RETROSPECTIVE STUDIES

Uterine Disorders in 50 Pet Rabbits

Frank Künzel, Petra Grinninger, Sarina Shibly, Jasmin Hassan, Alexander Tichy, Petra Berghold,
Andrea Fuchs-Baumgartinger

ABSTRACT
Although the incidence of uterine disorders in pet rabbits is high there are only a few retrospective studies and case
reports on genital tract disease in female rabbits. Uterine disorders were assessed in 50 pet rabbits. In 31 pet rabbits
with suspected clinical uterine disease, medical records were further reviewed regarding clinical signs, diagnostic
workup, treatment as well as the outcome itself. Uterine adenocarcinoma (54%) was most frequently diagnosed,
followed by endometrial hyperplasia (26%). Serosanguineous vaginal discharge was the predominant clinical sign
observed by the rabbit owners. In approximately 50% of the rabbits with suspected uterine disorders, abdominal
palpation revealed enlarged and/or irregular masses in the caudoventral abdomen indicating uterine lesions. Out of 23
rabbits undergoing ovariohysterectomy, four were either euthanized or died shortly after surgery because they were
clinically unstable. Overall, 80% of the ovariohysterectomized animals were still alive 6 mo after surgery. In female pet
rabbits that are not breeding, either ovariohysterectomy should be performed at an early age or routine checks including
ultrasonography of the abdomen are recommended on a regular basis. (J Am Anim Hosp Assoc 2015; 51:000–000. DOI
10.5326/JAAHA-MS-5812)

Introduction Nowadays, pet rabbits that are presented to a veterinarian are

According to the literature, uterine disorders in rabbits most often
comprise endometrial hyperplasia and uterine adenocarcinoma.1,2
Sporadically, other neoplastic changes of the uterus such as
leiomyoma, leiomyosarcoma, adenoma, carcinosarcoma, chorio-
carcinoma, malignant mixed müllerian tumor as well as non-
tumorous uterine lesions (e.g., hydrometra, mucometra,
endometritis, pyometra, endometrial venous aneurysms, uterine
torsion) have been described in rabbits.1–7 Uterine disorders
commonly occur in middle-aged and older rabbits, but endome-
trial hyperplasia has been diagnosed in rabbits ,1 yr.2,8
usually not used for breeding. Therefore, signs like reproductive
abnormalities that may indicate gynecological disorders are
commonly no longer available for the diagnosis of uterine disease.
However, typical clinical signs, such as sanguineous vaginal
discharge, mammary gland abnormalities, and behavioral changes
have been documented in rabbits with uterine adenocarcinoma and
endometrial hyperplasia.1,2 Nevertheless, signs associated with
pathological uterine changes in rabbits may be unspecific or
subclinical for a long time.9
Complications, like the rupturing of the uteri, severe anemia,
and adhesions to adjacent viscera, have been described in rabbits
with different types of uterine disorders.1,3,4,10 Occasionally, local

From the Clinic of Internal Medicine and Infectious Diseases (F.K., S.S.),
Clinic for Diagnostic Imaging (J.H.), Clinic for Obstetrics,
Gynecology and Andrology, and Clinical Department for Small
Animals and Horses (P.B.), Department of Pathobiology (A.F-B.),
University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria; Department of
Clinical Sciences of Companion Animals, Faculty of Veterinary
Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands (P.G.); and
Institute of Medical Physics and Biostatistics, Department of
Natural Science (A.T.).

Correspondence: Frank.kuenzel@vetmeduni.ac.at (F.K.)

Q 2015 by American Animal Hospital Association JAAHA.ORG 1

metastasis in the peritoneal cavity or distant metastases in lung,
liver, bone, and cerebral tissues have been recorded in rabbits with
uterine adenocarcinoma.2,11,12
With the exception of very few retrospective studies, reports of
pet rabbits with uterine disorders are mainly case studies.1,2,9,13
Until now, the clinical outcome of pet rabbits with uterine disease
has been recorded in only two studies in English-language
journals. 1,2
Therefore, clinical knowledge is primarily based on
empirical data.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate histopathological
findings of the uteri of pet rabbits after ovariohysterectomy or as a
part of necropsy. When data were available, clinical findings,
diagnostic workup, treatment, and outcome were assessed.
Materials and Methods
Fifty pet rabbits with confirmed histopathological changes of the
uterus that were presented between March 2001 and July 2007 were
included in this retrospective study. Thirty-one of the 50 rabbits
had suspicious signs of uterine disorders during clinical examina-
tion, whereas uterine changes in the other 19 rabbits were not
detected before a postmortem examination was performed. All 50
rabbits were assessed, taking into consideration the age of animals
and the incidence of different types of uterine disorders. In 19
rabbits, only the results of the histopathological examination were
evaluated, whereas data from medical records of 31 rabbits
included history, physical examination, diagnostic workup, treat-
ment, and outcome.
Inclusion criteria for the 31 rabbits with suspected uterine
disorders were a serosanguineous vaginal discharge and/or an
enlarged uterus detected by palpation or diagnostic imaging.
Clinical records were studied for specific and unspecific predom-
inant clinical signs such as abdominal pain, enlargement of the
abdomen, mammary gland disorders, dyspnea, inappetence,
lethargy, and lack of cecotrophy/diarrhea.
Further diagnostic workup in the rabbits with a clinically
suspected uterine disorder included diagnostic imaging using
abdominal ultrasonography (28 out of 31 rabbits), abdominal
radiographs (6 out of 31 rabbits), and thoracic radiographs (3 out
of 31 rabbits). Ultrasonographic examinations of the abdomen
were performed with an ultrasound unita, using a 10 MHz small
parts curved-array transducer with the rabbits in either dorsal or
lateral recumbency. Abdominal radiographs were performed in
right lateral and ventrodorsal views with a special focus on the
occurrence of calcifications within the uterus. In case of dyspnea,
thoracic radiographs were taken in the left and the right lateral as
well as ventrodorsal views to detect metastases.
2 JAAHA | 51:1 Month 2015
Depending on the clinical condition of the rabbits and the
owner’s request, patients either underwent ovariohysterectomy or
were euthanized due to their poor clinical condition. Postoperative
care included analgesia (0.2 mg/kg meloxicamb subcutaneously or
orally q 24 hr), fluid and electrolyte substitution at a rate of 4 mL/
kg/hr IV), as well as enrofloxacinc (10 mg/kg subcutaneously or
orally q 24 hr). In the case of inappetence, rabbits were force-fed
with a commercial herbivorous dietd. Medical records of 23 rabbits
that underwent ovariohysterectomy were reviewed to evaluate the 6
mo survival rate.
Statistical Analysis
In all 50 rabbits, a statistical software programe was used to
perform a student t test to determine significant differences of the
mean age between groups of rabbits with different types of uterine
lesions. A P value ,.05 was considered significant.
Results
Twenty-three out of 31 rabbits with suspected uterine disorders
underwent ovariohysterectomy, whereas 8 died or were euthanized
due to their unstable clinical condition. Eighteen out of 19 pet
rabbits in which uterine lesions were detected incidentally during
postmortem examination had been euthanized or died for some
other reason, while only one had undergone an elective
ovariohysterectomy beforehand. Consequently, a total of 26 rabbits
underwent necropsy followed by histopathology, whereas 24
rabbits only had a histopathological examination of the surgically
removed uterus.
Results of the histopathological examination in 50 rabbits with
neoplastic and nonneoplastic uterine disorders have been summa-
rized in Table 1 and Figures 1A–D. The histopathological
examination revealed one type of uterine disorders in 41 rabbits
(82%), two types in 8 rabbits (16%), and three types in 1 rabbit
(2%). Tumorous lesions were found in 34 rabbits (68%).
Uterine adenocarcinoma was detected in 27 out of 50 rabbits.
In 22 of those rabbits, an adenocarcinoma was diagnosed alone,
whereas in 5 rabbits, a combination of other uterine disorders was
demonstrated. In one rabbit, a leiomyosarcoma and endometrial
hyperplasia were detected in addition to an adenocarcinoma.
Within the nonneoplastic lesions, endometrial hyperplasia (13 out
of 50 rabbits) was diagnosed most frequently. Other nontumorous
uterine disorders included hydrometra, mucometra, and inflam-
matory changes of the uterus (Table 1, Figure 2).
Forty-six rabbits were mixed-breeds and four rabbits were
purebreeds (Alaska [n ¼ 1], English lop [n ¼ 1], English spot [n
¼1], and New Zealand [n ¼ 1]). The age of all rabbits with
confirmed uterine disorders ranged from 0.6 to 10.5 yr (mean, 4.9
 Uterine Disorders in 50 Pet Rabbits

In 28 rabbits with suspected uterine lesions in which an

TABLE 1 abdominal ultrasonography was performed, the clinical diagnosis
Frequency of Histopathologically Confirmed Neoplastic and was confirmed by ultrasonography. Typical ultrasonographic
Nonneoplastic Uterine Disorders in 50 Companion Rabbits that changes varied depending on the type of uterine disease and were
were Presented Between 2001 and 2007
characterized by the accumulation of liquid in the uterus lumen or
Diagnosis D1* D2 D3 Tn cysts and masses (or calcifications) within the uterus wall.
Neoplastic Abdominal radiography was performed in 11 out of 50
Adenocarcinoma 22 4 1 27 animals, and in 8 cases, uterine alterations could be detected using
Adenoma 1 1 0 2 that diagnostic method. Calcifications of the uterus were found in
Leiomyosarcoma 1 2 1 4 three of those rabbits during the radiographic examination (Figure
Leiomyoma 1 3 0 4 3). Histopathology revealed adenocarcinoma in one of those
Hemangioma 0 1 0 1 patients, leiomyosarcoma in another, and the third rabbit had a
†
Squamous cell carcinoma 1 0 0 1 combination of adenocarcinoma and leiomyosarcoma. Chest
Nonneoplastic radiographs were performed in three rabbits, revealing lung
Endometrial hyperplasia 9 3 1 13 metastases in one case.
Hydrometra, mucometra 3 2 0 5 From 31 rabbits with a suspected clinical uterine disease, 8
§
Abscess , pyometra 3 0 0 3 rabbits (25.8%) either died within a short period or were
Total 41 (41) 16 (8) 3 (1) 60 (50) euthanized immediately after the diagnosis and 23 rabbits
(74.2%) underwent ovariohysterectomy. Two rabbits died intra-
*The number of uterine disorders in the first column (D1) is identical with the
number of rabbits. Therefore, the numbers are not quoted in brackets. operatively and two more died within 1 wk of surgery. Of the
†
Adenocarcinoma with differentiation into squamous cell carcinoma. remaining 19 rabbits, follow-up examinations were not available
§
Abscess of the uterine wall.
( ), number of rabbits; D1, only one type (diagnosis) of uterine disorder/rabbit; D2, for 3 animals. The remaining 16 rabbits survived for .6 mo after
two types of uterine disorders/rabbit; D3, three types of uterine disorders/rabbit; surgery had been performed.
Tn, total number of different types of uterine disorders.
Metastases were detected in 8 out of 50 rabbits. Two of the
rabbits were still alive at the time the metastases were diagnosed,
yr). Rabbits with a suspected clinical uterine disease (31 out of 50 and the primary tumor was found to be a uterine adenocarcinoma
rabbits) were 1–9.7 yr (mean, 4.7 yr). The mean age of the 34 in both cases. In one of those rabbits, pulmonary metastases were
animals with at least one tumorous lesion of the uterus was 5.5 yr, detected radiographically. In the other rabbit showing right hind
whereas the mean age of rabbits with nontumorous lesions was 3.5 limb lameness 3 mo after ovariohysterectomy, an osteolytic area
yr. The student t test revealed a significant difference in mean age within the tibial plateau indicating neoplastic alterations was
between the two groups (P¼.002). The mean age of rabbits with an detected radiographically. Thus, a bone biopsy was performed and
adenocarcinoma (5.55 yr) also differed significantly from the mean histopathological examination revealed the diagnosis of a carcino-
age of rabbits with other uterine lesions (4.33 yr, P,.05)]. ma. In six rabbits, metastases were not found before the
Comparing the mean age of rabbits with solely endometrial postmortem examination. In all of those rabbits, histopathological
hyperplasia (4.48 yr) to animals with other uterine disorders examination of the uterus revealed adenocarcinoma. Two of those
revealed no significant difference (P¼.57). The difference between rabbits only had pulmonary metastases. In four rabbits, metastases
the mean age of rabbits with a solely diagnosed uterine were detected in 2 internal organs. Metastases were detected in
adenocarcinoma (5.55 yr) and the mean age of patients with the lungs (19.2%), liver (11.2%), kidney (7.7%), and other tissues
endometrial hyperplasia (4.48 yr) was not significant (P¼.117). (11.5%) of 26 rabbits undergoing postmortem examinations.
Out of 31 rabbits with suspected clinical uterine disease, 71%
showed serosanguineous vaginal discharge or hematuria and/or an Discussion
enlarged uterus during abdominal palpation. In 29% of the rabbits In the present study, neoplastic uterine lesions were primarily
in which neither bleeding nor an abdominal palpable mass was nontumorous disorders of the uterus. Of the tumorous lesions,
detected during the clinical examination, abdominal ultrasonogra- adenocarcinomas were clearly dominant, but neoplastic changes
phy revealed the diagnosis of a pathologically changed uterus. such as leiomyoma, leiomyosarcoma, adenoma, and hemangioma
Other clinical signs or symptoms consistent with uterine disorders were diagnosed sporadically as well (Table 1). In one case, uterine
have been summarized in Table 2. adenocarcinoma was accompanied by a squamous cell carcinoma, a

JAAHA.ORG 3
FIGURE 1 Histological sections illustrating different uterine lesions. A: Endometrial hyperplasia (bar ¼ 400 lm). B: Adenoma of the
endometrium (bar ¼ 150 lm). C: Adenocarcinoma of the endometrium (bar ¼ 150 lm). D: Adenocarcinoma of the endometrium with focal
differentiation to squamous cell carcinoma (bar ¼ 150 lm). Hematoxylin and eosin staining.

finding that has also been observed by other authors.2 Endometrial
hyperplasia comprised .50% of the nonneoplastic uterine lesions.
Those findings are consistent with a previously published report in
which adenocarcinoma was the most commonly diagnosed uterine
disorder followed by endometrial hyperplasia.9 Other studies
revealed similar results except that endometrial hyperplasia was
slightly overrepresented compared to uterine adenocarcinoma.1,2
In contrast to dogs, in which pyometra is known as a common
uterine disorder, only three rabbits in the current study had
14,15
inflammatory changes of the uterus. Other reports where this
condition (pyometra) was only sporadically reported in pet rabbits
confirm the current study’s findings.1,2,16,17 However, in repro-
ductive females from commercial rabbit farms, pyometra is
18
documented more often than nonreproductive pet rabbits. As
reported in the current study where five animals suffered from
either hydro- or mucometra, the intrauterine accumulation of
sterile fluid is documented infrequently in rabbits but seems to
occur more often than in dogs and cats.1,3,4,19,20 In 18% of
included rabbits, two or three different types of uterine lesions were
diagnosed. In accordance with those findings, the concomitant
occurrence of different kinds of uterine disorders has been
observed by other authors as well.1,2 Mostly, uterine adenocarci-
nomas were accompanied by endometrial hyperplasia.1,2,10
The age of rabbits with uterine lesions ranged from 0.6 to 10.5
yr. Consequently, uterine disorders in rabbits can occur at any age,
which has also been observed in another study.2 The mean age of
4.9 yr in the current study confirm the findings of other authors
who detected that rabbits .4–5 yr were most predisposed to
uterine disorders.1 As might be expected, the mean age of animals
with nontumorous lesions included in the current study was

4 JAAHA | 51:1 Month 2015

 Uterine Disorders in 50 Pet Rabbits

FIGURE 2 Photograph of an abscess of the uterine wall with multiple adhesions to adjacent viscera (intestine) in a 2 yr old rabbit.

significantly lower than that of rabbits with neoplastic changes of
the uterus.
Serosanguineous vaginal discharge and a palpable mass in the
caudal abdomen were the most commonly observed clinical
symptoms in rabbits in the current study. Those findings are
similar to several other studies and might therefore be considered a
cardinal symptoms of rabbits with uterine disorders.1,10,11,21,22 In
contrast, only 10 out of 59 animals with uterine disorders showed
vaginal bleeding in another study.2 Consistent with another report,
some of the rabbits include in the current study had vaginal
hemorrhage only during urination and a history of hematuria.1 As

TABLE 2
Clinical Signs of 31 Pet Rabbits with Uterine Disorders

Signs No. of rabbits %

Palpable mass* 14 45.2

Vaginal discharge/bleeding 10 32.3
Inappetence 10 32.3
†
Abdominal pain 7 22.6
Lethargy 6 19.4
Uneaten cecotrophs 5 16.1
Dyspnea 4 12.9
Mammary gland disorders — — FIGURE 3 Laterolateral abdominal radiograph of a 7 yr old
Enlarged abdomen — — rabbit with leiomyosarcoma of the uterus accompanied by adenocar-

*Palpable mass in the caudoventral portion abdomen.

cinoma. The uterus (white arrows) is represented by a soft-tissue mass
†
Painful abdomen on palpation. in the caudal abdomen with dot-shaped calcifications.

JAAHA.ORG 5
porphyrin-pigmented urine caused by plant pigment may be
mistaken for either hematuria or bloody vulvar discharge,
differentiation by urine dipstick or microscopic examination is
11
recommended in ambiguous cases.
Corresponding with other reports, nonspecific signs such as
depression, anorexia, and abdominal pain during palpation were
observed in approximately one third of our rabbits.1,22
Although none of the animals included in the present study
showed mammary gland disorders, such findings are frequently
associated with uterine disorders in rabbits.1,2,23 In one study,
31.9% of rabbits with uterine lesions that were evaluated
retrospectively suffered from mammary gland abnormalities.1
According to the literature, cystic mammary glands are primarily
detected in rabbits with either endometrial hyperplasia or
adenocarcinoma, whereas mammary gland carcinomas are found
only in rabbits with uterine adenocarcinomas.2
None of the rabbits with hydro- or mucometra had an
enlarged abdomen, whereas a visibly swollen abdomen has been
reported in association with this condition by several other
authors.1,3,4,20 Rather than abdominal enlargement, a fluid-filled
mass detected by abdominal palpation allowed for the tentative
diagnosis of hydro- or mucometra in the cases in the current
report. Vaginal discharge was neither observed in rabbits with
hydro- or mucometra nor in animals with pyometra or abscesses
within the uterine wall.
Five of the rabbits included in this study had uneaten
cecotrophs. The reason for incomplete cecotrophy in those animals
might be a painful condition due to uterine disorders that arises
20
especially during ingestion of cecotrophs directly from the anus.
According to observations of a previous report that semi-liquid
cecal ingesta can give a misleading clinical impression of diarrhea,
uneaten cecotrophs have been initially mistaken for diarrhea by all
of the five rabbit owners in the present study.10
In two out of four patients with dyspnea, lung metastases were
confirmed. but the cause for respiratory disorders could not be
identified in the remaining two rabbits. In addition to pulmonary
metastases, an enlarged abdomen has also been documented to
cause dyspnea in rabbits with uterine disorders. Abdominal pain or
anemia may be considered as a cause for respiratory distress in
4,10,19
rabbits with uterine disease, too.
Suspected clinical uterine abnormalities were confirmed in all
of the rabbits by abdominal ultrasound. Ultrasonographic findings
included enlargement of uterine diameter, fluid accumulation
within the lumen, masses (e.g., nodules), and areas with changes in
echogenicity. In accordance with those results, abdominal ultraso-
nography has been shown to be the most accurate method for the
diagnosis of uterine disorders in rabbits.1,2 Similar to another
6 JAAHA | 51:1 Month 2015
report, uterine lesions (mainly uterine tumors but endometrial
hyperplasia as well) could also be detected radiographically in
almost 75% of the rabbits undergoing abdominal radiography.2
Sometimes, neoplastic uterine masses contain foci of mineraliza-
tion that can be detected by abdominal radiography, as was done in
three rabbits included in the current study.22
Out of 23 rabbits that underwent ovariohysterectomy in the
current study, 4 were either euthanized or died within 1 wk of
surgery and follow-up examination was not available in 3 rabbits.
Sixteen out of 20 rabbits (80%) available for follow up were still
alive 6 mo after surgery. Similar to those results, 37 out of 47
rabbits (78.7%) that underwent ovariohysterectomy lived for .3
mo in another study.1 Nevertheless, data in that study were not
comparable to the current study because the times of the follow-up
examinations were different. Moreover, it was reported that 16 out
of 19 rabbits with uterine disorders (mainly adenocarcinoma and
endometrial hyperplasia) that underwent ovariohysterectomy were
still alive 12 mo later.9 In a recently published study, 8 out of 29
rabbits with uterine adenocarcinoma survived 22 mo after
ovariohysterectomy.2
The four rabbits that either died intraoperatively or were
euthanized within 1 wk of surgery were in an unstable clinical
condition (i.e., anorexia, lethargy, severe anemia) at the time of
initial presentation. Thus, the study authors agree with others and
conclude that outcome is mainly influenced by the clinical
condition of the rabbit rather than type and extent of uterine
lesions.1
In accordance to other reports, all of the rabbits included in
this study in which metastases were detected had uterine
adenocarcinomas as a primary tumor.11,12,20,21 However, metastasis
has also been documented in rabbits with uterine leiomyosarcoma
or choriocarcinoma.6,12,23 As observed in the present study,
metastasis reportedly affects several organs, including lung, liver,
bone, and brain by hematogenous routes.2,12,13 Beyond that,
metastasis to the skin has also been recorded in rabbits with uterine
adenocarcinomas.21 Similar to one of the rabbits included in the
current study that hind limb lameness due to uterine adenocar-
cinoma metastasis of the tibia, lameness of one hind limb because
of a pathologic fracture due to endometrial adenocarcinoma
metastasis of the femur has been documented.24 Moreover,
hypertrophic osteopathy has been reported in a rabbit with uterine
adenocarcinoma and pulmonary metastases.25 As metastases were
diagnosed in approximately one-quarter (6 out of 26) of the rabbits
undergoing necropsy and metastases were mainly detected in the
lungs, preoperative diagnostic workup should always include
thoracic radiographs. Beyond that, metastases were not detected
within the peritoneal cavity during ovariohysterectomy in any of

the included rabbits. It has been reported that either metastatic
disease or local invasion of peritoneal structures might not be
macroscopically apparent during laparotomy or might not be seen
on thoracic radiographs at the time of surgery.10 Moreover,
development of uterine adenocarcinoma from a uterine remnant
and subsequent metastasis was reported in a Blanc de Hotot
rabbit.26 A uterine stump adenocarcinoma in a cat that had
undergone ovariohysterectomy at the age of 6 mo shows that the
possibility of development of a uterine stump adenocarcinoma is
not unique to rabbits.27 Therefore, it is recommended to ligate the
uterus at the vaginal side of the cervix when performing an
ovariohysterectomy in a rabbit.28 Additionally, re-examination
including abdominal ultrasonography and thoracic radiographs at
regular intervals (3–6 mo) is recommended for a period of 1–2 yr
after ovariohysterectomy.2,10
Conclusion
Uterine adenocarcinoma and endometrial hyperplasia are the most
prominent uterine disorders in pet rabbits. The clinical diagnosis in
rabbits with uterine disease relies on clinical signs (e.g.,
serosanguineous vaginal discharge, hematuria, palpation of an
enlarged and/or irregular uterus in the caudoventral part of the
abdomen). To confirm uterine disorders, ultrasonography of the
abdomen is recommended. The treatment of choice is ovariohys-
terectomy in clinically stable patients. Rabbits in a poor clinical
condition have a grave prognosis and should be euthanized if
preoperative stabilization is not possible. Metastatic disease may
either not be apparent during laparotomy or may not be identified
on thoracic radiographs at the time of surgery. In female pet rabbits
not intended for breeding, either ovariohysterectomy should be
performed at an early age or routine examinations including
ultrasonography of the abdomen are recommended on a regular
basis.
FOOTNOTES
a 1949;2:673–91.
Philips HDI 5000 unit; Vienna, Austria
b 24. Haist V, Hirschfeld FG, Malllig C. Pathologic fracture of the femur due
Metacam; Boehringer Ingelheim Vetmedica GmbH, Ingelheim,
Germany
c
Baytril; Bayer, Leverkusen, Germany
d
Critical Care; Oxbow, Murdock, NE
e 26. Brown YK, Knowles S, Fiorello CV, et al. Pathology in practice.
SPSS 14.0
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