Introduction

Network routing is at the heart of the design, architecture, and operation of any network.

Network routing evolution has been in existence since the late 1990s. The significant factors

behind the evolution are acquiring quality performance, introducing new services, and

technological evolution. Generally, the introduction of flexible and dynamic routing designs

leads to the achievement of a superior quality network at a minimal cost. Notably, advancement

in network quality is achieved through the network's robustness to fail and minimize call setup

blocking and delays. The evolution of the network routing aims to increase real-time additivity

and the quest to improve the reliability and improvement in the network. Over the years, network

routing evolution has been developed to extend the dynamic routing and allocation of bandwidth

to network routing new services with an integrated network. Network routing evolution gives a

chance to continued advancement in the switching designs and transmission and the network

operation automation, including administration and provisioning. In this paper, we discuss the

critical goal of network evolution, which is capitalizing the new technologies for transmissions,

operations, and switching to achieve efficient and automated networks. This paper looks into the

role of technology and computing in today's society, the relation of network evolution to legal,

social, and ethical issues. Further, the paper discusses the several types of problems that can be

determined through the application, inclusive of traditional computing problems using discrete

structures.

Discussion

How computer science can be used to solve computer network evolution

Background
Over the past five decades, a lot of progress has been made regarding the development of the

internet into billion nodes from a handful of computers. During this journey of development, a

lot has been learned regarding how the network s and the routers should be built and

interconnections made between them. In the past, routers were just simple generic computers

with network interface cards (NICs) attached to a bus.

Figure 1: Network interface cards attached to a bus

In this architecture, the packets used to enter the NIC and were then transferred into the memory

by the CPU from the NIC. The CPU used to make forward decisions and then pushed the packets

out towards the outbound. On evolution, the memory and the CPU became the centralized

resources bounded by what they could support. The bus was an additional limitation, with its

bandwidth supporting the bandwidth of all the NIC's simultaneously (Fathima, 2015). Today,
network routers have significantly developed with the current routers containing two-

dimensional scales that include the addition of entry routers and packet switches that are parallel

with the layers in existence or layers to the switches. Routers today are regarded as being

generic; however, they tend to avoid the vendor lock. Further, due to the evolution in network

routers, the router links are all standard Ethernet; therefore, there are no interoperability

challenges. Network router evolution has also been associated with straightforward and direct

upgrades. If a switch requires more links than with the developed router, we swap to a bigger

switch. If both switches require upgrading, an upgrade is done on the optics (Hirata and *, 2012).

Over the past 50 years, the network router architecture has significantly evolved in starts and fits

with numerous missteps navigated between various technologies. The evolution has been

significantly effective as the network architects have been addressing the issues in the previous

generation that led to the discovery of a contemporary set of concerns.

The Goals of Network Routing Evolution

Network router evolution has been focused on a number of goals which include the

following;

 Dynamic routing- Dynamic routing refers to the logic routing that tends to shift the

bandwidths among the node pairs in an effective manner, often hourly. Often, dynamic

non-hierarchical routing is a rapid trunk status map type of routing.

 Hierarchical routing-In a hierarchical type of routing, there are significant features that

include minimal flexibility that shares the bandwidth among the pairs of nodes.

 Robust routing-Robust routing is quite common in the integrated network, with the

logical routing within the bandwidth of the network shifting rapidly among the pairs of

nodes as well as the services, just like in the integrated network routing.
  Facility network routing- in this routing, the logical and physical bandwidths are rapidly

shifted among the services and the pair of nodes by utilizing devices that are dynamically

cross-connected as in the fully shared networks.

The network routing evolution has been significant as it has brought about the introduction of

robust designs for the integrated networks, which has led to objective network performance

under the network failures and load shifts (Hirata and *, 2012). The developed robust designs

that are integrated with facility and traffic routing have designs that are of appropriate capacities

developing cost-effective approaches that tend to meet the objectives of network evolution.

Further, with the developed network routing evolution, there have been compliments in the

management of network routing that comprises problem surveillance to identify problems as they

evolve (Fathima, 2015). The newly developed router requires various entities that include; the

capacity to numerous network capacities that the most recent fiber-optic innovations can afford

often used to shift large volumes of client traffics. Further, with its evolution, it should be able to

rapidly cater to the capacities of the scale networks at a minimal cost, less effective impacts on

the tasks of the network as the traffic volumes and client bases develop. Finally, it should have

the ability to limit the packet loss, latency, and jitter, thus leading to the empowerment of the

delay-sensitive applications, including the real-time videos and the Volp. Further, it should have

guaranteed bundles with appropriate sequences and options that tend to make separated services

classes by focusing on the critical performance criteria.

Network Router Evolution Today

This history brings us to the current stage of evolution of the control panel - panels with

unmatched buttons. The availability of pushbuttons with built-in LCD ads and multicolor

lighting has finally freed us from the limited keyboard layout with random labels. Previous
panels with LCD buttons take advantage of the fact that the buttons can be easily replaced,

allowing the system administrator to change category names, for example, without the need to

remove and rearrange buttons on all panels. This feature significantly improved system

flexibility, but button labels were actually stopped when the system was completed, and panels

worked in the same way as panels with keypads with a fixed label. The latest generation of

control panels makes full use of the powerful labeling features of LCD buttons, allowing panel

buttons and displays to work in dynamic mode, powered by in-panel menus (Fathima, 2015).

This means that the plus-number labeling system can be left behind at the end, replaced by

panels that provide unlimited flexibility in collecting resources and areas where it can be made

more accurate and transparent for all operators, regardless of their technical or technical training.

Opportunities

The evolution of network routing has led to the development of certain opportunities,

including the following;

 Development of soft panels- the development of the "virtual" control panels has been

significant since it aids in showing all the screens of tablets, phones, and computers.

Today, it is becoming reasonably necessary for facilities to use router controls in order to

provide virtual control panels. A fully developed and effective GUI control panel system

tends to provide a toolbox used to design an unlimited range of on-screen panels from

simplified button per source panels and into panels that tend to set up walls of complex

monitor walls (Hirata and *, 2012). The usefulness of the virtual control panel is

demonstrated through its ability to support more than one operating system and the

internet browser-controlled panels.

  Advancement in the Control Functionality-The modern router network system has

advanced and added numerous features that are controlled using numerous forms of

signal processing. Some of these advancements include signal processing that is

embedded that further allows audio arriving on the digital video streams as router inputs

to be manipulated, re-embedded, and extracted at the area of output (Li, 2021). The

control of these functions tend to require the use of a new approach in order to design an

effective control system and give forth numerous challenges in the design process of the

user interfaces, yet they tend to be powerful enough such that they can take the fullest

advantage of the overwhelming contemporary ability.

 Network Routed Future- The sophistication levels of the router control systems have

motivated the maintenance of the significant growth of the routers over the previous years

(Hirata and *, 2012). It is quite easy to configure, maintain, and manage the developed

systems by making it more practical to revolutionize the systems based on central and large

router switches. In the future, we can focus on even becoming more integrated tightly into

the system through the provision of an expanded range of functionalities that were

traditionally handled by integrated and dedicated machines (Fathima, 2015). Control

systems have the likelihood of expanding in order to keep up with additional functions after

evolution while making the entire system more effective and efficient. The future of network

routers is based on ensuring that there is streamlined workflow while ensuring that there is an

expansion in flexibility.

Challenges and Effective Algorithms

The evolution of router networks can be faced with a number of challenges, including the

router's adaptability. The adaptability of the router as a challenge can be solved using the
adaptive routing algorithm, also referred to as a dynamic routing algorithm that tends to

make dynamic routing decisions with respect to the conditions of the network. The adaptive

routing algorithm is one that constructs a routing table on the influence on the topology and

the traffic of the network. They try to compute the route that is optimized with respect to the

distance and time of transit as well as the hop count (Hirata and *, 2012).

The challenge of adaptability can be resolved using a number of algorithms, including;

 A centralized algorithm that finds the path of least cost between the nodes of source and

destination through global knowledge.

Below is a centralized algorithm tree for solving the adaptability traditional challenge:

 Isolated algorithm- This kind of algorithm solves the challenge through procuring the

routing information using the locally available information rather than gathering data

from external nodes.

Below is an isolated algorithm tree for solving the adaptability traditional challenge:
 Distributed algorithm- Distributed algorithm solves the adaptability challenge by

computation of the least count path between the destination and the source in an

iteratively distributed approach.

Below is a distributed algorithm tree for solving the adaptability traditional challenge

Adaptability Logic

Below in an adaptability logic used to solve the adaptability traditional challenge

 Success and Impact of the Router System in the Society

The critical consideration of the routing system is trust among various networks. The

global routing system is a complex and decentralized system that comprises millions of

individual networks. The trust between individual network operators and the users depends on

implementing the Boarder Gateway Protocol (BGP), which determines how the network operates

(Polk, 2018). The success and impact of the routing systems in society can be looked into

through its meshed system’s architecture that collectively provides its resilience, scalability, and

ease of adoption. The rise of internet connections has raised concerns about its effects on social

interactions on societal impact. The importance of the router system cannot be ignored because

society is becoming increasingly interconnected, which has freed us from geographical

constraints. Regarding the ethical impacts, consumers of the routing system are also susceptible

to abuse such as hacking and breach of privacy in their intended use of the networks. The act of

breaking into someone’s router system is considered unethical, and this is illegal and a crime on

the other hand of legal entities. In the United States, the government has put regulations that

monitor and ensure ISPs and other services providers comply with these regulations. (Polk,
2018). Therefore, the success and impact of the router system can be looked into through its legal

impacts on society. Security of the internet is our primary concern in the router evolution. 

The measure of routing success and impacts can be based on the available challenges and

routing incidents. According to internet society, routing incidents are divided into three

categories: route hijacking, leaks, and IP spoofing. In route hijacking, the attackers impersonate

another network operator and make it the server's path (Polk, 2018). Route leaks involve

redirecting the traffic to the unintended networks, which increases the risk of attack. The other

incident is IP spoofing, where attackers create IP packets bearing false source IP address to hide

their identity. According to the Mutually Agreed Norms for Routing Security (MANRS), they

established baseline practices that are essential for network operators to improve the security of

the global routing system (Ferlin and Alvarez, 2017). The MANRS concrete actions include

filtering and validation of IP source that can prevent common routing incidents. Another set of

actions by the MANRS includes coordination and global validation that limit the impact of these

attack incidents and decrease the likelihood of such occurrences in the future. Based on the BGP

stream data in 2017, there were about 13,935 total incidents comprised of outages and attacks.

From the total number of incidents recorded in 2017, 62% were classified as outages, while 38%

involved routing attacks such as hijacks (Ferlin and Alvarez, 2017). The router evolution has

successfully transformed the networking system, which is a key success in our social networks

and communication. However, the evolution is not yet over since network security remains a big

concern in our society. The future of our routing depends on the security systems available for

the network providers. The graph below represents the number of incidents recorded in 2017.
 Legal, Ethical and Professional Issues

One major weakness of possessing a router is that they are susceptible to abuse, both

illegal and unethical. One of the most common unethical and illegal issues of using the router

system is breaking into someone's router. The government in most counties in the USA has put

in place regulators to monitor and ensure ISPs and other service providers comply with

regulations on ethical and legal issues (Partridge & Allman, 2016 p59). There has been a

paradigm of new ethical and legal issues such as unlawful access to information, free flow of

information hence threatening privacy and protecting the economic interest of those processing

these intellectual properties.

The router has been used as the primary access to critical information in institutions that

have later led to data breach cases. Routers are the most attractive point or the central target for

network attackers. Human error is one main reason that makes the router a target for hacking.

Around 30% of security professionals and remote workers in an enterprise ignore changing

passwords. This has spurred an increase in wireless attacks where the attacker aims at cracking
passwords using default passwords and dictionary cracks. Aircrack-ng is one of the most popular

tools that have been used independently to recover passwords from captured information

packets. Airmon-ng is also used to crack SPA2-PSK of WPA by capturing the authentication

address. Ethical hackers use the above tools to test how vulnerable an organization's router is.

Routers are also prone to scanning, which is an attack on both LAN and Wireless routers by

scanning the organization subnets (Belding, 2019). The attacker can access information by

simply guessing passwords or bypass authorization to protected information.

The router password is not the only gateway for attacks. There are other non-password-

focused methods of attacks which include DoS, packet mistreating, router table poisoning, and

Hit-and-run attacks. DoS (Denial of service) attacks flood the router with many requests, which

in the run crash servers giving a pass to the hacker. Packet mistreating, hit-and-run and router

table poisoning attacks work almost the same way by inserting malicious codes or devices which

change the router routine (Belding, 2019). Password protection is not the only way to prevent an

attacker from hacking a server; also, device protection is essential to prevent such attacks.

Ethical hacking entails using each of the above methods to tests the vulnerability of

router passwords and servers to malicious attacks. They also use the same technique to study the

router model and configure the most appropriate and applicable security measures to squash such

attacks. Most social, ethical, and legal dialogue on network security measurements uses legal

terminologies developed to curb ethical and unethical hacking. The only parties allowed to

capture institutional data from outside are government agencies and communication companies

providing service (Partridge & Allman, 2016 p61). Traffic tables have also been used to

distinguish routers from the end system and identify communication nodes before allowing

access.
Conclusion

Network routing is an aspect that is rapidly advancing through its architectural

designs. It is proposed that the future of network routing will require a broadband

multiservice network that can offer support to the Qos through the integration of the ATM

switching with the help of the IP forwarding and routing. This comprises the combination of

the IP routing flexibility with a significant switching speed. The newly developed router

requires various entities that include; the capacity to numerous network capacities that can be

afforded by the most recent fiber-optic innovations often used to shift large volumes of client

traffics (Hirata and *, 2012). Further, with its evolution, it should be able to rapidly cater to

the capacities of the scale networks at a minimal cost, less effective impacts on the tasks of

the network as the traffic volumes and client bases develop. Finally, it should have the ability

to limit the packet loss, latency, and jitter, thus leading to the empowerment of the delay

sensitive applications, including real-time videos and the Volp. Some of the technologies

likely to be used in the future include IP switch, cell switch router, tag switching, and Fast IP

and switch nodes.

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