Process definitions
Solidification processes - starting material is a
heated liquid or semifluid
Particulate processing - starting material consists of
powders
Deformation processes - starting material is a
ductile solid (commonly metal)
Material removal processes - starting material is a
ductile or brittle solid Family ‘Subgroup =——Typieal processes
‘Sand casting
Expendable mold —~ Shell casting
Investment casting
Casting Lost-oam casting
Mutiple-use moid {7 pie cating
Permanent-mold casting
Turning
Mechanical Miting
machining Dring
Boring
Material Sowing
removal
Etching
Nontraditional Electropolishing
machining Etectrodischarge
machining
Water jot
Laser beam
Figure 11-1 The four materials processing
families, with sub groups and typical processes.
Deformation
processes
Hot
Cold forming ——1~ Swaging
Mechanical
joining
Forging
eam Et
teiceing — (208ra
— Wire drawing
Roll form
E ing
[+ Integral fasteners
+ Press fit
L Shrink fi Metal Forming
Large group of manufacturing processes in
which plastic deformation is used to change
the shape of metal work pieces.
* The tool, usually called a die, applies
stresses that exceed the yield strength of the
metal
* The metal takes a shape determined by the
geometry of the die Overview of Metal Forming
v
Rolling
Performed as cald, ee \
warm, and hot working
Forging
‘Bulk D eforston |
a Loo Extrusion
Wire and bar
Metal Forming Seating
Mainly cold working
, Shearin,
used to change the shape Metalworking e
of metal workpieces
Large group of mfg at Bending
processes in which
plastic deformation is Sheet ;
Deep and cup
drawing Plasticity
Deformation processes exploit a remarkable property of
metals, which is their ability to flow plastically in the solid
state without deterioration of their properties.
With the application of suitable pressures, the material is
moved to obtain the desired shape with almost no
wastage. Forming Processes
Forming processes tend to be complex systems
consisting
Independent variables,
Dependent variables, and
Independent-dependent interrelations. I Metal Forming Processes
on
age He!
®@
Rolling Forging
I
he
a
me me OT
A Ey
Extrusion Wire Drawing
Bulk Deformation Processes
LY]
Bending
\
\
Cup Drawing
Shearing |
Cn
|
Ee
Sheet Metal Working Independent Variables in Metal Forming
Q Independent variables are those aspects of the process
over which the engineer has direct control, and they are
generally selected or specified when setting up a process.
QO Some of independent variables in a typical forming
process:-
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
Starting material
Starting geometry of the workpiece
Tool or die geometry
Lubrication
Starting temperature
Speed of operation
Amount of deformation Dependent Variables in Metal Forming
QO Dependent variables are the consequences of the
independent variable selection.
O Example of dependent variables include:
v Force or power requirements
NON
XN
Material properties of the product
Exit (or final) temperature
Surface finish and dimensional
precision
Nature of the material flow Independent Variables
Starting material
The engineer is often free to specify the chemistry
and condition. These may also be chosen for
ease in fabrication or they may be restricted
by the final —_ properties desired for the product.
Starting geometry of the workpiece
This may be dictated by previous processing or it
may be selected by the engineer from a variety of
available shapes. Economics often influence this
decision. FIGURE 21.2
‘Some of the steel products made in a rolling mill.
Intermediate rolled form Final rolled form
Structural shapes
Bloom
Rails
—
is
Slab Coils
Plates, sheets
- DS
Billet Bars, rods
- OF
~~ Independent Variables
Tool or die geometry
This are has many aspects such as the diameter of a
rolling mill roll, the die angle in wire drawing and the cavity
details when forging. Since tooling will produce and_ control
the metal flow, success or failure of a process often
depends on tool geometry. Independent Variables
Lubrication
Since lubricants also acts as coolants, thermal barriers,
corrosion inhibitors, and parting compounds, their
selection is an aspect of great importance. Specification
includes type of lubricant amount to be applied and the
method of application. Independent Variables
Starting temperature
Many material properties vary greatly with temperature,
so its selection and control may well dictate the success
or failure of an operation.
Speed of operation
Since speed can directly influence the lubricant
effectiveness, the forces required for deformation
and the time available for heat transfer. It is
obvious that its selection would be significant in a
forming operation. Independent Variables
Amount of deformation
while some processes control this variable through die
design, others, such as rolling permits its selection at
the discretion of the engineer.
b Dependent Variables
Force or power requirements
Engineers cannot directly specify the force or power;
they can only specify the independent variables and
then experience the consequences of the selection.
The ability to predict the forces or powers however is
extremely important for only by having this knowledge
will the engineer be able to specify or select the
equipment for the process. Dependent Variables
Material properties of the product
The customer is not interested in the starting
properties but is concerned with our ability to produce the,
desired final shape with the desired final properties
Exit temperature
Engineering properties can be altered by both the
mechanical and thermal history of the material thus
it is important to know and control the temperature
of the material throughout the process Dependent Variables
Surface finish and precision
Both are characteristics of the resultant product that
are dependent on the specific details of the process.
Nature of the material flow
since properties depend on deformation history,
control here is vital the customer is satisfied only if
the desired geometric shape is produced with the
right set of companion properties and without
surface or internal defects. Independent-Dependent
Interrelations
Experience
This requires long time exposure to the process and is
generally limited to the specific materials, equipment
and products encountered in the realm of past contact.
Experiment
While possibly the least likely in error direct
experiment is both time consuming and costly. Independent-Dependent
Interrelations
Process modeling
Here one approaches the problem with a high speed
computer and one or more mathematical models of the
process numerical values are provided for the various
independent variables and the models are used to
compute predictions for the dependent variables Independent variables
Starting material
Starting geometry
Tool geometry
Lubrication
Starting temperature
Speed of deformation
Amount of deformation
-Experience-
-Experiment-
-Modeling-
Dependent variables
Force or power
requirements
Product properties
Exit temperature
Surface finish
Dimensional precision
Material flow details Stresses in Metal Forming
« Stresses to plastically deform the metal are
usually compressive
— Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion
* However, some forming processes
— Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
— Others bend the metal (tensile and compressive)
— Still others apply shear stresses Classification of States of Stress
7 B
(1) (2)
Simple uniaxial Biaxial tension
tension
(7) (8)
Biaxial Biaxial compression,
compression tension Classification of States of Stress
eB
