Answers and Solutions to

Exercises

Chapter 2.
1, a. p, = 0.634;
1, b. s = 0.017; the estimate of u using the sampIe range is fT = 0.06/3.472 =
0.017;
1, c. Q = (0.61- 0.60)/0.06 = 0.167 < 0.338. The minimal sampIe value is not
an outlier.
1, d. The 0.95 confidence interval on JI. is [0.6246,0.6434]
1, e. h = O.01,s/h = 1.7. It is satisfactory

2. Solution. Y '" N(150,u = 15). P(145 < Y < 148) = P((145 - 150)/15 <
(Y - 150)/15 < (148 - 150)/15) = 41(-0.133) - 41(-0.333) = 41(0.333) -
41(0.133) = 0.630 - 0.553 = 0.077.

Chapter 3
1. The sam pIe averages are Xl = 3200.1, X4 = 3359.6. The sampIe variances are
s~ = 2019.4, s~ = 5984.6. Assuming equal variances, the T-statistic for testing
Jl.1 = Jl.4 against Jl.1 < Jl.4 equals -3.99, which is smaller than to.oos(8). We
reject the null hypothesis.
2. For Table 4.1 we obtain the maximal variance for day 4, s~ = 52.29, and the
minimal s~ = 8.51 for day 1. Hartley's statistic equals 6.10, which is less than
the 0.05 critical value of 33.6 for 4 sampIes and 7 observations in each sampIe.
The null hypothesis is not rejected.

3. For Table 3.8 data, the 95 % confidence interval on mean difference is

[0.02,2.98]. Since it does not contain zero, we reject the null-hypothesis.

Chapter 4
1. The average range per cell is 0.0118. It gives fT: = 0.0070. This is in elose
agreement with fT e = 0.0071 obtained in Sect. 4.4.
134 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES

3. ux = 0.092, Ue 1 = 2.8.10- 2; Ue2 = 2.1.10- 2. The estimate of bis S= -0.21.

4. The 95 % confidence interval on bis [0.194,0.227].
7. FA = (791.6/4)/(234.0/5) = 4.23, which is less than .1"4,5(0.05) = 5.19. Thus
we do not reject the null hypothesis at the significance level 0.05 but we do
reject it at the level 0.1 for which .1"4,5(0.05) = 3.52.
FB = (234/5)/(0.98/10) = 477.6 » .1"5,10(0.05) = 3.33. Thus the null
hypothesis is certainly rejected.

Chapter 6
1. Exactlyas in the case of constant variance,

" [*] '" ( * _ -)2 [Var[y*] + Var[y

var x '" x x (y - y* )2 + var[ß]]
~
ß2 .
Now use the following formulas for variance estimates:
Vir[y*] = Kv/w*;
Var[y] = Iby (6.2.8)1 = ( Li=l = K v/ "LJi=l
- _ n 2 k 2 n
wi Kv/Wi /(Li=l Wi) Wi;
A ) A

Vir[p] = Kv /8 zz •
and substitute them in the expression for Var[x*].

3. Solution. x = 0.0938; Y = 0.1244; 8 zz = 3.4355; 8 z71 = 3.0324;

8 7171 = 3.1346, L:=l Wi = 33.7. x* = (0.4 - 0.0416)/0.8827 = 0.406.
To obtain the weight w* for x* interpolate linearly between W3 and W4.
w* ~ 4.4. Then using (6.2.17) with K v = 0.15264, obtain that

Var[x]* ~ (0.406 - 0.0938)2 (10.!~t~2!!·7 + 1/(0.88272 .3.4355») . 0.15264 =

0.0559. Thus the result is: 0.406 ± 0.236.

5. If 'ih = (yi! + ... + Yik,)/ki, then VarWi] = Var[Y]i1]/ki. Compare this with
(6.2.3): Wi = ki'

6. Compute from the data in Table 6.3 that D2 = L:=l (Yi - 36 - 0.44Xi)2/3 =
146.4. Use (6.3.15) and (6.3.16) to calculate that P = 0.444 and Q = 6738.2.
Substitute the values of D 2 ,>.,P,P,Q,fj = 180 and y into (6.3.17). The result
is Var[x] ~ 964.1.

Chapter 8
1. Answer: ii = 29°56'; P= 56°18'.
2. Solution. Vir[a] = (al - (2)2 /2 = 342/2 = 578. Similarly, Vir[ß] = 202/2 =
200, and Vir["Y] = 242/2 = 288.
 135

The pooled variance estimate of U 2 is = (578 + 200 + 288)/3 = 355.3.

fj2 By
(8.2.12), Var[a] = /3 and Va;[a] = 355.3/3 = 118.4. JVa;[a] = 11'.
u2

4. Solution. With probability 0.1 the result will be -1, with probability 0.5 it
will be zero, and with the remaining probability 0.4 it will be + 1. So, the mea-
surement result will be a discrete random variable Y*, with E[Y*] = 0.1( -1) +
0.5·0+ 1·0.4 = 0.3. Var[Y*] = 0.1· (_1)2 +0.4· (1 2) -0.32 = 0.5-0.09 = 0.41.

5. Solution. Consider expression (8.1.15) with no = 2, nl = 6, n2 = 2. Set

the zero at 110 gram. This case is presented in Table 8.2, and the results
are I'ML = 1,uML = 0.56. Note that the likelihood ftmction for the data
no = 1, nl = 3, n2 = 1 is the square root of the likelihood function (8.1.15), and
thus it will be maximized at the same values. Finally, I'ML = 111, UML = 0.56
gram.
Appendix A: Normal
Distribution

cP(x)
1
= ..,I2ii jZ exp[-v 2 j2]dv
271" -00

Hundredth parts of x
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.0 0.5000 0.5040 0.5080 0.5120 0.5160 0.5199 0.5239 0.5279 0.5319 0.5359
0.1 0.5398 0.5438 0.5478 0.5517 0.5557 0.5596 0.5636 0.5675 0.5714 0.5753
0.2 0.5793 0.5832 0.5871 0.5910 0.5948 0.5987 0.6026 0.6064 0.6103 0.6141
0.3 0.6179 0.6217 0.6255 0.6293 0.6331 0.6368 0.6406 0.6443 0.6480 0.6517
0.4 0.6554 0.6591 0.6628 0.6664 0.6700 0.6736 0.6772 0.6808 0.6844 0.6879
0.5 0.6915 0.6950 0.6985 0.7019 0.7054 0.7088 0.7123 0.7157 0.7190 0.7224
0.6 0.7257 0.7291 0.7324 0.7357 0.7389 0.7422 0.7454 0.7486 0.7517 0.7549
0.7 0.7580 0.7611 0.7642 0.7673 0.7703 0.7734 0.7764 0.7794 0.7823 0.7852
0.8 0.7881 0.7910 0.7939 0.7967 0.7995 0.8023 0.8051 0.8078 0.8106 0.8133
0.9 0.8159 0.8186 0.8212 0.8238 0.8264 0.8289 0.8315 0.8340 0.8365 0.8389
1.0 0.8413 0.8438 0.8461 0.8485 0.8508 0.8531 0.8554 0.8577 0.8599 0.8621
1.1 0.8643 0.8665 0.8686 0.8708 0.8729 0.8749 0.8770 0.8790 0.8810 0.8830
1.2 0.8849 0.8869 0.8888 0.8907 0.8925 0.8944 0.8962 0.8980 0.8997 0.9015
1.3 0.9032 0.9049 0.9066 0.9082 0.9099 0.9115 0.9131 0.9147 0.9162 0.9177
1.4 0.9192 0.9207 0.9222 0.9236 0.9251 0.9265 0.9279 0.9292 0.9306 0.9319
1.5 0.9332 0.9345 0.9357 0.9370 0.9382 0.9394 0.9406 0.9418 0.9429 0.9441
1.6 0.9452 0.9463 0.9474 0.9484 0.9495 0.9505 0.9515 0.9525 0.9535 0.9545
1.7 0.9554 0.9564 0.9573 0.9582 0.9591 0.9599 0.9608 0.9616 0.9625 0.9633
1.8 0.9641 0.9649 0.9556 0.9664 0.9671 0.9678 0.9686 0.9693 0.9699 0.9706
1.9 0.9713 0.9719 0.9726 0.9732 0.9738 0.9744 0.9750 0.9756 0.9761 0.9767
2.0 0.9772 0.9778 0.9783 0.9788 0.9793 0.9798 0.9803 0.9808 0.9812 0.9817
2.1 0.9821 0.9826 0.9830 0.9834 0.9838 0.9842 0.9846 0.9850 0.9854 0.9857
2.2 0.9861 0.9864 0.9868 0.9871 0.9875 0.9878 0.9881 0.9884 0.9887 0.9890
2.3 0.9893 0.9896 0.9898 0.9901 0.9904 0.9906 0.9909 0.9911 0.9913 0.9916
2.4 0.9918 0.9920 0.9922 0.9925 0.9927 0.9929 0.9931 0.9932 0.9934 0.9936
2.5 0.9938 0.9940 0.9941 0.9943 0.9945 0.9946 0.9948 0.9949 0.9951 0.9952
2.6 0.9953 0.9955 0.9956 0.9957 0.9959 0.9960 0.9961 0.9962 0.9963 0.9964
2.7 0.9965 0.9966 0.9967 0.9968 0.9969 0.9970 0.9971 0.9972 0.9973 0.9974
2.8 0.9974 0.9975 0.9976 0.9977 0.9977 0.9978 0.9979 0.9979 0.9980 0.9981
2.9 0.9981 0.9982 0.9982 0.9983 0.9984 0.9984 0.9985 0.9985 0.9986 0.9986
3.0 0.9987
For negative values of x, cP(x) =
1 - cP( -x). For example, let x = -0.53. Then
= =
cP( -0.53) 1 - cP(0.53) 1 - 0.7019 0.2981. =
Appendix B: Quantiles of
the Chi-Square Distribution

Let v'" x2(/I). Then p(v ~ qß(/I)) = ß.

/I qO.01 (/I) qO.025 (/I) QO.06(/I) QO.96 (/I) QO.975 (/I) QO.99 (/I)
1 0.000157 0.000982 0.00393 3.841 5.024 6.635
2 0.0201 0.0506 0.103 5.991 7.378 9.210
3 0.115 0.216 0.352 7.815 9.348 11.345
4 0.297 0.484 0.711 9.488 11.143 13.277
5 0.554 0.831 1.145 11.070 12.833 15.086
6 0.872 1.237 1.635 12.592 14.449 16.812
7 1.239 1.690 2.167 14.067 16.013 18.475
8 1.646 2.180 2.733 15.507 17.535 20.090
9 2.088 2.700 3.325 16.919 19.023 21.666
10 2.558 3.247 3.940 18.'ß07 20.483 23.209
11 3.053 3.816 4.575 19.675 21.920 24.725
12 3.571 4.404 5.226 21.026 23.337 26.217
13 4.107 5.009 5.892 22.362 24.736 27.688
14 4.660 5.629 6.571 23.685 26.119 29.141
15 5.229 5.262 7.261 24.996 27.488 30.578
16 5.812 6.908 7.962 26.296 28.845 32.000
17 6.408 7.564 8.672 27.587 30.191 33.409
18 7.015 8.231 9.390 28.869 31.526 34.805
19 7.633 8.907 10.117 30.144 32.852 36.191
20 8.260 9.591 10.851 31.410 34.170 37.566
21 8.897 10.283 11.591 32.671 35.479 38.932
22 9.542 10.982 12.338 33.924 36.781 40.289
23 10.196 11.689 13.091 35.172 38.076 41.638
24 10.856 12.401 13.848 36.415 39.364 42.980
25 11.524 13.120 14.611 37.652 40.646 44.314
26 12.198 13.844 15.379 38.885 41.923 45.642
27 12.879 14.573 16.151 40.113 43.195 46.963
28 13.565 15.308 16.928 41.337 44.461 48.278
29 14.256 16.047 17.708 42.557 45.772 49.588
30 14.953 16.791 18.493 43.773 46.979 50.892
 Appendix C. Critical Values .rV1 ,V2 (a) of the F - Distribution
1/1

iI2 Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20
1 0.050 161.4 199.5 215.7 224.6 230.2 234.0 236.8 238.9 240.5 241.9 245.9 248.0
1 0.025 647.8 799.5 864.2 899.6 921.8 937.1 948.2 956.7 963.3 968.6 984.9 997.2
1 0.010 4052 4999 5403 5625 5764 5859 5928 5981 6022 6056 6157 6209
1 0.005 16211 19999 21615 22500 23056 23437 23715 23925 24091 24224 24630 24836
2 0.050 18.51 19.00 19.16 19.25 19.30 19.33 19.35 19.37 19.38 19.40 19.43 19.45
2 0.025 38.51 39.00 39.17 39.25 39.30 39.33 39.36 39.37 39.39 39.40 39.43 39.45
2 0.010 98.50 99.00 99.17 99.25 99.30 99.33 99.36 99.37 99.39 99.40 99.43 99.45
2 0.005 198.5 199.0 199.2 199.2 199.3 199.3 199.4 199.4 199.4 199.4 199.4 199.4
3 0.050 10.13 9.55 9.28 9.12 9.01 8.94 8.89 8.85 8.81 8.79 8.70 8.66
3 0.025 17.44 16.04 15.44 15.10 14.88 14.73 14.62 14.54 14.47 14.42 14.25 14.17
3 0.010 34.12 30.82 29.46 28.71 28.24 27.91 27.67 27.49 27.35 27.23 26.87 26.69
3 0.005 55.55 49.80 47.47 46.19 45.39 44.84 44.43 44.13 43.88 43.69 43.08 42.78
4 0.050 7.71 6.94 6.59 6.39 6.26 6.16 6.09 6.04 6.00 5.96 5.86 5.80
4 0.025 12.22 10.65 9.98 9.60 9.36 9.20 9.07 8.98 8.90 8.84 8.66 8.56
4 0.010 21.20 18.00 16.69 15.98 15.52 15.21 14.98 14.80 14.66 14.55 14.20 14.02
4 0.005 31.33 26.28 24.26 23.15 22.46 21.97 21.62 21.35 21.14 20.97 20.44 20.17
5 0.050 6.61 5.79 5.41 5.19 5.05 4.95 4.88 4.82 4.77 4.74 4.62 4.56
5 0.025 10.01 8.43 7.76 7.39 7.15 6.98 6.85 6.76 6.68 6.62 6.43 6.33
5 0.010 16.26 13.27 12.06 11.39 10.97 10.67 10.46 10.29 10.16 10.05 9.72 9.55
5 0.005 22.78 18.31 16.53 15.56 14.94 14.51 14.20 13.96 13.77 13.62 13.15 12.90
6 0.050 5.99 5.14 4.76 4.53 4.39 4.28 4.21 4.15 4.10 4.06 3.94 3.87
6 0.025 8.81 7.26 6.60 6.23 5.99 5.82 5.70 5.60 5.52 5.46 5.27 5.17
6 0.010 13.75 10.92 9.78 9.15 8.75 8.47 8.26 8.10 7.98 7.87 7.56 7.40
6 0.005 18.63 14.54 12.92 12.03 11.46 11.07 10.79 10.57 10.39 10.25 9.81 9.59
7 0.050 5.59 4.74 4.35 4.12 3.97 3.87 3.79 3.73 3.68 3.64 3.51 3.44
7 0.025 8.07 6.54 5.89 5.52 5.29 5.12 4.99 4.90 4.82 4.76 4.57 4.47
7 0.010 12.25 9.55 8.45 7.85 7.46 7.19 6.99 6.84 6.72 6.62 6.31 6.16
..-
7 0.005 16.24 12.40 10.88 10.05 9.52 9.16 8.89 8.68 8.51 8.38 7.97 7.75 .j::..
.....
 1/1

1 2 3 4 5 7 20
......
112 a 6 8 9 10 15 ~
8 0.050 5.32 4.46 4.07 3.84 3.69 3.58 3.50 3.44 3.39 3.35 3.22 3.15 N
8 0.025 7.57 6.06 5.42 5.05 4.82 4.65 4.53 4.43 4.36 4.30 4.10 4.00
8 0.010 11.26 8.65 7.59 7.01 6.63 6.37 6.18 6.03 5.91 5.81 5.52 5.36
8 0.005 14.69 11.04 9.60 8.81 8.30 7.95 7.69 7.50 7.34 7.21 6.81 6.61
9 0.050 5.12 4.26 3.86 3.63 3.48 3.37 3.29 3.23 3.18 3.14 3.01 2.94
9 0.025 7.21 5.71 5.08 4.72 4.48 4.32 4.20 4.10 4.03 3.96 3.77 3.67
9 0.005 10.56 8.02 6.99 6.42 6.06 5.80 5.61 5.47 5.35 5.26 4.96 4.81
9 0.001 13.61 10.11 8.72 7.96 7.47 7.13 6.88 6.69 6.54 6.42 6.03 5.83
10 0.050 4.96 4.10 3.71 3.48 3.33 3.22 3.14 3.07 3.02 2.98 2.85 2.77
10 0.025 6.94 5.46 4.83 4.47 4.24 4.07 3.95 3.85 3.78 3.72 3.52 3.42
10 0.010 10.04 7.56 6.55 5.99 5.64 5.39 5.20 5.06 4.94 4.85 4.56 4.41
10 0.005 12.83 9.43 8.08 7.34 6.87 6.54 6.30 6.12 5.97 5.85 5.47 5.27
11 0.050 4.84 3.98 3.59 3.36 3.20 3.09 3.01 2.95 2.90 2.85 2.72 2.65
11 0.025 6.72 5.26 4.63 4.28 4.04 3.88 3.76 3.66 3.59 3.53 3.33 3.23
11 0.010 9.65 7.21 6.22 5.67 5.32 5.07 4.89 4.74 4.63 4.54 4.25 4.10
11 0.005 12.23 8.91 7.60 6.88 6.42 6.10 5.86 5.68 5.54 5.42 5.05 4.86
12 0.050 4.75 3.89 3.49 3.26 3.11 3.00 2.91 2.85 2.80 2.75 2.62 2.54
12 0.025 6.55 5.10 4.47 4.12 3.89 3.73 3.61 3.51 3.44 3.37 3.18 3.07
12 0.010 9.33 6.93 5.95 5.41 5.06 4.82 4.64 4.50 4.39 4.30 4.01 3.86
12 0.005 11.75 8.51 7.23 6.52 6.07 5.76 5.52 5.35 5.20 5.09 4.72 4.53
13 0.050 4.67 3.81 3.41 3.18 3.03 2.92 2.83 2.77 2.71 2.67 2.53 2.46
13 0.025 6.41 4.97 4.35 4.00 3.77 3.60 3.48 3.39 3.31 3.25 3.05 2.95
13 0.010 9.07 6.70 5.74 5.21 4.86 4.62 4.44 4.30 4.19 4.10 3.82 3.66
13 0.005 11.37 8.19 6.93 6.23 5.79 5.48 5.25 5.08 4.94 4.82 4.46 4.27
14 0.050 4.60 3.74 3.34 3.11 2.96 2.85 2.76 2.70 2.65 2.60 2.46 2.39
14 0.025 6.30 4.86 4.24 3.89 3.66 3.50 3.38 3.29 3.21 3.15 2.95 2.84
14 0.010 8.86 6.51 5.56 5.04 4.69 4.46 4.28 4.14 4.03 3.94 3.66 3.51
14 0.005 11.06 7.92 6.68 6.00 5.56 5.26 5.03 4.86 4.72 4.60 4.25 4.06
15 0.050 4.54 3.68 3.29 3.06 2.90 2.79 2.71 2.64 2.59 2.54 2.40 2.33
15 0.025 6.20 4.77 4.15 3.80 3.58 3.41 3.29 3.20 3.12 3.06 2.86 2.76
15 0.010 8.68 6.36 5.42 4.89 4.56 4.32 4.14 4.00 3.89 3.80 3.52 3.37
15 0.005 10.80 7.70 6.48 5.80 5.37 5.07 4.85 4.67 4.54 4.42 4.02 3.88
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Wolfram, Stephen. 1999. The Mathematica Book, 4th ed. Cambridge University
Press.

Youden, W.J. and E.H. Steiner. 1975. Statistical Manual of the Association
of OjJicial Analytic Chemists: Statistical Techniques for Collaborative Studies.
AOAC International, Arlington, VA.
Index

absence of repeated measurements chi-square distribution 51,77

- Grubbs's method 83 - 1 - a quantile 55
absolutely constant error 5 - origin 51
accuracy 6 - quantiles 77
additive model of factor infiuence - variance 85
117 coefficient of variation 16,89
analysis of residuals 103 - of sampie mean 17
analysis of variance for nested design collaborative studies (eS) 112
69 combining two hierarchical designs
AN OVA 80
- nested design 67 common cause 32
- with random effects 60 conditionally constant error 5
assignable cause confidence interval 4
- measurement errors 37 - use for hypotheses testing 30
assignable causes 36 confidence
average 12 - interval and hypotheses testing 31
- run length (ARL) 38 - interval for mean value 50
- interval on instrument bias 85
Bartlett's test 55 - set on parameters 78
between-batch variation 63 consistent estimator 14
bias control charts 32
- elimination 8 - estimation of a 34
- in averaging 124 - stopping rules 35
- in estimating a 125 control limits 34
- in measurements 41 covariance 15
-- - estimation 31,47 es studies
-- - estimation of mean 31 - homogeneity of experimental varia-
- in S-estimator 29 tion 120
- in weighing 11 es, systematic errors 114
box and whisker plot 11,44,61 es, visual analysis of cell variability
121
calibration 95
- curve 95,97 day-to-day variability 60
- mathematical model 96 delta method 88
- measurement error 96 destructive testing
- of measurement instruments 37 - repeatability 78
- of spectrometer 112 determining the outlying laboratory
- uncertainty in estimating x 100 120
148 INDEX

discrete measurement scale 123 interaction of measurand and the in-

Dixon's statistic strument 2
- table 28 inverse regression 99
Dixon's test for an outlier 26 - repeated observations 102
dot diagram 10
Kruskal-Wallis statistic 51,58
elementary error 5 Kruskal-Wallis test 50
elimination of outlying laboratories
118 law of large numbers 6
EPF least square principle 97
- for product-form function 91 linear calibration curve 97
- in inverse regression 101 linear regression
methodology 92 - equal variances 98
particular forms 90 - parameter estimation 98
various forms 89 linear regression with errors in x and
equivariance in calibration 97 y 107
error propagation formula (EPF) 88
- use in confidence intervals 78 M-method for confidence estimation
estimate 15 77
of aA, er e 63 Mandel's k-statistic 121
of er 2 in regression 99 Mathematica 127
of standard deviation 12 maximum likelihood
of regression parameters 110 - estimate 132
estimation of er using range 28 - estimate of I-L 126
estimation of variances in one-way - method 125
ANOVA 62 -- estimation of I-L and er 125
estimator 14 mean
- of er 29 - confidence interval 40
- - efficiency 29 - of the sum of random variables 15
of mean 14 - value of population 4, 11
- , biased 14 measurand 1
- , unbiased 14 measure of repeatability and reprodu-
expectation 4 cibility 74
measurement 1
factorial design 118 - process uncertainty 60
- regular 18
Gauss function 19 - scale step 18
Gauss-Laplace function 19 - special 18
geometry of the best fit - uncertainty 2
- errors in both variables 108 - under constraints 131
Grubbs's method - with constraints 130
- destructive testing 83 measurement error 3
absolute 7
Hartley's test 54 bias, random error 36
hierarchical design 80 performance of control charts 38
- relative 7
influencing factors 118 measuring
input, response 96 - blood pressure 56
instrument bias 32 cable tensile strength 58
instrument certificate 7 - pull strength 79,80
INDEX
method of subtraction 11
metrology 7
minimal-variance unbiased estimator
of a 29
multiple comparisons 53
naive estimators of J-L and a 130
nested design
- hypotheses testing 70
- mathematical model 67
- model, assumptions 67
- model, estimation 67
- parameter estimation 69,70
- testing hypotheses 71
nested or hierarchical design 67
nonparametric comparison of means
50
nonparametric tests 46
normal density
- origin 24
- postulates 22
normal density function 19
normal distribution 19
- cumulative probability function
19
- mean and variance 19
- parameters 19
normal distribution, origin 22
normal distribution, postulates 23
normal plot 21, 28
normal probability paper 22
normal probability plot 22
normal quantiles 20,21
observed values of estimators 15
one-way ANOVA
- testing hypotheses 65
one-way ANOVA with random effect
60
- assumptions 62
- model 62
optimal choice of weights 16
optimal number of sampies per batch
65
organization of es 118
orthogonal design 115
outlier 11,26,40
paired experiment 47
pairwise blocking 47
149
pairwise differences 85
performance of control charts 38
point estimation in R&R studies 76
pooled sampie variance 47
pooled variance 55
population 4
population mean 30
- confidence interval 30
precision 6
process variability 60
pure measurement error 5
quantiles of chi-square distribution
51
R charts 35
R&R studies 71
- ANOVA model 75
- confidence intervals 76
- estimation, hypotheses testing 73
- model, assumptions 73
- point estimation 76
- sources of variability 72
random error 5,6
random sampie 4
random variable 4
range 26,34
- uniform population 29
range method
- repeatability 82
range to estimate a 29
ranking laboratories in es 120
ranks for tied observations 50
ranks, definition 50
regression
- errors in both variables 108
- heteroscedasticity 103
regression with errors in x and y 110
relative standard deviation 89,93
repeatability 71
- conditions 46
- of pull strength 80
repeated measurements 2
reproducibility 71
residuals and response variability
103
round-off error 13, 123
round-off rules 17
RSD, underestimation in EPF 92
ruggedness (robustness) test 115
- in es 115
150
sampIe
- average 12
- mean 12
- range 26,28,40
- variance 12
Sheppard correction 130
Sheppard's correction 13
Shewhart's charts 32
significance level 30
single-factor ANOVA 82
small a/h ratio 124
sources of uncertainty
- measurement errors 60
special cause 32
special measurement scheme 124
specific weight 1, 2
specification limits 25
speed of light, measurements 41
standard deviation 11
- of random error 37
- of range 35
standard error 93
- in estimating atomic weight 93
- of aR&R 93
- of the mean 17
standard normal density 19
standard normal distribution 19
Statistix for regression 99
Statistix software 53
Statistix, use for ANOVA 76
sum of squares 130
systematic and random errors 6
systematic error 6,7,11
- in measurements 40
t-distribution
-- critical values 45
t-statistic
- critical values 30
- degrees of freedom 30
INDEX
t-test
- degrees of freedom 44
- equal variances 47
- null hypothesis, alternatives 45
- statistic 44
testing hypotheses in AN OVA 85
two-factor balanced model
- random effects 72
two-sample t-test 43
unbiased estimator of variance 14
uncertainty
- in x for given y 96
- in x in calibration 111
- in measurements 4, 87
- in measuring specific weight 87
- of atomic weights 25
- of the measurement 6
uniform density 24
uniform distribution 13,24, 132, 135
- mean and variance 13, 24
- of round-off errors 25
use of calibration curve 96
using ranges to estimate repeatability
82
using ranks in es 120
variance 11
- unbiased and consistent estimate
12
variance of a sum of random variables
15,16
variance of sum of squares in ANOVA
85
wear of brake shoes 48
weighing using beam balance 8
weighted regression 104,105,112
- uncertainty in x* 106
weighted sum of squares 104
within-batch variation 63
X bar chart 34
- performance 39