENT VESSELS 1. General Principles general notation, “resistance”, wetted surface. 11-1 turbulence stimulation, Froude number IL 2 Drag Caused by Friction ‘extrapolation method, skin-friction law us influence of thickness, roughness, fouling ...... 11-4 8. Model-Full-Seale Correlation drag of barges, appendages, shafting 116 influence of condenser water, wind resistance. 1-7 skinriction belt, surface roughness 119 full-scale correlation, extrapolation method ....11-10 4, Wave Resistance nature of wave-drag, humps + hollows, Froude 11-11 number, volumetric and prismatic coefficient ...11-12 maximum hull section, bulbous bow iz Maier form, in shallow water, drag in seaway — 11-13, 5. Types of Displacement Vessels ship statistics, motorboats, submarine resistance 11-16 submerged submarines, streamlining 17 submerged bodies, sailboat, induced drag .....11-18 B, CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANING CRAFT 1. Theory of Planing two-dimensional theory, buoyancy lift 119 start of planing, small-aspect-ratio planing ....11-20 higher aspect ratios, planing plates, camber 11-22 2. Characteristics of Planing Craft “V" bottoms, motorboats, power and speed .....L1-28 seaplanes, floats, planing skis, racing boats .....11-24 C. HYDROFOIL BOATS basic wave drag, induced drag, end struts .....11-26 drag in finite aspect ratios, tandem foils 11.28 surface piercing hydrofoils, V-shaped foils ....11-29 ventilation, hydrofoil boats, power and speed 11-30 small aspect ratios, ventilated hydrofoils 11-31CONTENTS: CHAPTER XII —LAND-BORNE VEHICLES A, DRAG OF MOTOR VEHICLES 1, Experimental Methods road tests, wind-tunnel testing, ground plate... 12-1 image method, moving ground, R'aumber .... 12-2 2. Drag of Basic Shapes friction drag, separation, aerodynamic lift... 123 induced drag, wind shield, blunt rear end... 12-4 3. Drag Due to Operational Parts headlights, underside, wheel openings 125 open windows, cooling air, streamlining 126 4. Efficiency of Passenger Cars rolling resistance, power required, optimum 12-7 5. Drag of Other Motor Vehicles trucks, omnibuses, racing cars, motorcycles... 12-9 B. DRAG OF RAILROAD VEHICLES 1. Locomotives and Self Powered Cars rail cars, steam locomotives, power cars 1240 2. Drag of Railroad Trains aerodynamic drag law, drag of railroad cars ....12-12 base drag, protuberances, complete train drag 12-13 3. Efficiency of Railroad Trains twaction, freight train, wheel ventilation SUPPLEMENTARY; interference, sports car INDEX — EIGHT PAGES OF SUBJECT INDEX see at the end of the book — o-n CHAPTER XiIIl— AIRCRAFT COMPONENTS: 1, DRAG OF FUSELAGES fineness ratio, open cockpits, canopy drag 13.41 due to windshields, roughness, armament, tail _ 13-2 turrets, guns, radiators, engines, leakage 134 2. DRAG OF ENGINE NACELLES (a) Drag of Solid Nacelle Bodies induced drag, length ratio, high-wing nacelle ... 13-5, (b) Ducted Nacelles cowlings, wing interference, inlet and outlet. 13-7 jetengine nacelles, influence of lift 138 3. DRAG OF FLOATS AND BOAT HULLS: chines, fineness ratio, steps, step fairing 139 4, DRAG OF LIFTING SURFACES interference drag, dive brake flaps 13:10 pervious flaps, due to spoiler control 13.12 tail surfaces, due to asymmetric engine power ..13-13, 5. DRAG OF LANDING GEARS wheels, fixed and retractable, tail wheels, skis .18-14 6. DRAG OF EXTERNAL LOADS belly tanks, wing-tip tanks, range, bombs ...... 13-16 bomb racks, neck suspension, interference 18-18 7. DRAG OF MISCELLANEOUS PARTS (a) Drag of Cylindrical Parts fairings, cables, towing, refuelling hose 13.20 (b) Drag of Stopped Propellers blade angle, induced, tilted, windmilling ......18-21 (©) Ejection Seats; drag and trajectory 13.22 8, CHARACTERISTICS OF PARACHUTES basic shapes, flow pattern, gliding parachutes ... 13-28 permeability, oscillations, Reynolds number 1-24 fabric elasticity, size, rigging, ribbon type ...... 18-25 “shaped” parachutes, guidesurface type... 13-26 9. DRAG OF TOW TARGETS wind socks, “flag” type, streamlining 13.38o-12 CHAPTER XIV— COMPLETE AIRCRAFT 1. DRAG OF AIRSHIPS bull, fins, car, engine nacelles, full scale 41 2, DRAG ANALYSIS OF FIGHTER AIRPLANE (a) full-Scale Performance dimensions, exhaust thrust, induced drag (b) Drag of the Wing skin friction, imperfections, additional drag .. 14-4 143 (6) Drag of the Fuselage due to appendages, interference, slip stream... 145 (a) Drag of Appendages of engine installation, due to tail surfaces ...... 145 (©) Results of Me-109 Anal compressibility, imperfections, efficiency 146 3. PERFORMANCE OF OTHER AIRPLANES (a) Maximum Speed Performance cleanness, Reynolds number, Ju-88 and Me-262. 14-8 wetted-area drag coefficient, maximum speed ...14-10 (b) Drag as a function of Lift “e" method, Me-109, effective aspect ratio... 1412 sailplane, optimum lift, sinking speed 1413 (6 Influence of Thrust lift due to thrust, climbing, slipstream drag ....14-14 jet thrust, pusher propeller, climb performance 14-15 (@) The First Powered Aircraft airships, the Wright Brothers 1116 — INFLUENCE OF COMPRESSIBILITY 1, ELEMENTS OF COMPRESSIBILITY sonic speed, Mach number, stagnation pressure 15-1 the Prandtl rule, stagnation temperature 152 2, CHARACTERISTICS OF BLUFF BODIES plates, cylinders, wedges, 0012 reversed 1 struts, drag divergence, cylinder, sphere 16 R'number, critical Mach number, up-dlown-up 1 half-streamline shapes, canopies, antenna rods ... 15-7 3. SKIN FRICTION IN COMPRESSIVE FLOW 15.9 15-10 fon plane wall, boundary-layer stability BL transition, laminarization, roughness FLUID-DYNAMIC DRAG. 4. DRAG OF FOIL AND STRUT SECTIONS friction, pressure drag, roughness, struts 15:10 optimum section thickness ratio, laminar flow .15-12 5. CRITICAL MACH NUMBER OF WINGS Prandtl factor, airfoil sections 15415 thickness location, blunt trailing edge 15.16 finite wings, function of lift, recompression ...15-17 rag dip, pressure peaks, nose shape, foil camber 15-18 6. CHARACTERISTICS OF SWEPT WINGS cosine component of speed, sweep definition ...15-20 drag of inclined struts, critical M’number ..... 15-21 ‘wing center part, sheared and “delta” wings 15-23, 7. STREAMLINE BODY CHARACTERISTICS, friction, supervelocities, compressibility rule 15-24 pressure drag, streamline bodies 15-25 surface roughness, critical Mach number .....15-27 8. DRAG OF AIRCRAFT COMPONENTS wing-fuselage configurations, wall interference 15-28, drag of crossed wings, plotting against (‘P')*....15-29 engine nacelles, slipstream, canopies, stores ...15-81 bombs, cowlings, radiators, dive brakes 15-82 9. DRAG OF AIRPLANE CONFIGURATIONS, (a) Induced Drag of Wings drag due to wing twist, induced interference ..15-33 (b) Parasitic Drag of Airplanes drag of "Meteor", twin-engine configurations 15-34 (©) Statistical Compressibility Method. interference, airplane configurations importance of interference, on wetted area (@) Swept Wing Configurations fuselage interference, contouring, "F-86" fighter 15-38 10. DRAG ABOVE DRAG DIVERGENCE critical M’number, separation, growth of drag 15-89 influence of aspect ratio, angle of sweep 15-40