BIRZEIT UNIVERSITY – FACULTY OF ENGENEERING

Civil Engineering Department

Solid Waste Engineering

Composting

Prepared by

Supervised by Prof. Issam Al-Khatib

TABLE OF CONTENTS
page

Introduction 2

Components of compost mix 3

Cmposting techniques: hot and cold 4

Hot composting ( 40-65ºC) 4

Cold composting (0-40ºC) 10

Composting methodology 12

Benefits of composting 15

Carbon-Nitrogen ratio 16

References 20

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  Introduction
Composting is a technology for recycling organic materials in order to achieve enhanced
agricultural production. Biological and chemical processes accelerate the rate of decomposition
and transform organic materials into a more stable humus form for application to the soil.
Composting proceeds under controlled conditions in compost heaps and pits (Müller-Sämann,
1986).

Compost heaps should have a minimum size of 1 m3 and are suitable for more humid
environments where there is potential for watering the compost. Compost pits (Plate 16) should
be no deeper than 70 cm and should be underlain with rough material for good aeration of the
compost. Pits are suitable for drier environments where the compost may desiccate (Müller-
Sämann, 1986).

Dry composting relies on covering the compost with soil and creating an anaerobic environment.
However, this is a slower process than the more usual moist aerobic process. The ratio of C to N
in the compost pile is important for optimizing microbial activity. Thus, a mixture of soft, green
and brown, tougher material is used. Ash and phosphate rock are often added to accelerate the
process (Alexandra Bot and José Benites, 2005).

Composting can complement certain crop rotations and agroforestry systems. It can be used
efficiently in planting pits and nurseries. It is very similar in composition to soil organic matter.
It breaks down slowly in the soil and is very good at improving the physical condition of the soil
(whereas manure and sludge may break down fairly quickly, releasing a flush of nutrients for
plant growth). In many circumstances, it takes time to rejuvenate a poor soil using these practices
because the amount of organic material being added is small relative to the mineral proportion of
the soil (Alexandra Bot and José Benites, 2005).

Successful composting depends upon the sufficient availability of organic materials, water,
manure and “cheap” labour. Where these inputs are guaranteed, composting can be an important
method of sustainable and productive agriculture. It has ameliorative effects on soil fertility and
physical, chemical and biological soil properties. Well-made compost contains all the nutrients
needed by plants. It can be used to maintain and improve soil fertility as well as to regenerate

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degraded soil. However, materials for compost production may be in short supply and the
technology demands high labour inputs for proper compost production and application.
Therefore, compost application may be restricted to certain crops and limited application areas,
e.g., vegetable production in home gardens (Alexandra Bot and José Benites, 2005).

 Components of compost mix

The combined organic materials used should have lots of carbon and nitrogen available for the
microorganisms to use. High-nitrogen materials, such as chicken manure, can be mixed with
high-carbon materials like hay, straw, leaves, or sawdust. Compost piles are often built by
alternating layers of these materials. Turning the pile mixes the materials. Manure mixed with
sawdust or wood chips used for bedding can be composted as is. Composting occurs most easily
if the average C:N ratio of the materials is about 25–40 parts carbon for every part nitrogen (Fred
Magdoff and Harold Van Es, 2009).

There are too many different types of materials that you might work with to give blanket
recommendations about how much of each to mix to get the moisture content and the C: N into
reasonable ranges so the process can get off to a good start (Fred Magdoff and Harold Van Es,
2009).

CornellaUniversity’sawebsiteaforacompostingaissues(http://cwmi.css.cornell.edu/composting.ht
m) features formulas to help you estimate the proportions of the specific materials you might
want to use in the compost pile. Sometimes it will work out that the pile may be too wet, too low
in C: N (that means too high in nitrogen), or too high in C: N (low in nitrogen). To balance your
pile, you may need to add other materials or change the ratios used. The problems can be
remedied by adding dry sawdust or wood chips in the first two cases or nitrogen fertilizer in the
third. If a pile is too dry, you can add water with a hose or sprinkler system (Fred Magdoff and
Harold Van Es, 2009).

One thing to keep in mind is that not all carbon is equally available for microorganisms. Lignin
is not easily decomposed. Although some lignin is decomposed during composting—probably
depending on factors such as the type of lignin and the moisture content—high amounts of
carbon present as lignin may indicate that not all of the carbon will be available for rapid
composting. When residues contain high amounts of lignin, it means that the effective C: N can

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 be quite a bit lower than indicated by using total carbon in the calculation (table 5.1). For some
materials, there is little difference between the C: N calculated with total carbon and calculated
with only biodegradable carbon (Fred Magdoff and Harold Van Es, 2009).

It’s important to avoid using certain materials such as coal ash and especially wood chips from
pressure-treated lumber. And it’s a good idea to go easy using manure from pets or large
quantities of fats, oils, or waxes. These types of materials may be difficult to compost or result in
compost containing chemicals that can harm crops (Fred Magdoff and Harold Van Es, 2009).

Wood chips or bark is sometimes used as a bulking agent to provide a “skeleton” for good
aeration. These materials may be recycled by shaking the finished compost out of the bulking
material, which can then be used for a few more composting cycles (Fred Magdoff and Harold
Van Es, 2009).

Table 1: Total vs. Biodegradable Carbon and Estimated C: N Ratios (T. Richard,1996).
Material % Carbon C: % Carbon C: N % Lignin % Cell Wall % Nitrogen
N
Total Biodegradable
Newsprint 39 115 18 54 21 97 0.34
Wheat straw 51 88 34 58 23 95 0.58
Poultry manure 43 10 42 9 2 38 4.51
Maple wood chips 50 51 44 45 13 32 0.97

 Composting Techniques: Hot and Cold

 Hot composting (40-65°C):

The right hot composting system will work all year round – which is relevant when composting
food waste. Hot Composting can take a wider variety of food waste types without causing issues
(HOTBIN, 2012).

Also, the higher temperature results in water removal – and hence removes a prime cause of
mushy/anaerobic food waste). Hot composting kills weed seeds faster. The higher the
temperature the more seeds are destroyed. Hot composting kills pathogens and unwelcome

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bacteria. Which and how many is a function of both time and temperature. Defra offers a robust
analysis, but a neat summary is that 60C for 1 hour equals good sanitization (HOTBIN, 2012),

There are two groups of pathogens those dangerous to farm animals (e.g., foot & mouth) and
those dangerous to humans (nasty strains of e-coli orsalmonella). There is a lot of confusion and
hype about various herbicides wrecking vegetable plots when treated plants have been added to
compost heaps (HOTBIN, 2012).

Herbicides and pesticides are broken down in composting. They are broken down 32 times faster
at 60°c than at 10°c. peed is not important to everyone - gardeners on the whole are a patient
group. However, if you are short of space speed means less bins. We often hear about cold bins
that are overflowing, requiring a second, third or 4th unit. If you want more vegetable plot and
garden and less compost plots – then hot composting quickly is a benefit. A hot heap rarely
produces putrid odours. Hot heaps transfer water away from the heap as steam (as long as the
waste has free air space which is normally provided by bulking agent) (HOTBIN, 2012).

All composting produces other odors - known as volatile organic chemicals. These often have an
odor. This is more noticeable in hot composting as they are made faster and the heat vaporizes
them. Hot composting needs a bio-filter unless the bin is away from human noses. But access to
your bin is important if you want to recycle more food waste. A hot bin will kill fly eggs &
larvae - so no swarms of flies or maggots in a hot compost bin. It's too hot at the top for ants,
rats, and most things you don’t like to see in a heap. All compost eventually ends up in the same
place. However, the quality of what you put on the garden has an effect (HOTBIN, 2012).

Windrow system (Static System)

Windrow systems may be subdivided on the basis of method of aeration into the “turned
windrow” and the “forced air windrow.” (Synonyms for “forced air windrow” are “static pile”
and “stationary windrow.”) The windrows may or may not be sheltered from the elements. A
classification of windrow systems that no longer is in common use is “open windrow” (Diaz et
al., 1976).

In the static system, air is either forced upwards through the composting mass or is pulled
downwards and through it — hence, the alternative designation of “forced aeration.” In both
instances, the composting mass is not disturbed (Diaz et al., 1976).

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Despite the fact that the forced aeration system had been proposed and tried as early as in the
late 1950s (Wylie, 1957), it was not until the 1970s that it began to receive considerable
attention. Even though Senn (1974) successfully applied forced aeration in the composting of
dairy cattle manure, the main reason for the resurgence of interest was the apparent utility in the
application of the method to the composting of sewage sludge. The system as applied to sewage
sludge is the one known as the Beltsville method of composting — so-called after the name of
the place of its origin (Epstein et al., 1976).

The forced aeration system essentially involves an initial period of drawing air into and through
the pile, followed by a period of forcing it upward through the pile. In the pulling or “suction”
stage, the air that leaves the system either is discharged directly into the environment, or is
forced through a pile of finished compost or other “stable” organic matte (a biofilter). The
rationale for the latter procedure is to deodorize the effluent air stream. It has been amply
demonstrated that finished compost and other organic materials can serve as an odor filter
(Bidlingmaier, 1996; Schlegelmilch et al., 2005). The basic arrangements of an aerated static pile
are shown in Figs 1 and 2.

The system includes the following six steps (Diaz et al., 1976):

1. mixing of a bulking agent with the waste to be composted,

2. construction of the windrow,

3. composting process,

4. screening of the composted mixture to remove reusable bulking agent,

5. curing, and

6. storage.

The construction of the windrow proceeds as follows: a series of perforated pipes, 10.2–15.2 cm
(diameter), is placed on the compost pad. The pipes are oriented

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Figure 2: Approximate dimensions for an aerated static pile (Diaz et al., 1976).

longitudinally and placed parallel to what would be the ridge of the windrow (Diaz et al., 1976).

Short-circuiting of air is avoided by ending the pipes about 1.5–2.7 m from the edges of the
windrow. The perforated pipes are connected to a blower through a length of nonperforated pipe.
After the network of piping is in place, it is covered with a layer of bulking agent or finished
compost that extends over the area to be covered by the windrow of material to be composted.
This foundational layer is provided to facilitate the movement and uniform distribution of air
during composting. It also absorbs excess moisture and thereby minimizes seepage from the pile.
The material to be composted is then stacked on the piping and bed of bulking material to form a
windrow, as shown in Fig. 6.1. The finished pile should be about 20–30 m long, about 3–6 m
wide, and about 1.5–2.5 m high (Diaz et al., 1976).

Finally, the entire pile of composting material may be covered with a layer of matured (finished)
compost that is about 15 cm thick if the covering compost is screened, and about 20 cm thick if
unscreened. The covering serves to absorb objectionable odors from the composting mass and

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ensures the occurrence of high-temperature levels throughout the composting material. As will
be discussed in another section, at the present time there are synthetic materials that can be
placed on the windrow to essentially achieve the same results. The arrangement accomplishes a
more complete pathogen-kill than would otherwise take place. Experience has shown that a
continuous forcing of air through the pile is not necessary to maintain aerobic conditions (Diaz et
al., 1976).

Porosity of the composting mass is a critical factor in forced aeration; as such, it is important that
the moisture content be such that the voids be free of water. A safe level of moisture content is
one in the range of 40–55% (Diaz et al., 1976).

Initially, the design of a forced aeration system called for the effluent air to be passed through a
small, cone-shaped pile, preferably of matured compost (the mature compost behaved as a
biofilter). At Beltsville, these piles usually were about 1.2 m high and about 2.4 m in diameter at
the base. The moisture content of the material in the piles should be less than 50%. Since then,
the designs of biofilters have evolved substantially. Biofilters have now become integral
components of the air management systems in composting operations and other industrial
facilities (Haug, 1993; Chiumenti et al., 2005; Schlegelmilch et al., 2005).

In the Beltsville process, the sludge to be composted (approximately 22% solids) is mixed with
woodchips (bulking agent) at a volumetric ratio of 1 part sludge to 2 parts woodchips. The
compost process requires from 2 to 3 weeks. When the process has reached completion, the pile
is torn down and the material is screened. If the bulking material is to be recycled, the screen-
opening size should be such that the bulking particles are retained on the screen and compost
passes through. Because wet material is difficult to screen, screening should not be performed
during rainy days (Diaz et al., 1976).

A photograph showing the manifolds used to distribute air through the piles is presented in Fig.
3.

Extended Aerated Pile

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If large amounts of material are to be composted, the so-called “extended aerated” pile can be
used. An extended aerated pile has the following arrangement: on day-1, a pile is constructed in
the same way as described in the preceding paragraphs, except that only one side and the two
ends of the pile are covered with the matured compost layer (Diaz et al., 1976).

Figure 3: Air distribution system for static piles (Diaz et al., 1976).

However, the exposed side is lightly covered with matured compost in order to prevent the
escape of objectionable odors. On day-2, a second network of piping and bedding is laid directly
adjacent to the exposed side of the pile erected on day-1, and the pile is erected in the same
manner as was pile-1. This procedure is repeated for 28 days. The first pile is removed after 21
days; the second pile on the day after, and so on. An important advantage of this approach is a
substantial reduction in spatial requirements (Diaz et al., 1976).

The land area requirement for systems that use a single pile is about 1 ha per 7–11 tons (dry
weight) of sludge processed. The estimate of about 7 ton/ha allows for sufficient land area to
accommodate runoff collection, administration, and general storage (Diaz et al., 1976).

Economics

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The static pile method is perhaps the least expensive method of all of the various types of
compost schemes available. This is particularly the case when the quantity of the feedstock is
greater than can feasibly be handled by manual labor in a region in which unemployment is
chronic, and certainly so when labor is both scarce and expensive. The reasons for the low costs
are: (1) limited amount of materials handling required and (2) relatively inexpensive equipment
required (Diaz et al., 1976).

It is difficult to arrive at a generally applicable capital cost for static pile composting because the
process and markets for compost are usually site specific. With respect to material and
operational costs, the cost for composting a mixture of sludge and woodchips is about $50/ton
(2005 US dollars), of which about $10/ton is for woodchips. The cost of woodchips, however,
can be much higher in those regions where the woodchips are used for energy generation or other
high-value markets (Diaz et al., 1976).

Limitations

The static pile method is not the most suitable for all types of raw materials and under all
conditions. For instance, the method works best and perhaps only with a material that meets the
following conditions: relatively uniform particle size, and the particle size does not exceed 3.5–5
cm in any dimension. Granular materials are the most appropriate. A mixture of particles that are
too large and that exhibit a wide spectrum of particle sizes can easily result in uneven
distribution and movement of air through the pile. Uneven distribution of air through the pile
promotes short-circuiting and the development of anaerobic pockets of decomposing material
(Diaz et al., 1976).

 Cold composting (0-40°C):

Cold heaps 'stop' in winter (-5 to +5°c). Anything added piles up until spring when the sunshine
warms up the heap. Piling up food waste is not an option – it is just a free rat take away. 70% all
household food waste is not added to 'cold' compost bins as it is likely to cause issues with odor,
rats and flies (HOTBIN, 2012).

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Cold compost bins tend to be constructed with open vents and hatches – so any odor not only
attracts but also allows access to the food – creating the infamous 'swarm' of flies when the lid is
taken off, or even worse finding a nest of rats when the heap is broken open. Many seeds will
survive in 'cold' composting heaps. The problem is made worse as the seeds are planted in
nature's best growing medium - humus/compost (HOTBIN, 2012).

It's not just weed seeds but seeds from melons and tomatoes plus weeds like couch grass and
dandelion will also survive and grow. You need to leave cold compost a long time (12-18
months) to achieve the same level of sanitization and bacteria to die off (HOTBIN, 2012).

It is also worth noting, whichever method you use, the main infection route back into the human
gut is via dirty hands to cooking surfaces and food. Always wear gloves and wash hands. The
risks of pesticide infection via use of domestic compost are low because the concentration and
volumes used are low. However, the extra security of fast destruction in hot composting is an
extra level of security. A UK ‘outdoor’ heap averages the same temperature as UK ambient air
temp - i.e., 10°c. At 10°c the heap it is 32 times slower than at 60°C. If a soft waste like grass
takes 6 months in a cold hep it will take about 2 days to reach the same state in hot heap. In
general; cold = 12-24 months and hot = 1-3 months (because it does not stay at 60°c for the
whole period). In a cold heap, water is not evaporated; it has to drain to the ground. This happens
slowly and poorly in compost, so it gets water logged and turns anaerobic and putrid. The main
solution is not to add 'wet' food waste to cold heaps - most of our diet is foods with 80% water.
Cold composting releases VOC more slowly and they do not vaporize as much. lies will lay eggs
and larvae (e.g., maggots) will be present in a cold heap, and often swarms of flies can come out
when lid open (HOTBIN, 2012).

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  Composting methodology

Composting methodology is classified into three major segments of manure anaerobic, aerobic
composting and vermicomposting. In anaerobic fertilization, organic materials decompose within
the absence of air. Organic material could also be collected in pits, covered with a thick layer of
soil, and left undisturbed six to eight months. Compost shaped therefore it's going to not be
completely transferred and will include public statements (Eocene, 2014).

Figure 4: Anaerobic digestion process (Tanglewood Organics, 2019).

Aerobic composting is that the method by that organic waste is regenerate into compost or
manure within the presence of air and might be of various varieties. the foremost common
methodology is to pile, wherever organic materials got to be divided into 3 differing types, and
might be placed in one pile to the opposite, through a skinny layer of soil or dry trees lined with
leaves. This pile got to be mixed hebdomadally, it takes regarding 3 weeks for the conversion to

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require place. This method is that the same method within the hole, however allotted the dig
specially created. mix ought to be done each fifteen days, and there's no specific chemical which
can be prepared for that point (Ecomena, 2014).

Berkeley accustomed have the way of effortful technique minute and necessities of the fabric to
be composted. simply perishable materials, like grass, plant materials, etc., are mixed with
animal matter within the magnitude relation of 2: one. Compost is typically prepared in fifteen
days (Ecomena, 2014).

Figure 5: Schematic diagram of the aerobic composting system (ResearchGate, 2018).

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 Table 2: compost aerobic VS anaerobic (Tanglewood Organics, 2019).

Vermicomposting involves the utilization of earthworms as bioreactors and natural diversity of

the conversion method. this is often worn out specially designed pits wherever the culture of the
fishing worm conjointly has to be done. Vermicomposting choice is predicated on accuracy
Associate in Nursing needs direction of the work by a knowledgeable. it's conjointly the
foremost dearly-won choice (O & M prices and high private) (Ecomena, 2014).

However, not like the on top of two choices, it's a very inodorous method, creating it the popular
answer in residential areas.

Figure 6: Vermicomposting process (Biology discussion, 2016).

`

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It conjointly features a terribly high rate of conversion; therefore, the final product is extremely
prime quality with wealthy macro and micronutrients. The ultimate product conjointly has the
advantage that it may be dried and hold on safely for an extended amount of your time
(Ecomena, 2014).

Plants consist composting some or all of the subsequent practical units: Opener’s bag, and / or
magnetic and trajectory separators, sieves (sieve), shredding, mix and blending instrumentation,
gear shift, and irrigation systems, and ventilation systems, waste systems, bio-filters, scrubbers,
and management systems, and steering systems (Ecomena, 2014).

 Benefits of composting

 Suppress plant diseases and pests.

 Reduce or eliminate the need for chemical fertilizers.
 Promote higher yields of agricultural crops.
 Facilitate reforestation, wetlands restoration, and habitat revitalization efforts by
amending contaminated, compacted, and marginal soils.
 Cost-effectively remediate soils contaminated by hazardous waste.
 Remove solids, oil, grease, and heavy metals from stormwater runoff.
 Capture and destroy 99.6 percent of industrial volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) in
contaminated air.

Compostaenrichesasoils:
Compost has the ability to help regenerate poor soils. The composting process encourages the
production of beneficial micro-organisms (mainly bacteria and fungi) which in turn break down
organic matter to create humus. Humus--a rich nutrient-filled material--increases the nutrient
content in soils and helps soils retain moisture. Compost has also been shown to suppress plant
diseases and pests, reduce or eliminate the need for chemical fertilizers, and promote higher
yields of agricultural crops (Haug, 1993).

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 Compostahelpsacleanupa(remediate)acontaminatedasoil:
The composting process has been shown to absorb odors and treat semi volatile and
volatile organic compounds (VOCs), including heating fuels, polyaromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs), and explosives. It has also been shown to bind heavy metals and prevent them
from migrating to water resources or being absorbed by plants. The compost process
degrades and, in some cases, completely eliminates wood preservatives, pesticides, and
both chlorinated and non-chlorinated hydrocarbons in contaminated soils (Haug, 1993).

Compostahelpsapreventapollution:
Composting organic materials that have been diverted from landfills ultimately avoids the
production of methane and leachate formulation in the landfills. Compost has the ability
to prevent pollutants in stormwater runoff from reaching surface water resources.
Compost has also been shown to prevent erosion and silting on embankments parallel to
creeks, lakes, and rivers, and prevents erosion and turf loss on roadsides, hillsides,
playing fields, andagolfacoursesa (Haug,1993).

Usingacompostaoffersaeconomicabenefits:
Using compost can reduce the need for water, fertilizers, and pesticides. It serves as a
marketable commodity and is a low-cost alternative to standard landfill cover and
artificial soil amendments. Composting also extends municipal landfill life by diverting
organic materials from landfills and provides a less costly alternative to conventional
methods of remediating (cleaning) contaminated soil (Haug, 1993).

 Carbon-Nitrogen Ratio

when organic material starts to decompose, it is affected by two main factors, which are the
presence of nitrogen and carbon in the amount that is going to be decomposed, the C:N ratio
represents the proportion of the two elements in the amount that we have, living organisms that
usually take place in decomposing organic material use the carbon as a source of energy, and
thus, having the enough amount of carbon is required to have a sufficient energy to successfully

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decompose the needed amount, on the other hand, nitrogen is so important, since it is used by
those organisms to build the cell structure, which is vital for the increase of the organisms cells
working on the compost amount present, and hence, reducing the time significantly with the right
amounts of both elements, carbon and nitrogen present in the surrounding environment, or the
compost mix itself, mentioning that there are some organisms that use their inner Nitrogen to
form new cells, and thus, burn more carbon, so the carbon amounts will be reduced more than
the usually, and Nitrogen will somehow have a stable amounts, since it will be recycled by these
organisms (Washington state university, 2011).

Figure 7: nitrogen effect on compost (Washington state university, 2011)

For soils, the existence of high levels or amounts of carbon could be problematic, in order to
complete the nitrogen cycle, the organism living in soils will withdraw a proportional amount of
nitrogen to that of carbon, to continue composition, and this process is known as "robbing" the
soil of nitrogen, and hence the soil will have problems and will not be able to give nutrients to
plants (Washington state university, 2011).

A C:N ratio of 20, where C and N are the available quantities, is the upper limit at which there is
no danger of robbing the soil of nitrogen. If a considerable amount of carbon is in the form of

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lignin or other resistant materials, the actual C:N ratio could be larger than 20. The C:N ratio is a
critical factor in composting to prevent both nitrogen robbing from the soil and conserving
maximum N in the compost (Washington state university, 2011).

Since organisms use about 30 parts carbons for each part of nitrogen, an initial C: N (available
quantity) ratio of 30 promotes rapid composting and would provide some nitrogen in an
immediately available form in the finished compost. Researchers report optimum values from 20
to 31. A majority of investigators believe that for C:N ratios above 30 there will be little loss of
nitrogen. University of California studies on materials with an initial C:N ratio varying from 20
to 78 and nitrogen contents varying from 0.52% to 1.74% indicate that initial C:N ratio of 30 to
35 was optimum. These reported optimum C:N ratios may include some carbon which was not
available. Composting time increases with the C:N ratio above 30 to 40. If unavailable carbon is
small, the C:N ratio can be reduced by bacteria to as low a value as 10. Fourteen to 20 are
common values depending upon the original material from which the humus was formed. These
studies showed that composting a material with a higher C:N ratio would not be harmful to the
soil, however, because the remaining carbon is so slowly available that nitrogen robbery would
not be significant (Washington state university, 2011).

in the following figure, some of the C:N ratios for some materials:

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Figure 8: C:N ratios (Planet neutral, 2019).

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REFERENCES:

Alberta Environment and Parks. (2018). Compost Facility Operator Study Guide. 978-1-4601-
4130-4. Retrieved April 15, 2020, from http://aep.alberta.ca/

Bidlingmaier, W. (1996). Odor emissions from composting plants. The Science of Composting,
Part 1 (eds. de Bertoldi, M., Sequi, P., Lemmes, B., & Papi, T.), Blackie Academic and
Professional, London, UK.

Carbon-to-Nitrogen Ratio. (2019). Retrieved from https://www.planetnatural.com/composting-

101/making/c-n-ratio/

Diaz, L. F. (2007). Compost science and technology. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Epstein, E., Wilson, G.B., Burge, W.D., Mullen, D.C., & Enkiri, N.K. (1976). A forced aeration
system for composting wastewater sludge. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed., 48, 688–694.

Hot Composting versus Cold Composting. (2012, July 19). Retrieved from
https://www.hotbincomposting.com/blog/hot-versus-cold-composting.html

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