The design of water-retaining structures lan Batty Roger Westbrook lan na Longman | Scientific 8 == |Technical |Longman Scientific & Technical, Longman Group UK Limited, Longman House, Burnt Mill, ‘Harlow, Essex CM20 JE, England and Associated Companies throughout the world, { Copublished in the United States with John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 © Longman Group UK Ltd 1991 All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying. recording, or otherwise without cither the prior writen permission of the Publishers or a licence permiting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London WIP 9HE. First published 1991 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Set in Compr aphic Tinney 10/11 Printed and Bound in Great Britain at the Bath Press, AvonJd Contents Preface Acknowledgements List of design tables for water-retaining structures (Chapter 9} Standards for the design of water-retaining structures, Design and constructional aspects Design of cantilever walls to retain liquids Design of rectangular tanks of circular tanks Design of prestressed concrete circular tanks Design of a lat slab roof and columns for a reservoir Design of conical tanks Design tables for water-retaining structures Appendix | The analysis of ground-supported open circular concret Appendix IH Metric/Imperial conversion factorsrictace ‘This book provides a comprehensive understanding ofthe design and construction of water- fetaining structures, allowing graduate civil and structural engineering students, as well as the practising engineer, to design with speed and economy. Assuming some familiarity With BS 8110 Structural Use of Concrete the book draws oy examples, many of which are based on actual completed structures, and upon extensive tables, related to the analysis, of rectangular. circular and conical structures. to develop good working practice. The Lubles and examples will enable the engineer to check, by hand, the often complex results of computer analysis and output, usually based on the fine element method, for most alfected ty at's 8 Particularly so in those cases where the forces within & structure are affected by the ground upon which they sit. Thus. methous of designing for the soil/structure The wien Which normally require the aid of complex computer Programs, are included ‘The tables and examples will prove to be a good rele fe carrying out new work vee ere methods and regulations, and will give direction to the atuere engineer in the Use Of currrent British Stand design of many types of concrete structures An essential part of the book are the listed Computer programs and output which further Sooner esigner in-obtsining a range of options Trom which the mace effective and cconomical solution may be determined for a particular structure; whilst a useful appendix covers the analysis of ground-supported open circular concrete tarke, Acknowledgements ¢ authors wish to expres on to the BSI and the HSE for permission Renneataets (rom their publications. In particular they wish thank the Pardo Cement (esatiation of America for permission to use extracts fom thers wifes which assist in {he analysis of circular and rectangular tanks. They are alee grateful to the editor of Construction Weekly for allowing them to include. 26 an appendix, the article prepared by Lightfoot and Michael on the design of circular tanks supped by ground having clastic oF plastic properties. 111 Permission by Yorkshire Water to use photographs of construction and the help and encouragement of colleagues in the Central Division of thee Authority has been invaluable and is greaily appreciated. We are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce copyright material peitsh Standards Institute for extracts from BS 8007 and BS 8110, also for Fig, 2.2 from pe BOOT. Fis. 7.1 from BS 8110, Tables 1.1. 1.2 from CP 2007. Thelen ALL from Bi eOz. Tables 7.1. 7.2, 9.2 from BS 8110, Table 9.3 from BS dagen (Extracts from British Standards are reproduced with the permission of BSI Complete copies can be Chained by post from BSI, Linford Woo, Milton Keynes, MicI¢ eke the editor. Construction Weekly for Appendix | Lightfoot, Micha! D 1965 "The da ign of ground- pcported Oen circular tanks"; Health & Safety Construction for Fig. 1-2: Porilacd! ‘Cement 9 pecan for adapted Tables 9.20, 9.21, 9.22, 9.23,9.24,9.25 9.29.9 30, 9.31. 9,32, 9.33. 9.34, 9.35, 9.36, . Whilst every effort has been made t0 trace the owners of copyright material, in a few {AES his may have proved impossible and we take this opportunity to lier aor apologies. ‘© any copyright holders whose rights we have unwittingly infringedDesign tables for water-retai ing structures Is of (a) bar reinforcement, and (b) fabric reinforcement Table 9.2. Ultimate anchorage bond and lap lengths as multiples of bar size Table 9.3 Reinforcement scheduling details for (a) preferred shapes, and (b) other shapes Table 9.4. “As* for design crack width 0.2 mm, bar diameter TIO Table 9.5. *As" for design crack width 0.2 mm, bar diameter T12 Table 9.6 “As* for design crack width 0.2 mm, bar diameter T16 Table 9.7. As’ for design crack width 0.2 mm, bar diameter T20 Table 9.8 *As' for design crack width 0.2 mm, bar diameter T25 Table 9.9 “As’ for design crack width 0.2 mm, bar diameter T32 Table 9.10 ‘x and ‘2° factors for sections reinforced in tension only — serviceability limit state Table 9.11 “2/d" lever arm factors for ultimate bending moment Table 9-12 Concrete grade C25: permitted values of shear-stress *ve" for a-range of As x 100/(bv x d) and effective depth, d (BS 8110, Table 3.9) Table 9.13 Concrete grade C30: permitted values of shear stress ‘ve" for a range of As x 100/(bv x d)'and effective depth, d (BS 8110, Table 3.9) Table 9.14 Concrete grade C35: permitted values of shear stress ‘ve" for a range of As x 100/(bv x d) and effective depth, d (BS 8110, Table 3.9) Table 9.15 Shear reinforcement spacing (mm) for beams, where * (ve + 0.4) Table 9.16 Minimum percentage of reinforcement to resist early thermal cracking, (BS 8007 Appendix A) Table 9.17 Deflection — modification factors for tension reinforcement for varying values of Mu/(bdd) and serviceability stresses Table 9.18 Deflection — modification factors for tapered cantilever walls subjected to different types of loads Table 9.19 Values of *k* factor used for estimating deflections of cantilever walls under hydrostatic pressure Table 9.20 Moment and shear force coefficients for walls subjected to hydrostatic Pressure in a three-dimensional rectangular tank, assuming a hinged base, free top and continuous sides Table 9.21 Moment and shear force coefficients for walls subjected to hydrostatic Pressure in a three-dimensional rectangular tank, assuming a hinged base. hinged top and continuous sides Table 9.22 Moment and shear force coefficients for wall panels subjected «© hydrostatic pressure, assuming hinged base, free top and continuous sides Table 9.23 Moment and shear force coefficients for wall panels subjected to hydrostatic pressure, assuming fixed base, free top and continuous sides ‘Table 9.24 Moment and shear force coefficients for wall panels subjected to hydrostatic pressure, assuming pinned base, pinned top and continuous sides Table 9.25 Moment and shear force coefficients for wall panels subjected to hydrostatic pressure, assuming fixed base, pinned top and continuous sides Table 9.26 Deflection of two way spanning slabs with various edge conditions subjected to (a) triangular pressure, (6) rectangular pressure Table 9.27 Ground pressure created beneath a base slab carrying an edge force “*Q* is greater thanvi. and an edge moment ‘M’ and supported upon an elastic soil Table 9.28 ‘Bending moments created within a base slab carrying an edge force @ and an edge moment ‘M’ and supported upon an elastic soil Table 9.29 (a) tension, and (b) moment coefficients in cylindrical tanks supporting 2 triangular load, assuming a fixed base and a free top : Table 9.30 (a) tension, and (6) moment coefficients in cylindrical tanks supporting 2 triangular load, assuming a pinned base and a free top Table 9.31 (a) tension, and (6) moment coefficients in cylindrical tanks subjected fo.a moment per m, ‘M’ applied at base Table 9.32 (a) tension, and (b) moment coefficients in cylindrical tanks subjected fo a shear per m, ‘V’ applied at top Table 9.33 (a) tension, and (6) moment coefficients in cylin. z 2 rectangular load, assuming a fixed base and a free top Table 9.34 (a) tension, and (b) moment coefficients in cylindrical tanks supporting 2 rectangular load, assuming a pinned base and a free top T base of cylindrical tanks subjected to: triangular load, rectangular load, moment at edge; (6) stiffness coefficients for cylindrical walle: (0) stiffness coefficients of circular plates with and without centre support ‘Table 9.36 Supplementary coefficients for values of Lv x © x h) greater than 16 Table 9.37 (a:b) coefficients for calculating forces in a conical tank supported at base level, resulting from fixity at the base of the cone Table 9.38 (a,b) coefficients for calculating forces in a conical tank supported at base level, resulting from fixity at the apex of the cone I tanks suppor “t { {' structures * The necessity to store and supply purified water, and to * eat the residual effluents, has been a major source of civil engineering activity for many civilisations. There are many remnants of great structures used for this purpose * which demonstrate the skills of those earlier engincers. ‘These indicate that then, as now. if you wish to retain water and prevent it being polluted you had to build well In more recent times an evolutionary system of Codes of Practice and British Standards were developed, based ‘upon continuing experience and research, in order to help engineers design water-retaining structures more effective — The earliest codes, CP 7 (1938) and CP 2007 (1960), considered that if the stresses in the steel and concrete were of a relatively low order then there should be few Problems. To minimise cracking those areas of concrete in tension were designed to ensure that the tensile resist- ance of the concrete was greater than the actual tensi force. The permitted design service stresses given in Tables 1.1 and 1.2 are extracts from CP 2007 (1960). Table 1.1 Permissible concrete stresses in , calculations relating to the resistance to cracking (CP 2007, Table 2) te ee Permissible concrete stresses Concrete mix Tension ‘Shear a Direct Due to bending “bl, (Nirnerry—_(Nlemm?) (Nim?) a Nominal mixes 1:18: 32 Grage 26 Lidia" Gebde 21 12 13 185 1.68 192 a7 With the advent of limit state design theory a radical ‘change was introduced into BS 5337 (1976), the water- Fetaining structures code of practice. The code drafters (00k into account the expericnces of many engineers and essentially permitted three different ways of design: Standards for the design of water-retaining (2) the limit state method based upon the ‘current level of research: the alternative method which was similar io the previous code of practice CP 2007: () (©) the limited stress method which incorporates both limit state and elastic theory. Table 1.2 Permissible steel stresses in strength calculations (CP 2007, Table 4) Os ee Perms in see (mild) (Nim?) embers in cet enon e@ On taining fee w Monta Oniace ener ess nan —" ae Sone 2 Dende fom Montes 25 - mt more thick 125 IE Sewn ts in seer a The effect of this standard was to help engineers consider more closely how concrete behaved and ow to prevent ‘cracking of the concrete during the construction und work- ing life of the structure. A great deal of attention was focused upon positions and types of joints. methods of construction and arcas of reinforcement required t Prevent early thermal cracking. Durability of the concrete both in the short and long term was now of as equal importance as the design. The Previous design codes tended to result in thick concrete sections with relatively large amounts of mild stcel rein- forcement. This, however, did not prevent cracking. The new standard, BS 5337, required engineers to become ‘more involved in the construction process particularly with regard (0 joint positions and methods of construction. Theit state design method did lead to thinner sections and deflection under load was more noticeable, particularly with respect to cantilever retaining walls. One other result was that high tensile stee! virtually replaced mild steel as, the main reinforcement used in construction, BS 8007 (1987) Design of concrete structures for retaining aqueous liquids Asa result of 11 years of experience with BS 5337, the most recent standard, BS 8007, is now based mainly on the limit state approach to design. Structures are generally designed to restrict crack widths by suitable amounts of reinforcement and appropriate joint spacing. The alterna- tive method given in BS 5337 was removed from the code; a few elements of the limited stress approach, however, did remain. For the first time in a BS design code the designer is required to-consider operational safety. The basic elements of the BS 8007 are now sum- marised, changes and additions to the previous code are highlighted. Where applicable, extracts from the standard are included with kind permission of the BSI. General: (Section 1,of BS 8007) Scope: This British Standard provides recommendations for the design and construction of normal reinforced sind prestressed concrete structures used for the containment or ‘exclusion of aqueous liquids. The term “liquid” inthis code includes any contained or excluded aqueous liquids but excludes aggressive liquids. The code does not cover dams, pipes, pipelines, lined structures, or the damp-proofing of basements. The term ‘structure’ is used herein forthe vessel that contains or excludes the liquid, and includes tanks, reservoirs, and other vessels. NOTE 1 The design of structures of special form or in unusual circumstances is . matter for the judgement ofthe designer NOTE 2 The titles of the publications referred to in thi standard ate listed on the inside buck cover A design temperature range of 0 °C to 35 °C is now specified for containment under normal conditions. Recommendations are also. included regard to structures subject to adverse ground conditions. Design objectives and general recommendations: (Section 2 of BS 8007) Design objectives: The purpose of design is the achievement ‘of acceptable probabilities thatthe structure being designed will not become unfit in any way for the use for which it intended. This code provides for a method of design based on limit state philosophy that is generally in accordance with ‘the methods employed in BS 8110. Structural elements that ate ‘not part.of the liquid-retaining structure should be ‘designed in accordance with BS 8110, Structural design: (@) It is recommended that the, design of sections be based upon crack width i athe= care: checked. (b)_ The partial safety factor for retained water shall be 1.4 for most situations for ultimate limit state (ULS) and 1.0 for serviceability limit state (SLS). (©) There shall be a factor of safety of at least 1.1 against Notation, (@) The maximum crack widths shall be: (RC — alll faces of liquid conta excluding structures — 0.2 mm max. RC — where aesthetic appearance is critical = 0.1 mm max. (ii) PS — limited to requirements of BS 8110; however, refer to Section 4.3 of BS 8007 for particular rules for cylindrical tanks. ii) PS — except for the special recommendations for the. design of cylindrical prestressed structures (see Section 4.3 of BS 8007). the tensile stress in the concrcte should be limited for prestressed conerete structures in accord- ance with the recommendations of Section 2.2.3.4.2 of BS 8110 : Part 1: 1985, . (©) Deflection — Walls designed by limit state theory are thinner than those designed by clastic theory and the designer is cautioned to ensure that deflection, due to loading or rotation of the supporting earth, is not excessive. The method of backfilling should be clearly defined. (Where deflection is the sig- nificant factor in the design of a wall the authors of this book recommend that the thickness of the wall be increased rather than the area of steel be increased to satisfy the BS 8110 requirements.) 12 oF Loads: (a) All structures required to retain liquids should be designed for both the full and empty conditions, and the assumptions regarding the arrangement of loading should be such as to cause the most critical effects Particular attention should be paid to possible sliding and overturning. (b)_ULS condition liquid levels should be taken to the top of the walls for design purposes assuming all ‘outlets blocked. SLS condition liquid levels should be taken to the overflow, or working top level. for design purposes assuming all outlets open (©) No relief should be allowed for beneficial soil pres- sures in designing walls subjected to internal water loading. (4) Thermal movement in roofs should be minimised by appropriate means. It is noted that where a roof is rigidly fixed to a wall, forces will be generated if the wall should the roof expand or contract. (©) Earth covering roofs should be treated as a dead load, excessive construction loads should, however, be considered in the design. Analysis of wall and junctions: The code states that bending and direct tension shosld'be taken into account in the design process (refer to examples in Chapters 3 and 4). It is worth noting that significant horizontal bending ‘moments occur at corners of rectangular containers par- ticularly where the walls have a lengvivneight ratio in excess of 2. ee ee olSite conditions: (a) Ground movements — for subsidence effects, guid- ance is given on methods to limit the damage that may result (see Chapter 2). (b) Reference is made to the recommendations of + BS 8110 regarding the effect of aggressive soils upon conerete. Causes and control of crackin, : Cracking in walls occurs as a result of (@) external loading and changes in temperature during the working life of the structure; (b) chemical and physical changes generated particularly by changes in temperature and moisture content as the concrete matures and strengthen: (©) restraints to movement by adj conerete sections; (6) inadequate detailing of reinforcement and of associated poor construction techniques. ing stronger Concrete is particularly weak for the first few days following its construction. Careful thought and super- on prior to casting, and immediately afterwards, will assist in ensuring a sound structure, The code recommends that the prudent use of reinforcement, movement joints and construction techniques will help in keeping crack widths within acceptable limits. The extract below from clause 2.6.2.2 of BS 8007 gives useful advice on’ particular methods of thinimising and controlling cracking resulting from moisture and temperature changes within the structure: In order to minimise and control cracking that may result from temperature and moisture changes in the structure it is desirable (0 limit the following Faetors: € (@) , the maximum temperature and moisture changes duris ‘construction by: a (0) using aggregates having low or medium coefficienis ‘of thermal expansion and avoiding the use of shrinkable aggregates, @) using the minimum cement content consistent with the requirements for durability and, when necessary, for sulphate resistance, G) using cements with lower rates of heat evolution, @) keeping concrete from drying out until the struc. ture is filled or enclosed, (5) avoiding thermal shock or over-rapid cooling of ‘a concrete surface; (b) restraints to expansion and construction by the provision of rlovement joints (see Section 5.3 of BS 8007); (©) restraints from adjacent sections of the work by using a planned sequence of construction or temporary open sections (see Section 5.5 of BS 8007); (@)_ localised cracking within a particular member between ‘movement joints by using reinforcement or prestress: (©) rate of first filling’ with liquid (see Section 9.2 of BS 8007); (0, thermal shock caused by filling a cold structure with aa warm liquid of vice versa. mn and detailing recommendations are also given ind of Section 2.6 of BS 8007 and it is noted that: ‘where reinforcement is required to control shrinkage and thermal cracking, it should be placed as near the concrete surface as the cover requirements allow: (b) unless joints are placed at close centres (sce clause 5.3.3 of BS 8007) the amount of reinforcement in ‘each surface zone in.both directions shall noube less than the amount shown in Fig. 1.1. @) h > 500mm Foe’ minimum areas of reinforcement see page 4 phy ce h&S00mm | ( Thi Walls) : ove Thickness 27 Figure 1.4‘The reinforcement should be calculated in accordance with Section 5.3.3 and Appendix A of BS 8007. Except as Provided for in option 3 in Table 5.1 and Section 5.3.3, the Amount of reinforcement in esch of two directions at right angles within each surface zone should be not less than 0.35 % of the surface zone cross section, as defined in igures A.1 and A.2 for deformed grade 460 requirement ‘and not less than 0.64 % for plain grade 250 reinforcement. {In wall slabs less than 200 mm in thickness the calculated amount of reinforcement may all be placed in one face. For {ground slabs less than 300 mm thick (see A.2 of BS 8007), the calculated reinforcement should be placed as near to the Upper surface as possible consistent withthe nominal cover. Design life and serviceability: The design life of the structure should be in the range of 40 to 60 years. It is noted that elements of the structure may have a shorter ‘working life than the main structure (joints, sealamts etc). It is obviously p:dent to ensure that replaceable items ‘are accessible without major destruction of other elements. ‘The designer should explain how often the structure is to be inspected and maintained. In particular the struc- ture should be examined regularly for cracks, rust stains ‘and other signs of deterioration. A schedule of precautions Recessary (0 prevent potential damage to the structure should be written into the commissioning document. For example, if the media in a sunken filter bed is used to Prevent flotation then it must not be replaced without first lowering the external water table! Pressure relief valves ‘must be checked before any work is carried out which depends upon their effective operation. Both faces of a liquid containing or excluding structure, together with internal supports of a containment structure. shall be considered to have a minimum surface exposiure ating of ‘severe’ as defined in clause 3.3.4 of BS 8110. Where exposed concrete is subjected to severe freczing, conditions whilst wet, then a ‘very severe" rating is to be used. ‘The concrete design and specification in the code is con- sidered adequate for a structure exposed to *severe* ‘conditions as defined in BS 8110. However the designer's attention is drawn to the possibility of biological decay resulting from adverse materials contained within the stored liquid or present in the external ground water. Where such conditions arise or where an “extended design life" for the structure is required then additional cement content, cover or spccial reinforcement may be necessary Note: All examples in the chapters that follow are designed with 45 mm minimum cover since itis the authors’ exper- fence that clients generally expect their structures to have 4 design life well in excess of 40 to 60 years! The code stresses the requirement that the concrete should have a low permeability. This is one of the most significant factors in reducing the incidence of chemical attack, erosion, abrasion, frost damage and corrosion of reinforcement. ‘The nominal cover for reinforcement is given as 40 mm minimum. However, if the cover is increased then surface rack widths resulting from bending and direct tension will also increase (see Appendix B and the design exatipice ia ts > tise follow), Specification: The designer is asked to ensure that as far as is reasonably practicable the assumptions made at the design stage occur on site and that the quality of both ‘materials and workmanship are satisfactory. Operational safety considerations: The designer should, take into account the requirements given in those sections of the Health and Safety at Works Act (1974). One of the most common ‘dangerous occurrences" statistic which happens in the water industry is death or injury resulting from people entering unventilated enclosed structures without first checking that the atmosphere is satisfactory. The code takes this into account by stressing that: (At least two access hatches should be provided at opposite ends of a structure and at least one in each compartment, The hatches should be large enough to enable personnel wearing breathing apparatus to enter, Provision should be made to ensure that there is adequate ventilation to limit dangerous accumula- tions of gas or toxic atmospheres 1o acceptable levels, Increasing concern over accidents within the construction industry, often resulting from lack of training, has led to the inclusion of the following generalised statement in the contract documents: Gi) “Personnel will only be allowed on siteif they have evidence to prove that they have had recent training in the safety requirements necessary for this contract oF that they are escorted during their visit by suitably qualified and approved staff,” The proposed draft HSC Construction Management Regulations includes the following definition of duties for designers under Regulation 7, in Fig. 1.2 Construction management Proposals for Regulations and an Approved Code of Practice Figure 1.2 Any person who designs a steucture shall ensure a Fa ay is reasonably practicable that the structure is so designed that it can be built, maintained (including re-pointed. ee-decorated and cleaned), repaired and demolished safely and without isk to health Any person who designs a structure shall ensure, so far a is reasonbly practicable, that his design shall include adequate information about any aspect of the design or ‘materials which might affect the health and safety of any con- tractor or any other person at wark on that structure ay Designers should consider whether there are any special itors which would affect the heath and safety of those doing the work and, if so, show! inform prospec contractors in terms atthe tender stige and in more detail when specifying design details, construction methods or materials(2). Designers should ensure that their proposals will be clear to potential contractors, and that any special req ments, such as the need to cope with temporary instability, are property set out. They should also design structures which can be built safely and take proper ‘account of the user's need safely to maintain and repair + them in the course of the life of the structure and the ‘eventual need to demolish them. )_ Where any structure has, as part of its design, anything, which could prove to be a hazard in the course of any subsequent work on it, or its eventual demolition, appropriate information should be provided forthe client by the designer for future reference. Design and detailing reinforced concrete: (Section 3 of BS 8007) Design: The basis of design should comply with the requirements of BS 8110, however, those arcas of BS 8007 which are not in accordance with BS 8110 are stated. “Methods of limiting crack widths taking into account constructional and design requirements in the immature and mature concrete are listed. and detailing of prestressed concrete: (Section 4 of BS 8007) ‘The basis of design is stated, in the same manner as for reinforced concrete above. However, particular rules for cylindrical prestressed concrete structures are included (see Chapter 6). The nominal cover should be such as to satisfy the “very severe’ exposure condition of BS 8110. ng and workmanship of joints: n 5 of BS 8007) General: Joints in liquid-retaining structures are temporary oF permanent discontinuities at sections, and may be formed oor induced. This section describes the types of joint that may be required and gives recommendations for their design and construction. The types of joint are illustrated in Figure 5.1 (85 #007) and are intended to be diagrammatic. Jointing ‘materials are considered in Appendix C of BS 8007. Joints may be used, in conjunction with a corresponding. proportion of reinforcement, to control the cancrete crack ‘widths arising from shrinkage und thermal changes to within acceptable limits Since the main source of leakage in water-reiaining structures occurs at joint positions, considerable attention is given to this subject. The code lists six types of joint: (a) expansion: (b) complete contraction: (©) partial contraction; (@)_ hinged; ©) sliding; - () construction, Descriptions and details are given of the purpose of each type of joint and method of construction. The designer has to choose the position and type of joint considered. best for a particular situation. ‘The spacing of joints is let to the engineer's judgement. ‘Some favour close joints whereas others prefer no joints at all and use higher quantities of stce! to control crack- ing. Table 1.3, extracted from the code, indicates that both systems are acceptable. Section 5.4 of the code specifies in some detail how ‘a construction joint may be formed to provide continuity of strength and resistance to leakage without the nzcd of a water bar. Where it is necessary for no movement joints to exist such as in tanks where direct tension occurs Section 5.5 of the code refers to the possibility of temporary open sections being left between panels as shown in Fig. 1.3. In on ta om tn, fel #7| Rigid Base Figure 1.3 The benefits are that the amount of reinforcement necessary to control early thermal cracking is minimised ‘The only thermal effects to be considered are those result- ing from seasonal variations (T2 — see Appendix A— 3, BS 8007). ‘The section closes with advice on joints in ground slabs, roofs and walls; however. it is noted that for all vertical joints in the walls of circular tanks, including construc tion joints, it is necessary to provide water bars to prevent leakage. Concrete: specification and material (Section 6 of BS 8007) It is recommended that when blended cements are used the maximum proportion of ggbfs should nat exceed 50%. where pfa is used the maximum proportion should not exceed 35 %. ‘The code specifies a particular concrete mix for gencral use with water-retaining structures classed as grade C35 with a minimum cement content of 325 kg/m’, Further comments are made regarding workability, blinding layers and pneumatically applied mortar. It is recommended that since cracking in-conerete cannet beTable 1.3 Design options for control of thermal contraction and restrained shrinkage b (BS 8007, Table 5.1) . Option Type of construction and Movement joint spacing Stee! ratio Comments ? method of control (500 note 2) 1 Continuous: ‘No jonts, but expansion joints at Minimum of Use small size bars at close for full restraint wide spacings may be desirable in Pera spacing to avoid high steel 4 walls and roofs that are not protected ratios well in excess Of peri {rom solar heat gain or where the . fem mae eu ean ene pr : substantial temperature range Somicontinuous: (2) Complete joints, = 15 m Minimum of Use smal size bars but less for partial restraint () Aternate partial and complete Pet steel than in option + C Joints (by interpolation), = 11.25 m (6) Paral ints, = 7.5 m a Close movement joint (2) Complote joints, in metres 218 ena Restrict the joint spacing for , ‘spacing: for freedom of w options 3(b) and 3c) movement s4ae% r (0) Aternate partial and complete b : Joins, in metres 5 O.55qax + 24 “ fl (0) Partial joints. : S Spee + gp : ue u Note 1 References should be made to Appendix A, BS 8110, forthe description of the symbols used inthis table and for “calling pe Sue 894 € | Noto 2 in oplions 7 and 2 tho steot rato wll generally exceed py to restrict the crack wicths to acceptable values. In option 3 tho stool ratio of 2/3 peu wil be adoquat . ka totally avoided, any member that is permanently exposed cation of reinforcement, prestressing tendons an to view is provided with a profile or type of finish which inspection and testing of the structure for water tightne} will minimise the effects of surface marking. and liquid retention 1 ‘The remaining sections of the code relate to the spe:Appendix A. Calculation of minimum reinforcement, crack spacing and crack widths with regard to temperature and moisture effects ‘This section provides more information than the previous code on the way concrete is affected by temperature and moisture. Much research work has been carried out by such organisations as CIRIA, BCA and many universities, which helps engincers to understand how durable concrete may be produced. Typical values of th fall in temperature between the hydtation peak and the ambient, referred to as TI in the code, are given in Table A.1, which is an extract from BS 8007. Table A.1 Typical values of T, for OPC concretes, where more particular information is not available (BS 8007, Table A.2) 1 2 3 4 Section Walls Ground stabs: ttickness. ————_0PC content, (mm Steet 18 mm tom) formwork: OPC plywood content, formwork: (kg?) OPC content, (kg?) 325 350 400 325.350 400 325 350 400 ) ©) C) 30 113 15 23S ST at 50020 22 a7 32 358 43 2S BH ce er ee 1000 3a 4249 42a = ‘Note 1 For suspended slabs cast on flat steel formwork, use the data in column 2 ‘Note 2 For suspended stabs cast on plywood formwork, use {he data in eolumn 4. The table assumes the following: (2) that the formwork is fet in positon until the peak temperature has passed: (0) that the concrete placing temperature is 20°C; (6) that the mean daily temperature is 15°C; (a) that an allowance has not been made for solar heat gain in slabs, It is noted that the mean daily temperature used in the Preparation of this table is 15 °C. Once again clase co- ‘operation between designer and contractor is necessary to ensure rt the estimated TY figure, assumed at the stage, is valid at the construction stage. se long term seasonal temperature falls are denoted in Appendix A3 (BS 8007) by the figure T2. This effect occurs in the mature concrete and is catered for by: (i) where continuous construction is used T2 is added to TI and a greater area of reinforcement is required: Gi) the use of movement joints to absorb these variations, in length Further topics in’ Appendix A give guidance and equations on: @_ minimum reinforcement; ii) the spacing of cracks; crack control in thick sections; (iv) external restraint factors. Table 9.16 at the rear of this book gives the percents of stcel necessary to comply with Appendix A for varying, values of T1 & 72, steél diameters and crack widths. For example, for a temperature fall of 40 °C, 16 mm diamet type 2 bar and a crack width of 0.2 mm, 0.64 % steel is required within the zone Appendix B Calculations of crack widths in mature concrete ‘One of the features of BS 5337, the previous ‘water retaining structures’ code, was that the cracks resulting from bending stresses should be calculated. Revised equations are given in BS 8007 to comply with BS 8110 requirements. In addition, equations to estimate the crack widths duc to direct tension are now included. Clause 2.2.1 of BS 8007 suggests that the design process commences with the calculation of crack widths based on the Appendix B equations and recommendations. Tables 9.4 to 9.9 inclusive, are prepared to help the designer to obtain very quickly a range of concrete sections using differing thicknesses, cover and diameters, of steel. These will, for a particular service bending moment, generate a crack width equal to or slightly less than 0.2 mm. In addition Program 1-P, given on page 8 allows the designer to input the bending moment, thickness of slab and cover. The output gives a range of diameters of bars, spacing and resulting crack widths. Example: (Using Tables 9. Program 1.P,) 5 wo 9.7, and also us Table B.1 Bending moment — 100 kNM; cover to main steel — 45 mm Table “Type 2". ‘Thickness Spacing of Crack width bar diameter (mm) (mm) bars (mm) trom Program 1, nm) 9-05 112 500 175 0.20 9-05 112 400 100 a9 wR se THE 500 225 0.18 116 400 150 9.20 9-07 T20 500 300 0.18 9-07 120 aco 200 0.20Program 1P, Design of a concrete slab to ensure that the crack width generated does not exceed 0.2 mm for a particular bending moment, depth of slab and any cover to steel 4 REM CALCULATES 5 UPRINDT:: 6 UPRINT* 7 LeRINT* 9 LPRINT* * 10 DIM 2(22, 23) ,S?112,28) 2 28) ,DIA(12,281 ii bparsr 12 INPUT "THE BENDINS MOMENT IS" ;3% 13 INPUT "THE THICKNESS OF THE SLAB IS "711 14 INPUT "THE COVER TO THE MAIN REINFORCEMENT 13" ;COV 15 Learnt * THE DESIGN SERVICE SENDING MOMENT 13 “ 16 CeRINT™ * 17 UPRINE * THE PAICKNESS OF THE SLAB TS " 18 Learars * 19 UPRinT * THE COVER fO THE DESIGN SrseL 1s ";COV;" mn™ 20 LeRIND™ “ 21 LPRINT “AREA STEEL OIA SPACING cw " 22 Leatar * sq.m mn mm fm 23 LeRINE * 30 FOR 3=4 70.12 STEP 1 40 FOR H=12 79 28 STEP 4 42: OTA(S,H) 45 TE OLA(S,a) = 24 THEN OTA(S,H) = 25 46.06 OLA(3,H)= 28 THEN OLA(S,A 50 3P(3,H)= 342: 60 T(S,4)=H1 70 D(3,H)= H1-COV-OIA(S ,4) /2 75 AS(S,H)=3.1424 DIA(S, 1) *2*,25*1000/SP (3-H) 76 HOR(S,H) =4(3,H) *1000/3(5,H) “2 Input: Hie REE’ Bending Koment * kNen 120 Next S 2 ™ 120 NEXT S_ Thickness of slab " 153 Leatae" * Cover fo wan steel + rim. 156 UPRINE™ nis sheveseest2" 180 END 510 4(3,H)=34*1000099! 520 AS 715 530 P=AS(S,4)/(1900%9 (5/41) cover 540 X=SQR(AE*P* (AE*P+2) ) -AE*P =: OOK1 IS THE REFERENCE POR A CRACK WIOTH OF 0.2ma" CRACK WIOTHS FOR RC SLABS - Bt BM; " kNm" 1" mm" 559 Z=1-¥/3 550 FSaA(3,/H)/(AS(341) *249(569) Bi 1 570 SS=FS/(200*1000) ‘gure 8 500 SC=SS*(T(3, 1) -D(3,H) *X) / (9 (3H) -0(5 .4) *X) 590 $1=1000*(T(5,i) -D(3,H) *X) ~2/ (600* LOOOFAS (SA) #9(S it) *(1-K)) 600 5u=SE-31 SLO ACR=3QR{ (.5*5P(5,H)) “2+ (COVEDTA(S, H) /2)~2) -DIA(S 44) /2 3 620 CW(S,H) H3*ACR*SH/ (Lt (2* (ACR=COV) /( (S/H) -O(S 4) *K))) 650 IF SW(S,i1) <.15 THEN 690 665 [Ff CW(S,H) >.201 THEN 699 668 M(5,H) =4(5,4) /(1000*1000) 670 LPRIWE USINS “ EESE.EL "GAS (S/H) sDTA(S,H) (SP (S/H) FCN(S 64D 674 LPRINT" * 690 RETURN ry nrt $ b Output program 1P, rareaey THE DESIGN SERVICE BENDING MOMENT IS THE COVER TO THE DESIGN STEEL IS AREA STEEL bra sq.m +m u13i.t2 12.00 1608.70 16.00 1340.59 16.00 1795.43 20.00 1571.00 20.00 2181.94 25.00 1963.75 25.00 Appen C Jointing materials This section of the cade starts by defining the various joint- ing materials. Since the most common source of leakage/entry of water is at joint positions, it then reminds the designer of the need to consider, whilst detailing, the problems of future maintenance: ‘The joints described in Section S of BS 8007 require the use ‘of combinations of jointing materials, which may be classified (a) joint filers: (o) waterstops: (©) join sealing compounds (including primers where required) These materials ate inaccessible once the liquid-retaining structure has been commissioned until the structure is taken out of use. The design uses for these materials in joints should take into account their performance characteristics, both individually and in combination, and the restrictions and Uifficulties of access to them should the joints not perform as designed {cis important that acceptable methods of compacting. the concrete around the joint arc defined prior to the concrete being placed. As was mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, Water-retaining structures must be well built. BS 8007 Provides many useful guidelines on how durable concrete may be produced sire THE DESIGN OF R.C.SLABS FOR A CRACK WD; paageaas 190 THE THICKNESS OF THE SLAB IS 400 mm 45° mm SPACING ca mm ma 190.00 0.19 125.00 0.16 150.00 0.20 175.00 0.17 200.00 0.20 225.00 0.16 250.00 9.18 Appendix D Future standards ‘The advent of the European code for concrete EC 3 is now well under way and the general opinion is that the procedures in the proposed code and those in BS 8110 are similar and the results of using either code will produce little change of any significance. The approach to carrying ‘out the design is different, however, and some of these differences are given below, particularly where they affect the design of water-retaining structures. ‘The code deals with principles which are mandatory and rules which contain a method of satisfying these principles but permit alternative methods, which must, however, still comply with the necessary requirements. ‘The cover to steel is generally less than that stated in BS 8110 but tolerances for workmanship deficiencies must be added to these values (S10 mm is the current extra cover recommended for in-situ concrete). The span’ effective depth ratios are of interest in that lightly stressed cantilevers (containing <0.5 % reinforcement) have @ permitied slenderness ratio of 10 whereas highly stressed members (containing >1.5% reinforcement) have a permitted value of 7. The result is that the designer is, encouraged to increase the thickness of the concrete rather than increase the stee! areas when deflection is a problem. The control of cracking resulting from early thermal effects or serviceability tensile stresses is considered in depth by EC 2 and minimum areas of steel will be greater than that specified in BS 8007 in certain situations In general terms the individuals and organisations involved wish she dewstopment of EC 2 are confident that the effects of the changes will be minimal upon those engineers who are familiar with BS 8110.all structures, careful attention to detailing, specification of materials, methods of construction, the ‘supporting clement and methods of protection from attack by adverse chemicals should result in a structure that will have a satisfactory life. Proposed new safety legislation referred to in Chapter | spells out clearly, however, that the designer should not only ensure that the structure should be built well and cafely but also that it can be safely maintained, repaired and demolished! The designer must # = Figure 2.1 ‘not only be skilled in design and construction but also hi, some understanding of the operational work that structure was built for and also how it should be ma tained and repaired during its working life. The designer is being encouraged to work more clos™ with those who build the structure and also those who it. For example, if one is designing a reservoir. a typi: design brief prepared by the operations group would Fe in requirements similar to those shown in Fi (a) full height division wall; (b) minimum slope of floor and roof 1 in 200; (¢) all wallifioor, wall/wall, column/floor junctions to be haunched; (d) no protrusion of column bases abovg , floor level; (2) smooth internal concrete surfaces; (f) a gap of at least 100 mm between top water level and underside of roof soffit or roof beams; (g) at least two access hatches to each compartment — the sides to extend at least 300 mm above soil level — main access hatch should have a landing 2.5 m below hatch and ideally further descent should be via a flight of step: (hy |} corrosion protected ladders but not smooth stainless steel; ()) special 1m x 1 m-sealed access | opening for mechanical plant and large equipment placed into compartment by crane sat on hardstand; (k) suitable ventilation included to (i) accommodate changes in water level, (ii) prevent local accumulation of stagnant air, ii) prevent entry of polutants to reservoi {m) roof to be covered with topsoil and grass «:hich is to be (!) underfloor drainage= > sale ct 2 small tractor and mower; (n) embankment to have a maximum slope of 1 in 2.5. 10‘The contractor's preference would probably include: (a) close consultation before design details are finalised, based on the understanding that the contractor has specialist knowledge on construction that the designer may not have; (b) discussions during the construction without the red solutions: (e) a combined approuch.to problem solving: (d)_an agreed performance specification based on design parameters: (e)_ simple detailing and sufficient width of section that enables the concrete to be easily placed and compacted between shutter: (1) a flat formation level with no downstands for bases or ribs: (2) a team, rather than adversarial, approach to the contract One example where close liaison with the contractor is of value can be shown with the aid of Fig. 2.2. BS 8007, Appendix AS, gives the restraint factors for three differing mthods of wall construction, Elevations a, cand d shown in Fig. 2.2 give indications of the variation of the amounts of steel required for each type of construction IW the designer places sufficient reinforcement for the sequential bay wall construction’ (type ¢) but the con- tractar, at estimating stage and often without full Jetailed drawings. bases his quotation on carrying out the work a combination of types and d, the result is th: some parts af the wall will be under-reinforced and changes will have to be made either by the designer or by the contractor, or, if not noticed. the wall may erack External restraint factors (BS 8007) Effective external restraint may be taken ay SO of the total external restraint because of internal creep, Reference was rmude in 3 (BS 8007) to mavement joints that greatly reduce the rigid external restraint assumed for continuous walls However, there vire yther situations where the assumed external restraint factor R can be less than 0.5. Some typical Situations for thin sections subjected to external restraint illustrated in Fig. A3 (BS $007) and allow for any benelicial invernal restraints. [Note that no thermal cracking is likely to occur within 2.4 mi ofa free edge since experience has shown that isthe length of wal o floor slab over which the tensile strain capacity of the eoncrete exceeds the increasing resteained ‘contraction, the restraint factor varying between zero atthe {ree edge o a maximum of 0.5 at 2.4 m from the free edge, ‘can occur near the ends i stress such a pipes occur within this 2.4 m length of wall or slab. However. if not less than 2/3 py. based on the surface zones, is provided and there are no obvious stress raisers, ‘may be assumed thatthe free ends of the members witi move inwards without cracking up to where R = 0.5. Where this is only a temporary free edge and a subsequent bay is cast against the edge, the larger restraint factor for the sub- sequent bay is shown in parentheses in Fig. A3 (BS 8007) and should be assumed [4]. * ‘The eesteaint within a wall or hoor panel depnds aot only ‘on the location within the slab but also on the proportions fof the slab, The table below shows how the restraint factors vary between opposite edges, one free and one fixed (e.g fora wall slab the base section is the fixed ede and the top section is the fee edge) Influence of slab properties on the control Hine restraint factor UH Design conten! line horizontal ratio? restraint factors Bave of panel Top of pane! ' a 2 a 3 o.0st 4 03+ oR ost + His the height or width to a fre Lis the distance between full contraction joins + These values can be less i 4.8m The effective enternal restraint in ground sls easton staat blinding concrete fur the seasonal temperature vriatian T inay be taken as being the design restraint factor R= 0.5, at the mid-length, for 30 m lengths and aver, and it may bs assumed to vary uniformly trom 0.5 10 zere at the ens, Where R= 0.28 AS = TI2 at 300 CC Where R = 0.50 AS = TI2 at 150 C.C