R&D Report Duplex Bridge - en PDF

EC
Steel bridges are increasingly using complex welded steelwork solutions. Recently, the
KI-NA-23595-EN-S
most widespread construction type has been the orthotropic deck, used to build bridges
ranging from a medium-span length (100 m) up to the longest-span suspension bridges
(Akashi Kaikyo, Storebaelt East).
Recently, many research projects and experimental activities have studied the in-service
behaviour of these complex steelworks, all of them concentrating on traditional con-
struction steel grades, i.e. S355.
Although the basic duplex mechanical properties are well known, however, it is not
enough just to promote this material for huge welded bridge construction — because
of the importance of such structures, more specific investigations on structural compo-
Application of duplex stainless steel for welded bridge construction in an aggressive environment
nents typical of bridge structure are needed.
In order to learn more, the most critical bridge components have been selected for
testing and 29 tonnes of duplex grade EN 1.4462 (UR45NMo) have been produced by
Industeel. During fabrication of duplex components, welding procedure specifications
have been developed and differences/difficulties arising in fabrication highlighted.
The testing activity concerned material characterisation by mechanical and corrosion
testing, fatigue tests on several different components also involving full-scale tests, cor-
rosion fatigue on selected critical detail, and static tests on typical elements of steel
bridges, i.e. the main longitudinal beams, also produced on a large scale.
Finally, an existing bridge (the Verrand viaduct) was used for both final design and life-
cycle costs analysis comparing two alternative materials: high strength low alloy S460
and duplex EN1.4462 stainless steel.
Experimental and numerical activities performed during the project confirmed that duplex
stainless steel satisfies the bridge-design requirements: structural safety and integrity,
reliability and durability. Life-cycle costs analysis demonstrated that duplex stainless
steel can also be economically attractive when considering whole service-life costs: ini-
tial capital expense is recovered after 50 years of service life.
Application of duplex stainless steel for
welded bridge construction in an
aggressive environment
Price (excluding VAT) in Luxembourg: EUR 20

EUR 23595
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European Commission
Research Fund for Coal and Steel

Application of duplex stainless steel for
welded bridge construction in an aggressive
environment
Giuliana Zilli
Centro Sviluppo Materiali Spa
Via di Castel Romano 100/102, I-00128 Rome
Emanuele Maiorana
OMBA Impianti & Engineering Spa
Via Roma 150, I-29027 Podenzano (Piacenza)
Jerome Peultier, Amelie Fanica
Industeel Creusot
La Défense 7, 11/13 Cours Valmy, Immeuble La Pacific, F-92800 Puteaux
Oliver Hechler, Tim Rauert
Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen
Templergraben 55, D-52062 Aachen
Rene Maquoi
Universite de Liege
Place du 20 Août 7, B-4000 Liege
Contract No RFSR-CT-2004-00040
1 July 2004 to 30 June 2007
Final report
2008 EUR 23595 EN

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Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2008
ISBN 978-92-79-09948-9
ISSN 1018-5593
© European Communities, 2008

Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged.
Printed in Luxembourg
Printed on white chlorine-free paper

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................................... 3
Final Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 4
Scientific and technical description of the results ................................................................................... 13
1. Objectives of the project.............................................................................................................. 13
2. Comparison of initially planned activities and work accomplished............................................ 13
3. Description of activities and discussion ...................................................................................... 15

WP1 Tune of test cases ................................................................................................................... 15
Task 1.1 Bridge types identification.................................................................................................... 15
Task 1.2 Critical details identification ................................................................................................ 24
Task 1.3 Experimental data collection ................................................................................................ 31
WP2 Welding.................................................................................................................................. 45
Task 2.1 Material selection/supply...................................................................................................... 45
Task 2.2 Welding processes and consumables selection..................................................................... 47
Task 2.3 Component construction....................................................................................................... 52
WP3 Static mechanical and corrosion properties............................................................................ 59
Task 3.1 - Base mechanical properties................................................................................................ 59
Task 3.2 - Buckling ............................................................................................................................. 66
Task 3.3 - Corrosion resistance ........................................................................................................... 78
WP4 Fatigue and corrosion fatigue................................................................................................. 85
Task 4.1 - Tests with reference to the Eurocode 3 classification (small specimens) ......................... 86
Task 4.2 - Tests on mid-scale specimens ............................................................................................ 97
Task 4.3 - Corrosion fatigue.............................................................................................................. 103
WP5 Numerical computation........................................................................................................ 111
Task 5.1 - Contribution to the tests ................................................................................................... 111
Task 5.2 - Parametric study............................................................................................................... 112
WP6 Life Cycle Cost Analysis and suggestion for Eurocodes ..................................................... 125
Task 6.1 - Life Cycle Costs Analysis ................................................................................................ 125
Task 6.2 - Suggestion for Eurocodes................................................................................................. 130
WP7 Management and reporting .................................................................................................. 133
Task 7.1 Management of the project ................................................................................................. 133
Task 7.2 Reporting of the results....................................................................................................... 133
4. Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 135
5. Exploitation and impact of the research results........................................................................ 136
List of figures ........................................................................................................................................ 137

List of tables .......................................................................................................................................... 139
List of references ................................................................................................................................... 140
3
FINAL SUMMARY
General objectives of the project
The objective of this project is to verify the technical and economical feasibility of welded bridge
construction using the EN 1.4462 duplex stainless steel and to give the first indications suitable to
provide the basis of an upgrade of Eurocode 3 towards the stainless steel bridges.
In particular, specific goals are:
- To define the Weld Technologies/Welding Procedure Specification for duplex stainless steel
bridges to achieve the performances required by this kind of welded structure;
- To evaluate mechanical and corrosion behaviour of the critical welded components by means of
mechanical and corrosion testing and numerical analysis. Data obtained are compared with the
experimental data already existing on traditional construction steels;
- To define possible suggestion in view of the Eurocode 3 revisions/implementation;
- To carry out detailed and reliable Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) on the basis of technical
information achieved, so as to acquire the basis for addressing the best material choice for the future
long span suspension bridges.
WP1 Tune of test cases

Specific objectives of WP1 are:
• to identify the bridge type and relevant components which to concentrate the study ;
• to collect experimental data on the tests already developed on similar structures made of carbon
steel.
Task 1.1 Bridge types identification - As a result of the overview of the most significant bridge
typologies performed by OMBA the continuous beam closed box girder is identified as the most
interesting for the scope of this project: that bridge typology contains all the critical welded details of
the other bridge typologies and some other specific of orthotropic deck (stiffened plate deck) being
particularly interesting also for the application to the most long span bridges.
The existing bridge chosen to have a comparison between the utilization of carbon steel and duplex
stainless steel, considering the entire service life and have an accurate evaluation of the Life Cycle Cost
(LCC), is the Verrand viaduct. It falls in the classification of continuous beam, closed box section girder
(Table 1-1), it was designed, fabricated and assembled by OMBA so all the information are available
for the project purposes.
The Verrand viaduct is part of the Mont Blanc-Aosta highway. The viaduct has four piers in armed
concrete of varying height over 40 m, founded upon wells of foundation. It is built up between two
abutments of extremity. The floor system is an orthotropic deck steel plate of the width in the range of
19,75 m to 20,966 m, supported by two continuous girders of five spans, with span length varying from
97,5 m for the two end spans to 135 m for the three intermediate spans, for a global length equal to
600 m.
Maintenace aspects: looking at the aggressiveness of sites, EN ISO 12944 Standard classifies five
different growing levels, from C1 to C5. C5 comprises also a marine site with presence of aggressive
pollutants, as the environment of suspension bridges in Japan, in Hong Kong and of the future Messina
Strait Bridge can be classified. Such environment is the reference one for the project.
Corrosion rate of carbon steel in C5 sites is very significant and expected over 80-200µm/year. As a
consequence, to preserve the structure costly measures as long lasting painting coating of both external
and internal surfaces and/or continuous dehumidification of closed volumes (with R.U. 60%
weathering corrosion rate is practically suppressed) are used. In Table 1-4 a significant example of
protective coating system is reported. An example of maintenance plan for the C5 atmospheric
corrosion level is reported in Task 6.1.
Task 1.2 Critical details identification - On the basis of its experience OMBA selected and described the
critical components for the bridge deck. Since actual steel bridges are increasingly using complex
welded steelwork solutions to emphasise the lightness and aerodynamic shaping steel can offer special
4
effort is made in verifying fatigue problems can occur in those complex details: they consists of 8
welded details to assess fatigue resistance (3 of them are full scale components). Moreover the plated
girder (very high web I beam) is selected for static tests and evaluation of ultimate shear resistance as
the component potentially most affected by nonlinear material behaviour of duplex stainless steel.
INDUSTEEL selected corrosion and corrosion fatigue specimens among those for mechanical testing
purpose.
The distribution of testing activities among the project partners is reported in Table 1-7 as agreed during
one of the project meetings.
Task 1.3 Experimental data collection - The bibliographic research conducted by CSM concerns
experimental data on ultimate shear resistance (Vult) of plate girders and fatigue data on details of the
orthotropic bridge deck made of ‘traditional’ steels.
Ultimate shear resistance (Vult) of plate girders made of both carbon steel and stainless steel are
reported. The literature research has resulted in a large amount of data, as summarized in Table 1-8, but
only a few of those are related to stainless steel girders. It means that the present design methods are
established especially on the basis of traditional carbon steel behaviour although stainless steel has
clearly different mechanical properties related to its anisotropic and nonlinear behaviour.
Fatigue data on several different components of the orthotropic bridge deck made of ‘traditional’ steels
are reported. They are mostly extracted by the published reports of a joint research project carried out in
the period 1986 till 1995 and partially funded by the ECSC. That project was focused on fatigue
behaviour of orthotropic steel decks. Some useful indications were collected for each detail: geometry
of specimens, testing set-up and points of crack initiation gave indications for testing arrangements,
load expected, position of strain gauges; experimental values were used for comparison purposes.
It is to mention the activity on the application of Laser Hybrid Welding technique (CSM - Task 2.2)
raised from information acquired in this task: the lack of penetration is a cause of crack initiation and
reduced fatigue life at the rib-to-deck position (detail A.4) and automatic welding techniques normally
used for the application are not cost effective to produce full penetration joints in that position.
WP2 Welding
Specific objectives of WP2 (Welding) is to investigate practical problems which might occur when
duplex stainless steel of representative structural bridge components are welded. Therefore the activities
will be mainly devoted to provide solutions for prevention of welding related failures and, furthermore,
guidelines for welding procedures (Welding Procedure Specifications) on the possible welding
techniques suitable for fabrication of considered components, both at workshop and on site.
Specific objectives are:
• to select and supply both base material and consumables;
• to fabricate the specimens, fine tuned inside WP1;
• to investigate the practical problems which might occur when the representative structural
bridge components of duplex stainless steel are welded;
• to prepare guidelines for welding procedures (WPS) for the welding techniques potentially
suitable to be used at both the factory and on site.
Task 2.1 Material selection/supply - In coastal environment classifiable as C5, INDUSTEEL

recommends UR45NMo (S32205), due to the presence of sea water spray. It is a nitrogen alloyed (≥
0,15%) austenitic-ferritic stainless steel (2205 type) with high mechanical properties and high general,
localized and stress corrosion cracking resistance properties. Moreover its mechanical properties make
it comparable to a constructional steel of S460 grade.
As reported in Table 2-3, INDUSTEEL produced 29 tons of UR45NMo from three casts. Material was
delivered to OMBA shop as 26 plates of standard format 2000 x 6000 mm and of four different
thickness (7, 12, 20 and 30 mm).
Task 2.2 Welding processes and consumables selection - OMBA made an overview of the welding
techniques currently used for the bridge assembly. On the basis of the considered welding technologies,
the most profitable consumables in terms of cost/benefit have been selected. Welded joints have been
manufactured, tested and qualified at laboratory level. All the Welding Procedure Specifications
developed during the Project are deliverable.
5
An investigation on the application of innovative welding technique as Laser Hybrid Welding (LHW)
has been performed by CSM. The application of LB-GMAW process to the rib-to-deck joint consented
to obtain a full penetration joint (Figure 2-3) with a quite high productivity (travel speed 1,2 m/min).
Fused Zone is very narrow and Heat Affected Zone is practically absent, resulting in reduced residual
stresses and specimen distortion. Shall be also mentioned the absence of spatters (particularly critics for
duplex steels). Two different welding consumables were used for Laser-GMA welding with minor
differences for the weld microstructure. From a metallurgical point of view, a crucial point to maintain
the corrosive performance of base material, the ferrite-austenite balance, though still not optimal (about
30 % of austenite was measured in the welded zone), would probably suffice for the application.
Task 2.3 Components construction - The welding procedures developed in the previous task allowed the
fabrication of the bridge critical components selected for mechanical and corrosion testing. An
overview of the specimens fabricated is reported in Table 2-6.
The experience gained by OMBA in this project of fabricating duplex large bridge components
compared with its know-how on traditional constructional steels allowed OMBA to made some
considerations on the differences in duplex steelworking. These are:
• The welding heat inputs are generally lower for the duplex welds than for carbon steel welds
• Angular shrinks are more important with duplex than with carbon steel in butt welded plates
and complex shop assemblies. Adopting the correct angle as determined by the pre-test analysis
allowed to meet the required tolerances
• It is more difficult to cut the duplex sheets with disk saw. So it is necessary to sharpen the saw
blade more often than in the case of cutting carbon steel sheets
• Preheating is not necessary if the temperature is not less than 0°C. If the temperature is lower
than 0°C preheating shall be applied only to dry the plate
• When welding duplex the maximum interpass temperature is 150°C; in addition with the
reduction of heat input for duplex, more time is necessary to do the same welded joints than for
carbon steel.
• Since OMBA production lines and stocking areas are not dedicated to stainless steel working
special provisions have done to avoid contaminations by other metals during handling and
working stainless steel sheets.
These considerations resulted in a quantification of increased costs of shop working of about 30%
compared with traditional constructional steel. This value is used in the Life Cycle Cost analysis
performed in Task 6.1.
WP3 Static mechanical and corrosion properties

Specific objectives of WP3 (Static mechanical and corrosion properties) are:
• to verify the influence of the non-linearity of stress-strain relationship for duplex stainless steel
on the structural elements behaviour made of large plates which can buckle
• to confirm the duplex corrosion resistance in Cl- and Cl- polluted condenses (NOx, SO2, etc.
from the road traffic) also in welded and hard loaded situations aiming at verifying the
resistance of the duplex grade when used in very aggressive marine sites as structural material
in a suspension bridge.
Task 3.1 Base mechanical properties - INDUSTEEL has been provided base mechanical properties of
the duplex stainless steel UR45NMo by means of: chemical analysis; metallographic inspections;
tensile tests; Charpy V tests. Since specification for steelworks of viaducts and bridges often requires
minimum values of CTOD tests, these are performed on the butt welded 30mm thick plate (detail A.5).
All these investigations confirmed the elevated mechanical properties of the material and provided
material curves for constitutive modelling purpose. Investigation on the welded joints fabricated by
OMBA confirmed feasibility of bridge steelworks using this material. Both base material and welded
joints are in accordance with requirements specific for the application.
Task 3.2 Buckling - Three girder specimens (Figure 3-8) have been tested by ULg in three-point
bending to assess them ultimate shear resistance normally exceeding significantly the elastic critical
shear buckling load of the web. In order to have realistic effects of imperfections on the ultimate shear
6
capacity, the scale of the test specimens is 1:2 to 1:1. Moreover a rather large depth-to-thickness ratio
hw/tw = 1260/7 = 180 is adopted so as to favour a significant post-critical strength.
10 tests carried out at the Polytechnical University of Catalogne on grade EN 1.4301 unstiffened girders
(see also Task 1.3) have been implemented in the statistical evaluation of Bridgeplex results.
Besides the experimental values, the ultimate shear capacity of the test girders is assessed based on the
specifications of the Eurocodes.
The results of the evaluations, in terms of experimental to Eurocode values ratios (Vtest/Vcode), confirm
that the specifications of EN1993-1-5 applicable to carbon steels may not be used for stainless steels;
indeed though the safety is just enough when reference is made to the sole subset of the ULg tests on
duplex, it is no more satisfactory when reference is made to the subset of the UPC tests on EN1.4301 or
to the set composed of both stainless steel grades. In contrast, the specifications of EN1993-1-4, that
address specifically stainless steels, are found appropriate whatever the type of construction: either
buildings (γM1 = 1,00) or bridges (γM1 = 1,10) indeed giving quiet conservative values for the tests
performed on duplex plated girders (characteristic value 1,16 in Table 3-9).
Task 3.3 Corrosion resistance - The corrosion resistance of the UR45NMo duplex grade has been
evaluated by INDUSTEEL through the standard corrosion tests. Even if these operating conditions are
not representative of the application, these tests permit a ranking of the stainless steel grades according
to their resistance to localized corrosion in chlorides containing, acidic and oxidising solution.
In addition pitting potential was evaluated from polarization curves in chloride containing neutral
solutions in order to simulate concentrated sea water environments. Pitting potentials were measured on
duplex grade only in 100g/l NaCl solution at 60°C equal to 0,869 V/SCE.
For atmospheric exposures three sites were selected: one in France (Brest site) and two in Italy (Genoa
and Roma) them aggressiveness are ranked in accordance with ISO relevant standards as C3/C5, C2/C4
and C1/C3 respectively. 4 types of specimens are exposed on each site: base material; GMAW butt
welded with crevice corrosion device on both heat affected zone (HAZ) and base material; attachment
sample welded all around and butt weld sample subjected to four point bend stress. No localized
corrosion was observed on all specimens investigated after about one year exposure, whatever the
exposure site and its aggressiveness. The calculated corrosion rate has been evaluated from the base
material as being lower than 0,5 µm per year. It demonstrates that no uniform corrosion occurs after one
year exposure. In addition, no stress corrosion cracking occurs after one year exposure. The exposures
are still in progress on each site.
The UR45NMo duplex grade good behaviour in aggressive environment from corrosion properties
point of view is confirmed. No kind of corrosion (localized, uniform, or stress corrosion cracking) has
been highlighted during atmospheric exposures. To rank stainless steel grades, the aggressiveness of
test conditions must be increased in laboratory. This study reveals that the UR45NMo has a much better
localized corrosion resistance than the 316L austenitic grade in aggressive media with high chloride
content.
WP4 Fatigue and corrosion fatigue

Specific objectives of WP4 (Fatigue and corrosion fatigue) are:
• to verify the applicability of Eurocode 3 suggestions for fatigue design of welded bridges to
duplex stainless steel;
• to evaluate the differences in terms of fatigue behaviour of welded structural elements more
complex than a simple specimen made of either carbon steel or duplex stainless steel;
• to check if and under which conditions fatigue corrosion can occur on duplex welded elements.
Task 4.1 Tests with reference to the Eurocode 3 classification – 8 different welded details are tested
under constant amplitude fatigue, 15 tests per detail have been performed and statistically evaluated.
The distribution of testing activities among the partners is reported in Table 1-7. The outcome of the
evaluation can be summarized as follows:
• The fatigue strength of the investigated constructional details is always larger – and sometimes
significantly larger - for duplex steel than for C-steels.
7
• Because of the limited number of test results on duplex steel, it is premature to propose detail
categories other than those applicable to C-steels; further experimental investigations should be
needed in this respect.
• Using for duplex steel the detail categories specified in EN1993-1-9 for C-steels is
recommended though probably over-conservative.
• Due to the non linear stress-strain curve of duplex steel, the fatigue strength depends on the
Young modulus where the stress range is based on strain measurements; therefore the need to
consider, for the fatigue verifications, the influence of the Eα-modulus used in the static
analysis.
• A possible influence of the weld geometry on series A.2 and A.5 cannot be clearly noted.
• Minor yielding occurred in duplex steel specimens do not have a significant influence on the
fatigue strength.
Task 4.2 Tests on mid-scale specimens - 3 orthotropic deck panels of 2000mm x 1500mm edges have
been tested by CSM under constant amplitude fatigue load. Since these panels contain several different
welded details among those tested in Task 4.1 these tests allowed to evaluate stress patterns and than
critical points for crack initiation when those details are assembled in a large scale element.
Moreover comparing duplex to S355 orthotropic deck panels the following observations arise:
- points of crack initiation are different for the two series of specimens: duplex developing in the rib-
to-crossbeam joint while S355 in the crossbeam at the free edge of cut out; thus, in contrast with C-
steels, the weld - instead of the crossbeam - is the critical zone for Duplex steelwork.
- both of the points are compressive zones positioned directly under the load application, this fact
should confirm the elevate contribution of residual stress patterns in this kind of specimen
- since residual stresses are influenced by welding procedures, the different welding procedure used
for duplex together with different material distortion tendency during fabrication can induce a
different point of crack initiation
- though the number of tests is far from sufficient for enabling fully reliable results in terms of
fatigue statistical data, the experimental results give to believe that the curve Category 71 specified
by Eurocode for C-steels is safe for Duplex steel too.
Task 4.3 Corrosion fatigue - INDUSTEEL evaluated fatigue corrosion performances of duplex made
welded structure in aggressive environment (i.e. high chloride concentration environment).
Representative specimens are selected among the critical components (Task 1.2) and detail B.2 (rib-to-
rib butt weld performed on yard) was taken as the most susceptible to corrosion fatigue. Two
environments are simulated in laboratory: immersion in synthetic seawater representative of high
chloride concentration environment and cyclic salt spray and dry conditions, representative of in service
conditions. Also a series of tests have been performed in air as the reference environment. Figure 4-20
summarizes the corrosion fatigue results.
The three S-N curves are very close each other not advising differences among the three environments
compared. Although in the case of sea water immersion the crack starts with fatigue corrosion
mechanism no differences in terms of fatigue life are observed when compared with data obtained in
air. This indicates that the presence of corrosive environment does not decrease significantly the fatigue
resistance of duplex.
WP5 Numerical computation

Specific objectives of WP5 (Numerical computation) are:
• to give a contribution to the WP3 and WP4 for the geometry optimisation of the components to
be tested;
• parametric study to extend the experimental results and make possible a more complete
comparison between carbon steel and duplex stainless steel bridge;
Task 5.1 Contribution to the tests

In the frame of this task finite element models have been developed by RWTH and CSM with the scope
of supporting experimental activities. RWTH performed the modelling of details A.4 and B.1 of Task
8
4.1 while CSM developed a model for mid-scale specimen of Task 4.2. These models allowed for the
assessment of load levels to be applied and eventual position of strain gauges.
Task 5.2 Parametric study

Vehicle crossing analysis - A vehicle crossing analysis has been performed by RWTH on the Verrand
Viaduct in consideration of realistic traffic loads with the scope of fatigue verification of duplex made
bridge. The fatigue details have been differentiated into details governed by the global system and
details stressed by a local system. For each detail the relevant moment-history-diagram has been
calculated from which the stress histories are evaluated. In a next step the stress range spectrum is
derived for each detail. The fatigue design check has been carried out considering a design life of the
bridge equal to 100 years. Fatigue resistance obtained during the project are used.
The vehicle crossing analysis on the Verrand Viaduct has shown that fatigue is not a problem for the
main structural members and its critical details made of duplex stainless steel. This is a result of the
span lengths of the bridge of 97,50 m and 133,00 m.
Span length investigation - Considering the main longitudinal girders, as for large span lengths them
design is governed by the stress verification and the fatigue verification becomes negligible, the
deutsche commentary to Eurocode3 provides a simple design recommendation stating that the main
longitudinal girders of steel road bridges has not to be verified for fatigue for the case that the spans are
larger than 45 m and the notch categories of the fatigue details are at least 71 N/mm². This rule is based
on research activities concerning structural C-steels from S235 to S355. With this respect RWTH
performed a parametric study to evaluate the span length from which such simplified rule can be
applied to a duplex bridge.
Taking the higher fatigue resistance of Duplex steel into account the utilisation level curves belonging
to Duplex steel and S355 are shifting closer. Although the bearing capacity of the Duplex structure is
significantly higher, the relevant span length for fatigue verification is almost the same. Hence a chance
of cost reduction for bridges also with small and medium spans can be derived, since a less amount of
material is required to realize a defined span provided that fatigue problems does not limit the material
utilization. To exploit this benefit systematically, further investigations of the fatigue behaviour of
Duplex steel are required.
Ultimate shear resistance of plate girders - Typical elements of steel bridges, i.e. the main longitudinal
beams, have very high web subjected to both bending and transversal concentrated loads. The influence
of constitutive law and its parameters (elastic modulus, yielding stress) on the ultimate shear resistance
of such structures has been investigated by CSM.
A limited experimental campaign aimed at the characterization of the parameters variations of the
duplex grade EN1.4462 has been performed by CSM. The Ramberg-Osgood equation in the more
general form proposed by Rasmussen is used for constitutive modelling. Starting with their nominal
values, the parameters of the equation are iteratively updated to obtain the optimal match between the
experimental stress-strain curves and the equivalent curves obtained by the selected constitutive model
function. By focusing the attention on three main parameters, i.e. E0, p, and σp, it shall be noticed that
the obtained variations of these parameters, selected from the optimal curves that best match the
experimental ones, are sometimes far from the nominal values. More specifically, a value of 0,2% is
generally assumed for the proof yield strain p while it is found to vary from 0,09% to 0,15%. That
means the proof yield strength is found for lower values than the nominal one (here assumed as
600 MPa). In contrast, the value of the elastic modulus E0 is found in good agreement with the nominal
one (see the mean value in the table), taken here equal to 200000 MPa.
The parameters variations derived from the Rasmussen stress-strain model are then used to evaluate the
ultimate shear resistance VFE,Marc, obtained by FE simulations with Marc software.
The outcome of this investigation can be summarised as follow:
• For a given (realistic) value of the proof yield strength fy, there is only a very slight influence of
the value of the modulus of elasticity E on the shear capacity in the range
• Expectedly, for a given (realistic) value of the modulus of elasticity E, the effect of the proof
yield strength is significant; defining the latter as σ0,2 enables the numerical simulations to provide
realistic values of the ultimate shear capacity.
• Considering that the effects of residual stresses are likely to decrease the “numerical” shear
capacity by about 10%, the so reduced numerical values are found in good agreement with the test
results.
9
• For the nonlinear material modelling it is recommended to use a stress-strain law that account
for a not-fixed position of the yielding proof strain and to characterize the material nonlinear
parameters by means of a dedicated laboratory testing campaign.
WP6 Life Cycle Cost Analysis and suggestion for Eurocodes

Specific objectives of WP6 (Life Cycle Cost Analysis and suggestion for Eurocodes) are:
• To carry out a comparison in terms of Life Cycle Costs analysis between a C steel bridge and a
duplex stainless steel bridge.
• To prepare suggestions for the Eurocodes implementation.
Task 6.1 Life Cycle Costs Analysis - LCCs of a steel bridge deck in aggressive environment (class C5
EN ISO 12944) have been evaluated comparing EN 1.4462 duplex stainless steel grade with traditional
high strength structural steel S460. This investigation has been performed by CSM with the support of
OMBA and RWTH. Some difficulties in the comparison are highlighted:
- the evaluation of a consistent discount rate especially considering the long service life (100
years): in the present analysis two different discount rates are considered as boundary values for the
application;
- the variation of the price of duplex stainless steel: since 2001 the price changed from 3’000 €/t
to 5’500 €/t; and
- the evaluation in monetary terms of some effects of the material alternatives, in particular the
user cost related with reduced traffic or closure of the bridge during maintenance operations.
Taking into account all these limits of the LCCs evaluation the comparisons reported in Figure 6-3
show that initial investment cost of high performance material can be recovered for money savings
during service life when duplex cost is 3’000 €/t (2001 price). If the price reaches the level of 5’500 €/t
(2006 price) the LCC of the bridge is from 28% to 78% higher than using an S460 steel (depending on
discount rate variations), that is obtained considering duplex cost is 400% more than S460 steel and not
considering some advantages related with the use of duplex due to the difficulty of their monetary
evaluation (i.e. end user costs related with the bridge reduced capacity during maintenance operations).
From the comparison of two different discount rates the following observations arise: supposing the
price of duplex is 3’000 €/t as in 2001, considering the less favourable discount rate (3,0%) we obtained
quite same building cost at the end of service life while initial investment is recovered after about 50
years of service when considering a more favourable discount rate (1,5%).
In conclusion duplex stainless steel has many attractive characteristics for bridge construction:
corrosion resistance, high strength and also aesthetics ones. Technical feasibility has been demonstrated
for the specific application during the research project. Duplex stainless steel can be also economically
attractive when considering whole service life costs: initial capital expense is recovered after 50 years
of service, provided that producers can keep the price into the lower level of the last years
(i.e. 3’000 €/t).
Task 6.2 Suggestion for Eurocodes

Cyclic properties for fatigue design
• The fatigue strength of a detail category for duplex steel is at least equivalent to the one applicable to
C-steel and given in EN1993-1-9.
• Due to the nonlinear constitutive law of duplex steel, the fatigue strength is not independent of the
Young modulus when the stress range is based on strain measurements; therefore the need to
consider the influence of the Eα-modulus (used in the static analysis) on the results of the statistical
evaluation .
• Accordingly , the fatigue strength is given as:
∆σC,E = α ▪ ∆σC
where the fatigue strength ∆σC for E = 200 GPa is multiplied by an a factor:
α = Eα / 200000
10
Ultimate shear resistance - The test results are found conservative when compared to the nominal shear
resistance calculated based on both the specifications EN1993-1-5 for carbon steels and EN1993-1-4 for
stainless steels. EN1993-1-4 is however less conservative by about 15% than EN1993-1-5.
The statistical evaluation of the test results implemented by those especially documented obtained at
UPC confirms that the specifications of EN1993-1-5 may not be used for stainless steels (including
duplex steels) as far as design values are concerned.
In contrast, the same evaluation shows that the specifications of EN1993-1-4 which address especially
stainless steels are found appropriate whatever the type of construction: building or bridge.
Above conclusions are drawn based on a limited number of test results.
Material model - For the nonlinear material modelling EN1993-1-4 recommend the Ramberg-Osgood
equations with 0,002 yielding proof strain. We recommend to use a stress-strain law that account for a
not-fixed position of the yielding proof strain as it is the generalization of the Ramberg-Osgood-
Rasmussen material law in [68]. The material nonlinear parameters should be characterized by means of
a dedicated laboratory testing campaign.
WP7 Management & Reporting

Specific objectives of WP7 (Management & Reporting) are:
• to prepare the detailed project plan together with the task leaders.
• to compile six-monthly, mid term and final reports.
With the scope of monitoring the progress of the project and discuss results obtained and any eventual
corrective action no. 7 technical meetings have been organized in the frame of the project.
The meeting minutes have been prepared and circulated among the partners. The actions agreed during
meetings have been monitored and reported.
All technical and financial reports required in the Contract have been submitted in due time and ways.
Mid-term technical report has been also discussed at the TGS8 meeting held on May 2006 in Brussels.
Comments and suggestions coming from TGS8 experts were reported to the project partners and
implemented in the subsequent activities.
11
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE
RESULTS
1. OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

The objective of this project is to verify the technical and economical feasibility of welded bridge
construction using the EN 1.4462 duplex stainless steel grade and to give the first indications suitable to
provide the basis of an upgrade of Eurocode 3 towards the stainless steel bridges.
In particular, specific goals are:
- To define the Weld Technologies/Welding Procedure Specification for duplex stainless steel
bridges to achieve the performances required by this kind of welded structure;
- To evaluate mechanical and corrosion behaviour of the critical welded components by means of
mechanical and corrosion testing and numerical analysis. Data obtained are compared with the
experimental data already existing on traditional construction steels;
- To define possible suggestion in view of the Eurocode 3 revisions/implementation;
- To carry out detailed and reliable Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) on the basis of technical
information achieved, so as to acquire the basis for addressing the best material choice for the future
long span suspension bridges.
2. COMPARISON OF INITIALLY PLANNED ACTIVITIES AND WORK

ACCOMPLISHED
Major deviations from the activities planned in the Technical Annex to the contract are reported below:
Task 2.2 Welding processes and consumable selection

During activity performed in the frame of Task 1.3 conclusions by previous research works highlighted
the fatigue strength of the rib-to-deck joint significantly increases when using larger throat of the weld.
It was decided to evaluate the increase in fatigue resistance by using Laser Hybrid welding technique
which can allow for complete welding penetration on that joint. Experimental activity on the application
of laser hybrid GMAW technique to rib-to-deck joint has been performed by CSM
Task 3.1 Base mechanical properties

Since specifications for steelworks of steel bridges often requires CTOD tests on base material and
welded joints these extra tests have been performed by Industeel
Task 3.2 Buckling

One extra test was performed over the 2 initially planned (ULg).
Task 4.1 Tests with reference to the Euriocode 3 classification (small specimens)
Two of the eight components to be tested (details B.1 and B.2) became full scale components in
accordance with experimental activities performed in the past on similar components made of
traditional steels. Due to material/construction costs and testing costs the number of tests performed is
reduced to 15 per specimen instead of 30 tests originally planned (ULg and OMBA).
Task 4.2 Tests on mid-scale specimens

One extra test was performed over the 2 initially planned (CSM).
Task 5.2 Parametric study

An experimental campaign on material cyclic behaviour have been performed for the scope by CSM.
13
3. DESCRIPTION OF ACTIVITIES AND DISCUSSION
WP1 TUNE OF TEST CASES

Objectives
Aims of this WP are:
• to identify the bridge type and relevant components which to concentrate the study ;
• to collect experimental data on the tests (small scale and mid-scale) already developed on
similar structures made of carbon steel.
Comparison of initially planned activities and work accomplished

Activities planned in Task 1.1 (Bridge types identification) are completed, they consists of:
• Investigation and identification of the most significant bridge types and overview of the most
long suspended bridges in the world, selection of an existing bridge where to concentrate the
study on (OMBA);
• Overview of the maintenance aspects (CSM).
Activities planned in Task 1.2 (Critical details identification) are completed, they consists of:
• Individuation of the most critical bridge elements in term of design, construction and reparation
to be tested during the Project (OMBA);
• List of workshop operations and accommodation for duplex (OMBA);
• Distribution of testing on critical components among the Project partners (All)
Activities planned in Task 1.3 (Experimental data collection) are completed, they consists of:
• Overview of experimental data from literature concerning critical details selected in the
previous task (CSM, RWTH and ULg).
TASK 1.1 BRIDGE TYPES IDENTIFICATION

Overview of constructional bridge typologies
The very first distinction among bridge typologies is between roadway and railway bridges, due not
only to the different load conditions and internal forces the bridge is subjected but also to the very
different constructive characteristics consequently can be encountered.
Inside these two classes of bridges are several different constructive typologies characterized by the
maximum span length each typology can overpass in the more than possible economical way. The
significance herein given to the economic aspect is not only referred to the erecting cost but, also, at the
complete cost of the structure for the administration during the entire service life.
It is clear that for specific necessities of construction, of geometric dimensions and problems of layout,
can bring to particular constructive schemes also that ones out of the cost/benefits approach here
proposed. For example, the use of a cable-stayed bridge also for span length of about 50÷100 m can be
used to contain the girder height inside values of 1÷1,5 m. So similar necessities can give a positive
use for highway bridge, lower way bridges that bring to distance between intrados and extrados of about
0,5 m. Taking into account the possible exceptions, here a systematic overview of constructional
typologies is reported.
15
Table 1-1– Overview of roadway bridge typologies.
ROADWAY BRIDGES
Span from 10 to 50 m
Mixed steel-concrete upper way bridge, with double T girders (two or more). The main longitudinal
static scheme is of continuous beam. Regarding the transversal repartition of the vehicle loads, the
static scheme is based on grid of girders (main girders and transversal ones).

Mixed steel-concrete upper way bridge, with double T girders, usually with two beams. The main
longitudinal static scheme is a continuous beam. Regarding the transversal repartition of the vehicle
loads, the static scheme is based on a close box section girder, torsionally rigid (Theory of Bredt).

Completely steel made upper way bridge, said orthotropic deck bridge, usually with two girders. The
main longitudinal static scheme is at continuous beam. Regarding the transversal repartition of the
vehicle loads, the static scheme is based on a close box section girder, torsionally rigid (Theory of
Bredt).
Span from 70 to 300

Lower way bridge sustained by an arch structure, restrains at the end of the span.

As for the previous typology but middle (or upper) way bridge.
16
ROADWAY BRIDGES
Cable-stayed bridge with one or two towers; the bridge is sustained by cable connected at the pylons.
Span of more than 500 m

Cable-suspension bridge.
Table 1-2– Overview of railway bridge typologies.

RAILWAY BRIDGES
Mixed steel-concrete upper way bridge; main girders are usually close box section (lower part close or
with wind-bracing), closed in the upper part by a concrete slab. Indirect unballasted permanent way
type; the static scheme is, always, simple supported beam.
Steel made lower way bridge with reticular girder open at the upper part. Direct unballasted permanent
way type. The main static scheme is, always, simple supported beam.
17
RAILWAY BRIDGES
Steel made lower way bridge with reticular girder close at the upper part, with direct unballasted
permanent way or concrete slab. The static scheme is, always, simple supported beam.
The boom of great bridges of the 1990’s concerns long-span suspension bridges. Actually, the main
span length of cable-suspension bridges is nearing 2 km, which is currently more than twice that other
bridge types can reach. In Table 1-3 are reported the first ten long span bridges in the world, briefly
described below.
In Figure 1-1 the first two most long span bridges erected until today are shown.
Table 1-3 - First ten long span bridges in the world
Span Year of
Rank no. Bridge name Location
length construction
1 Akashi-Kaikyo 1991 m Kobe-Naruto, Japan 1997
2 Great Belt East 1624 m Korsør, Denmark 1998
3 Humber 1410 m Kingston-upon-Hull, UK 1981
4 Jiangyin 1385 m Jiangsu, China 1999
5 Tsing Ma 1377 m Hong Kong, China 1997
6 Varrazano-Narrows 1298 m New York, NY, USA 1964
7 Golden Gate 1280 m San Francisco, CA, USA 1937
8 Höga Kusten 1210 m Kramfors, Sweden 1997
9 Mackinac 1158 m Mackinaw City, MI, USA 1957
10 Minami Bisan-seto 1100 m Kojima-Sakaide, Japan 1988
Akashi-Kaikyo - It was built across the Akashi Straits, situated on the Kobe-Naruto Route, between
Honshu and Shikokoku Islands, Japan, south-west of Kobe City. The steel towers are 297 m high, the
steel truss deck accommodates 6 lanes for highway traffic, and the under clearance is 65 m. The deck
measures 35,5 x 14 m in cross sections and the two cables are 1122 m in diameter.
Great Belt East - Built in Denmark, the concrete towers are 254 m tall and the steel box girder deck
31 x 4 m. The under clearance 65 m.
Humber - It was built across the Humber Estuary at Kingston-upon-Hull, Britain. The deck is 4,5 m
high, 22 m wide and 28,5 m wide in all including the cantilevers for light traffic; the under clearance
30 m.
18
Jiangyin - In Jiangsu Province of China, over the Yangzi River, the bridge has concrete towers 196 m in
height. The width of the deck is 32,5 m between hangers, accommodating 6 traffic lanes and the overall
width is 36,9 m with a 2,2 m walkway at each outside; the under clearance is 50 m.
Tsing Ma - It was built in Hong Kong and it leads to the new Chek Lap Kok Airport. The bridge has
two cables 1100 m in diameter, the deck 41 x 7,3 m is a combination of a steel truss and a steel box
girder construction. The upper level accommodates 6 lanes for highway traffic. The under clearance is
62 m and the concrete towers are 206 m tall.
Varrazano-Narrows - It was completed in November 1964 at the entrance of the Port of New York. The
steel towers bridge are 210 m tall and it has four cables, each 90 cm in diameter, and two traffic levels
totalling 12 lines. The cross-section of the steel truss deck measures 31,4 x 7,3 m and the under
clearance is 69 m.
Golden Gate - The Golden Gate Bridge is situated at the entrance of the San Francisco Bay. The bridge
has six traffic lanes, and pedestrian/bicycle lanes at both sides. The steel truss deck measures 27,4 x 7,6
m, and the under clearance is 67 m; the tower are 227 m and the two cables measure 90 cm in diameter.
Höga Kusten - It was built across the Ångerman River in Sweden. It has concrete towers, 180 m in
height and a steel box girder deck 22 x 4 m in cross-section. The under clearance is 40 m.
Mackinac - It was built across the Mackninac Straits in Michigan, between Lake Michigan and Lake
Huron, with an overall length of 5,8 km. The steel towers are 168 m tall and the steel truss deck
measures 20,7 x 11,7 m and the under clearance is 45 m.
Minami Bisan-seto - It was completed between Honshu and Shikoku Islands, along the Kojima-Sakaide
Route in Japan and it is one of the three large suspension bridges on this route. The steel towers are of
different height, 194 m and 186 m. The steel truss deck measures 30 x 13 m and the under clearance is
65 m. The bridge has two cables 1070 m in diameter.
(a) (b)
Figure 1-1: Akashi Kaikyo Bridge and Storebaelt East Bridge
The most long span suspension bridges with central span length more long in the world (the Akashi
Kaikyo bridge, with central span of 1991 m and the Storebaelt East bridge, with central span of 1624
m), finished at about one year time distance each other, are representative of two different constructive
typologies: the Akashi Kaikyo bridge presents a reticular box section of remarkable dimensions h=14 m
x b=35,5 m, while the Storebaelt East bridge presents a box stiffened plate section of dimensions h=4 m
x b=31 m.
(a) (b)
Figure 1-2: Bridge sections: (a) Akashi Kaikyo Bridge, (b) Storebaelt East Bridge
19
It is in evidence that these two bridges, due to the shape of deck cross-sections shown in Figure 1-2,
have two very different design concepts due to different flexural and torsional stiffeners and,
consequently, with regard to the response at the wind action.
Herein are discussed some constructive aspects of bridges, essentially to be set in the second type of the
above bridge categories (box stiffened plate section), actually particularly interesting also for the
application to the Messina Strait bridge that, with a span length of about 3300 m, represents the
executive design of a suspended bridge with central span longest in the world.
It is important to note that with a similar constructive technique (box stiffened plate section), are
realized bridges with medium length of span (over 100 m), as girder type and cable-stayed type.
As regard the steel used to realize a bridge, it is to say that exist minimum dimensions and relative
thickness, to assign to the deck sections, conditioned by stability and aerodynamic problems, and also
by maximum stress relating to the number of fatigue cycles of welded details, so, usually, it doesn’t
permit to employ conveniently the high strength steels (fy ≥ 355 N/mm2).
As known the characteristic design curves that furnish the values of ∆σ depending by the number of
cycles (Wöhler curves), for the welded details do not vary with the strength of the steel; so, the ∆σ
doesn’t change for high elastic limit steel, respect the correspondent carbon type steel S355.
Bridge decks are generally made of steel grade S355 J2G3, except for special secondary elements and
in localized zones. Also in these cases the minimum thickness for fatigue must be guaranteed.
Only in some special situations high strength steels, as grade S460 (fy ≥ 460 N/mm2) or S690 (fy ≥
690 N/mm2) of thermo Mechanical type ML, should be considered helpful. For example when great
span bridge and/or width is designed to have high movable loads by traffic and trains.
The considerations herein exposed for these steels, for a short exposition, do not consider particular
load conditions, as for example exceptional seismic action or great traffic load and/or exceptional rail
load, that could verify only few times in the whole service life of the bridge but, considering them, they
could bring to useless over dimension respect the dimensions reflecting the current loads; in this latter
case, the use of high elastic limit steel could permit a design that arise, economically and with optimum
weight, simultaneously the fatigue resistance and the strength resistance and so the full employment of
the superior mechanic characteristics.
Maintenance aspects
Looking at the aggressiveness of sites, EN ISO 12944 Standard [1] classifies five different growing
levels, from C1 to C5. C5 comprises also a marine site with presence of aggressive pollutants, as the
environment of suspension bridges in Japan, in Hong Kong and of the future Messina Strait Bridge can
be classified.
Corrosion rate of carbon steel in C5 sites is very significant and expected around 80-200µm/year. As a
consequence, to preserve the structure costly measures as long lasting painting coating of both external
and internal surfaces and/or continuous dehumidification of closed volumes (with R.U. 60%
weathering corrosion rate is practically suppressed) are used. In Table 1-4 an example of presently used
protective coating system is reported it is a three layer system .
Table 1-4: Paint system for general external surface, corrosion category C 5.
External Surfaces
Surface Preparation:
Abrasive blast clean to Sa2.5 (ISO 8501 [2]).
Coating System:
1st Coat: Epoxy Zinc Rich Primer to 60 µm d.f.t.
2nd Coat: Epoxy MIO to 200 µm d.f.t.
3rd Coat: Polyurethane Finish to 60 µm d.f.t.
or alternatively
3rd Coat: Acrylic Polysiloxane Finish to 60 µm d.f.t.
20
Table 1-5: Paint system for general internal surface, corrosion category C 5.
Internal Surfaces
Surface Preparation:
Abrasive blast clean to Sa2.5 (ISO 8501 [2]).
Coating System:
1st Coat: Epoxy Zinc Rich Primer to 60 µm d.f.t.
2nd Coat: Epoxy MIO to 200 µm d.f.t.
d.f.t. = dry film thickness
Choice of the bridge: the Verrand viaduct

As a result of the overview of the most significant bridge typologies the continuous beam closed box
girder is identified as the most interesting for the scope of this project: that bridge typology contains all
the critical welded details of the other bridge typologies and some other specific of orthotropic deck
bridge.
The existing bridge chosen to have a comparison between the utilization of carbon steel and duplex
stainless steel, considering the entire service life and have an accurate evaluation of the Life Cycle Cost
(LCC), is the Verrand viaduct. It falls in the classification of continuous beam, closed box section girder
(Table 1-1).
The Verrand viaduct is part of the Mont Blanc-Aosta highway, of R.A.V. (Valley of Aosta highways)
S.p.A. (Rome), in the 3rd building lot, Mont Blanc Tunnel-Morgex. The finishing of this part has permit
to go at the Tunnel with a completely highway broad.
In particular, the viaduct is located at Prè Saint Didier (AO), near Courmayeur, at a side of just existing
S.S.26 (Mont Blanc Tunnel-Aosta) and it is necessary to overpass the valley between the country way
and the Dora Baltea river. As we say afterwards, talking about the design project choose, the
geographical situation of the location has mostly of all controlled the piers positioning and, following,
the bridge spans, leaving the total length about at 600 m and the same planimetric and altimetric design
of the viaduct. The area interested by the highway floor system, between the SS 26 and the Dora Baltea
river, presents superior gradients to the 100 m with 100% order inclinations; the highway is at high
from the ground variable, until a maximum of 50 m.
Since the piers foundations under the way, as for the high of themselves as the ground nature
(continuous girders static scheme), request the realization of long wells over 30 m, it was necessary to
create special operas to protect and fortify the ground.
In conclusion, the viaduct needed the realizations of long length span, to have few intermediate piers, as
for geodetics problems as to leave untouched the environmental and panoramic view: the Dora Baltea
valley (Figure 1-3).
21
Figure 1-3: Verrand viaduct view
The viaduct is constituted by four intermediary piers in armed concrete, of varying height over 40 m,
found upon wells of foundation, from two abutments of extremity and from a metallic floor system
entirely (orthotropic deck plate) of the width of 19,75 m (for the first three spans, side Mont Blanc) and
varying linearly in widening actually to 20,966 m in correspondence of the abutment in Aosta side, to
continuous girder to five spans, with span length equal to 97,5 m for the two end spans and 135 m for
the three intermediate spans, for a general length equal to 600 m, in axe support.
The road layout introduces rectilinear course for the inclusive line among the abutment A (side Mont
Blanc) the pier P1, the pier P2 and until to 35 m from the pier P3 and curvilinear course between the
pier P3, the pier P4 and the abutment B. The longitudinal middle inclination, constant, is equal to 3,5%.
The following descriptions refer to the constructive project that also differs from the executive project
for some remarkable details. The metallic floor system, of the orthotropic plate type, is constituted by
two principal girders, of constant height equal to 5,5 m for the line in rectilinear, of T section shape
upset, prepared to a distance of 11,166 m, welded to the superior plate, wide 19,75 m (until 20,966 m,
as say), reinforced with longitudinal and transverse stiffening, with a series of vertical reticular
diaphragms and from an inferior horizontal bracing.
The variation of transversal inclination, from the line of floor system straight on to that in curve, is
gotten with rotation of the superior base maintaining the horizontal fund, getting so two different
heights for the main girders.
The constructive typology of the superior orthotropic plate is "classical", for this type of application: the
plate of floor system is stiffened in longitudinal sense by cold formed profiles to form trapezoidal
longitudinal stiffeners, settled in continuous to the plate, so that to form closed section stiffeners; the
width of the superior side of the trapeze measures around 300 mm with a distance of 600 mm between
the close section stiffeners and an equal distance of 300 mm for the lines of plate stiffening.
The plate is transversally stiffened by composed profiles to web floor, to T upset of height 1200 mm,
settled to the longitudinal stiffeners and the plate between distance of 3250 mm (for the lateral spans)
and of 3114 mm (for the central spans).
The thickness of the superior plate is equal to 12 mm, except for the elements across the piers where the
thickness is varying and it assumes the maximum value of 16 mm.
The structure is conceived in exercise as a torsion-rigid close section like that studied by Bredt with the
webs of the metallic girder, the superior plate and the inferior pylon, made equivalent to a plate of
opportune thickness (Figure 1-4).
The vertical diaphragms, at distance of 9,75 m (lateral spans) and 9,342 m (middle spans) assure the
maintenance of form of the section. The global static scheme, as says, is of continuous girder on six
supports (Figure 1-5). The webs of the main girders are endowed with stiffeners, both longitudinal and
transversal, in relationship to the stability verifications also in phase of launching.
22
Figure 1-4: Orthotropic deck section
Given the important width of the road base, a double roadway, the evaluation of the static
characteristics of the various sections are gotten considering a reduction of deck width acting with the
webs, opportunely keeping in mind the effect of “shear lag”.
From the analysis of the internal forces of the plate floor system, it was seen that the various
components are stressed by a combination of effects for the various functions expounded in relationship
to the applied loads. For computational convenience, it is useful to separately treat the followings three
structural systems:
I system: the main girders and the relative part of deck (plate plus ribs) acting with the section, in
a global behavior;
II system: the deck constituted by the secondary girders of floor system (longitudinal and
transversal reinforcements) and the relative plate, bound to the main girders on which
the loads act on the deck;
III system: the deck plate, calculated as continuous element, that sustains the assembled loads
(wheels of the vehicles) acting between the ribs and transmits the reactions to the ribs
themselves.
Figure 1-5: Lateral view, plan and sections
23
For the evaluation of the internal forces and their combination it is made reference to the classical
treatments on the matter. The state of final stress configuration results from the overlap of the three
preceding systems, with some instructions as regards the resistance criterions, with the purpose to
adequately take in account some reserves of resistance of the orthotropic plates and of the real static
behavior.
As regard the stability verification of the plate it is possible to use charts specifically devoted to the
matter.
The internal forces in the resistant section are calculated considering the close longitudinal section
stiffeners acting with their geometry for the local and global verifications of resistance.
The elements in which the viaduct is divided have length equal to 22,5 m, the elements in extremity of
length equal to 20 m and of the general number of 27 m for a total length of the viaduct equal to 600 m.
The floor system was prefabricated in shop in panels of length equal to the elements, and of width equal
to 2,75 or 3 m; nine panels for each element. The elements are composed, apart from the panels, from
the constituent diaphragms and the inferior horizontal wind-bracings. The assemblage of the panels in
the yard was realized with junctions settled as it regards the joints of the plate (both longitudinal as
transversal), the longitudinal and transversal joints of web and the joints of the inferior part of the main
girders (Figure 1-6).
Figure 1-6: Assemblage of the panels in yard
TASK 1.2 CRITICAL DETAILS IDENTIFICATION

Bridge components description
Herein an overview of typical geometric characteristics of the components for the selected bridge
typology (continuous beam, closed box section) are reported.
Sections - The typology of bridge herein considered, similar of suspended bridge formed by close
section box girder with steel sheets, is characterized by a constant section, as regard the shape and
geometrical dimensions, for the all length of the suspended bridge. Generally, the geometrical shape of
the transversal section is determined by the bridge length, also accounting the aerodynamic behaviour,
depending by the central span and lateral ones, and also by the maximum velocity of the wind in the
principal direction depending to the zone of realization of the bridge.
The section, although the specific situation of the various realizations, generally is an irregular eight
faces solid with the superior edges faces with an angular near 180° and forming, for this typology, the
roadway, or sometimes the railway.
24
The bottom of the section, is horizontal; the four lateral sides are connected each other to have,
essentially the best aerodynamic behaviour of the section.
Where the aerodynamic stability problems aren’t of importance for the bridge design, generally for the
medium span bridges (where usually the width of the resistant section is more great that the height), the
transversal section can be simplify assuming a shape of irregular five edges solid or rectangular shape
or square shape with symmetry axes (trapezoidal box girder).
Not considering the special sections, generally identified in correspondence to the transversal restrains
(horizontal), in correspondence of the suspension pylons and that in correspondence of the anchorage
blocks of the suspension cables (sections typically of the final parts of a suspended bridge completed by
the lateral spans), the typical sections of a suspended cables bridge are constituted by panels stiffened
by two orders of stiffening connected by welding (orthotropic deck).
The resulting bridge is completely monolithic, with joints, executed as in shop as in yard, all of weld
types, for the request of more than possible reduction of weight, maintenance and durability.
In many other cases, for example, for a girder bridge, the joints in yard can be executed using high
resistance bolts, as for slip resistance connection as for shear connection.
Deck and main girders - The box girders are realized with steel sheets of small thickness, 12 mm for the
deck, 8-10 mm for the other parts for steel bridge. Otherwise, in the case of railway bridges, particular
and specific constructive details have to be adopted and more great thickness values (14÷16 mm),
relating to the specific movable loads and eventually to the necessity to put a ballast (obviously not in
the case of suspended bridge where the permanent loads are of fundamental importance).
Transversal and longitudinal stiffeners - Usually a box girder is monocellular, with transversal ribs
disposed at a distance from 3 to 4 m and diaphragms at the same distance of the ribs or twice or three
times that distance, relating to the specific erecting need. A diaphragm can be truss type, for section of
height over 2,5 or 3 m, or full web height for section of inferior height; in this latter case the
diaphragms and the ribs are in the same positions.
The box girder sides are all stiffened by longitudinal stiffening, continuous in correspondence of the
transversal ribs, positioned at a variable step in relation to the main function that they must absolve:
sustain directly the transversal loads (deck stiffening), give stability to the plate under in plane load
(lateral side and bottom). The longitudinal stiffening, as said, although they have geometrical
characteristics different relating to the function to be absolved, have all, generally, a trapezoidal shape,
realized from a planar sheet, so to form, after the welding operation, a close section. The final close
section is certainly that which furnishes the better behaviour, considering the following parameters:
span, high bending-torsional rigidity, minimum numbers of longitudinal welds at parity of stiffening
planes so to minimize the distortions (deformations derived from the welds).
The close sections stiffening the deck are spaced transversally at a distance of about 600 mm and have
the upper base, individuated by the deck closed between the two oblique lateral sides, of width equal to
the mean distance (300 mm).
The close sections stiffening of the lateral sides and the bottom have always trapezoidal shape, as said,
but they present ratio between upper base and distance doesn’t respecting a single rule; to have a
numerical indication, the distance between ribs can be 1000 mm and about 500 mm the major base
dimension. The ratio between the bottom and the lateral sides of a box girder, is clearly indicative of
projects in which it is considered as fundamental parameter the low weight of the bridge, although at a
cost of constructive realization complex realizable only through constructive procedures very accurate
and assuming, for the welded composite elements, tolerances of planarity, equal to that of the primitive
sheets.
The longitudinal stiffening of close sections permit distance of transversal ribs of 3 or 4 m; the ribs have
the double function of stiffening the transversal sections of the bridge (it must be guarantee, in first
approximation, the conservation of the angles between the sides, considering also the torsional internal
forces) forming constrains (sustains) for the longitudinal stiffeners. In Figure 1-7 an example of girder
with open section transversal stiffeners and an example of close section longitudinal stiffeners are
reported.
25
Figure 1-7: Transversal (left) and longitudinal (right) stiffeners
Diaphragms (or crossbeams) - In the cable sustained bridge, the main diaphragms are disposed each
other 3÷4 times the distance between the transversal ribs and are suspended at the end of the
suspension cables. So, these main diaphragms constitute the diaphragms of “vertical sustains” of the
bridge.
The transversal diaphragms, can be as truss structure in the case of the sections of the greater
dimensions (H2,50 m) or full web panel height for the smaller ones. In these reticular diaphragms,
are positioned transversal ribs of T section along the inner perimeter of the section to form a transversal
frame.
Inside this frame is realized a reticular girder of triangular shape (Figure 1-8), usually without excessive
beams, with elements constituted by circular or squared shape profiles, to optimise the weight, the
number of welds to connect the joints and the surfaces to protect relating to the global mass.
Figure 1-8: Diaphragms
Critical details
The choice of an orthotropic deck steelbridge represents in many case the most interesting solution; in
the construction of a bridge, by prefabricated girder elements, part of connections are realized in
workshop with welded joints and part in yard with welded or bolted joints. The connections of the deck
(superior flange of girders) are, always, welded in yard, while other elements can be welded or bolted.
For these bridge types, of very light weight, with welded joints in yard, subjected to static forces with
an important use of the material characteristics, it is important to give attention to the fatigue
phenomena.
In Figure 1-9a), are reported part of the section of an orthotropic deck bridge with the deck stiffened by
close section ribs and transverse stiffeners (T sections) with bolted joints; wind cross-bracing and
diaphragms are realized with angular profiles and T bolted. The static scheme is of continuous girder
upon more sustains.
The portions of deck are connected each other with butt welds using ceramic supports (to avoid the
reverse weld). The welding procedure is in this case mixed (semi-automatic MAG–FCAW for the first
pass and automatic SAW for fill).
Edges are lined up using welded elements (“clamp”), to sustain the ceramic plate, bolted at studs
welded in the intrados of the deck near the aligned edges.
26
In the correspondence of the transversal welding of the orthotropic deck, must be restored the continuity
of the trapezoidal close section stiffeners, for the double stiffening of the deck, with the application of
an insertion of trapezoidal ribs, welded in yard with a support of a plate (Figure 1-9b).
a) b)
Figure 1-9: a) Transversal sections view. Connection with the insertion of trapezoidal ribs. b) Detail
Referring to Figure 1-10, the following critical welded details and welding techniques are reported:
Pos. 1: Automatic welding or semi-automatic submerged arch (SAW) and manual with animate
wire (FCAW) or full wire (MAG) under the gas protection in butt weld over a ceramic
plate supporting the deck;
Pos. 2: Automatic welding with submerged arch for full penetrating weld trapezoidal close
section stiffener to deck;
Pos. 3: Automatic welding for the studs gun to anchored the clamps for the alignment of the
deck edges;
Pos. 4: Semiautomatic GMAW or manual SMAW for the butt weld of trapezoidal close section
ribs stiffening the deck plate;
Pos. 5: Semiautomatic GMAW or electrode manual welding for the fillet weld of the
trapezoidal close section rib to the web of the transversal T section stiffener.
Pos. 6: Submerged arch automatic welding for the fillet weld of the stiffening plate to the web
girder;
Pos. 7: Electrode manual welding for the fillet weld of the stiffening plate to the web of the
transversal T section stiffener;
Pos. 8: Electrode manual welding of final parts of lower flange of the transversal T section
stiffener to the web of main girders;
Pos. 9: Submerged arch automatic welding and electrode manual welding for fillet weld;
Pos. 10: Submerged arch automatic welding for the fillet weld of trapezoidal close section rib to
the girder web;
Pos. 11: Semiautomatic GMAW or manual SMAW for butt welds of trapezoidal close section
longitudinal stiffeners;
Pos. 12: Electrode manual welding for the fillet weld of the end to double the lower flange;
Pos. 13: Electrode manual welding with animate wire under protective gas for full penetration
butt welds of lower flanges;
Pos. 14: Electrode manual welding for the fillet weld of web transversal ribs to lower flange.
27
Figure 1-10: Welded details to check in fatigue verification
Critical welded details in orthotropic deck bridges are comprehensive of the possible welded details in
the mixed steel-concrete bridges (except for the studs-upper flange welded detail for the concrete slab
anchorage). The welded details chosen for the fatigue tests are reported in the following Table 1-6.
They are the welded particulars more employed in the assembly of a metal bridge (Figure 1-11). These
critical bridge components are selected with the scope of experimental evaluation of them mechanical
and corrosion behaviour for both static and dynamic conditions.
Table 1-6: Selected critical welded details

ID Specimen Description
Ends of longitudinal
A.1
stiffeners.
Transverse splices in
plates and flats
REQUIREMENTS :
- all welds groud flush to
plate surface parallel to
direction of the arrow
A.2 - weld run-on and run-off
pieces to be used and
subsequently removed,
plate edges to be ground
flush in direction of stress
- welded from both side:
checked by NDT
A.3 Transversal stiffeners
28
ID Specimen Description
Rib-to-deck longitudinal
load carrying automatic
arc submerged weld
A.4
(SAW). Stress at the weld
throat due to bending of
transversal beam.
(before welding) (after welding)
A.5
Threaded studs for

assembly only. Automatic
A.6 arc stud welding. Fatigue
check is needed if studs
will not be taken out.
Rib-to-transverse beam
GMAW fillet welded joint.
B.1
Stresses due to bending
of the rib.
Rib-to-rib transversal
GMAW butt welded joint
B.2 with support plate.
Stresses due to bending
of the rib.
29
Figure 1-11: Some welded details in the Verrand viaduct’s section
The critical bridge components in Table 1-6 are selected with the scope of experimental evaluation of
them mechanical and corrosion behaviour for both static and dynamic conditions. The distribution of
testing activities among the Project partners is reported in Table 1-7 as agreed during one of the Project
meetings:
Table 1-7: Distribution of testing activities among the Project partners.
Partner Detail
CSM Fatigue mid-scale (Task 4.2)
OMBA Fatigue A6 and B2 (Task 4.1)
Base mechanical properties (tensile test, Charpy V,

INDUSTEEL CTOD, etc.), corrosion and corrosion fatigue (Task 3.1,
3.3 and 4.3)
RWTH Fatigue A1, A2, A3 and A5 (Task 4.1)
Fatigue A4 and B1 and Shear buckling tests (Task 4.1

ULg
and 3.2)
30
TASK 1.3 EXPERIMENTAL DATA COLLECTION
Ultimate shear resistance of plate girder
The bibliographic research concerning experimental data on ultimate shear resistance (Vult) of plate
girders made of both carbon steel and stainless steel is reported.
In Figure 1-12 the scheme of a typical ultimate shear resistance test is shown: the specimen is a two
welded panel girder, simply supported at the ends and the load is concentrated between the two panels,
where vertical stiffeners are, simulating bridge load.
The stiffener of the flanges contributes to the ultimate shear resistance of the web and shall be taken
into account in the evaluation of experimental data.
Symbols used in the report are explained in Figure 1-12.
Figure 1-12: Scheme of ultimate shear resistance test on welded plate girder.
The literature research has resulted in a large amount of data, as summarized in Table 1-8, but only a
few of those are related to stainless steel girders. It means that the present design methods are
established especially on the basis of traditional carbon steel behaviour although stainless steel has
clearly different mechanical properties related to its anisotropic and nonlinear behaviour.
With the scope of comparing data coming from different specimens the Vult value have been normalised
with the web thickness tw and reported with respect of aspect ratio a/hw, where a is the panel width and
hw is the web height, as shown in Figure 1-12.
The value of the nominal plastic moment of a cross section consisting of the flanges only (Mf), is
reported too, as a measure of the contribution of flange stiffness:
Mf = bf · tf · fyf · (hw + tf) [kN m]
where bf is flange width, tf is flange thickness and fyf is the yielding stress of flanges.
Geometrical ranges investigated:

No. of experimental results collected per
specimen type Geometrical Stainless
C steels
characteristics steels
Carbon steel plate girders 96 tw [mm] 1 – 10 4
Austenitic 1.4301 plate girders 15 hw [mm] 250 – 1300 150 – 800
Duplex 1.4462 plate girders 4 aspect ratio a/hw 0,5 – 15 1 - 3,25
Table 1-8: Summary of experimental data collected
31
Data on carbon steel girders collected by Davies and Griffith [9] are shown in Figure 1-13 and Table
1-9. The data are reported in a format allowing for an highlighting of flange contribution.
Both effects of flanges and material grade are reported: Vult increases with Mf and, when Mf is constant,
Vult increases with the strength grade of the web fy.
Figure 1-13: Experimental data collected on carbon steel plate girders. Ultimate shear resistance,
normalized with the web thickness, vs. aspect ratio.
Few data on stainless steel girders have been collected too and showed in Figure 1-14 and Table 1-10.
All the data refers to 4mm web thickness so as the normalization of Vult with respect to tw have the sense
of comparing stainless steel data with carbon steel data in Figure 1-13.
Figure 1-14: Experimental data collected on stainless steel plate girders. Ultimate shear resistance,
normalized with the web thickness, vs. aspect ratio. Data from [3], [4] and [5].
32
Table 1-9: Experimental data on carbon steel plate girders collected by Davies and Griffith [9].
33
Table 1-10: Experimental data on stainless steel plate girders from [3], [4] and [5].
Figure 1-15: Comparison of data concerning both C steel and stainless steel plate girders.
34
Fatigue of orthotropic deck
Data on different details of the orthotropic bridge deck made of ‘traditional’ steels are reported below.
They are extracted by the published reports of a joint research project carried out in the period 1986 till
1995 and partially funded by the ECSC. That project was focused on fatigue behaviour of orthotropic
steel decks.
As far as possible four different stages in fatigue failure are expressed in number of cycles:
N1 crack detection by strain gauge
N2 first visible crack
N3 measurable change in stiffness of the specimen, or 25 mm long crack
N4 end of test with extensive through cross section cracking
• Detail A.4 - Stiffener-to-deck joint

With reference to the work carried out by Bignonnet et al. [12] and Bruls et al. [11] the specimen made
of steel grade S355 (Fe510) were automatic submerged arc welded (SAW) and tests were carried out in
a fatigue rig schematically reported in Figure 1-16, the geometrical dimensions are reported in Table
1-11. The experimental data concerning tests performed by the CRIF [14] on manually welded
stiffener-to-deck joint are used for comparison.
Figure 1-16: Fatigue testing arrangement for stiffener-to-deck joint.
Table 1-11: Details of stiffener-to-deck joint specimen from literature.
Geometrical dimensions [mm] CRIF [14] ULg [11] IRSID [12]

Deck plate thickness td 12 12 12
Stiffener thickness ts 6 6 6
B 300 300 322
Stiffener width
b 109 109 212
Stiffener height h 250 250 226
Location of the load L 85 85
S1 335 335 335
Location of the support
S2 337 335 335
Welding parameters
Welding technique Manual Automatic SAW Automatic SAW
Stiffener to deck gap e < 0,5 < 0,5 0 or 2
Lack of penetration 3,0 4,5 1,5 2,5 1
Throat of the weld 3,5 4,5 4,7 6 5,5 6,5
Edge preparation no no no
35
Static tests and strain gauge measurements were carried out to determine stress distribution in the
specimen. The nominal stresses to be used in the fatigue S-N curves were derived by linear
extrapolation from the strain gauge measurements.
Figure 1-17: Points of fatigue crack initiation at the stiffener-to-deck joint
Fatigue crack occurred (see Figure 1-17):

− Point A: from the weld toe on the deck plate, developing in the deck plate when the lack of
penetration <= 1mm; or
− Point D: from the weld root in the stiffener, developing in the weld throat.
It is important for a consistent comparison of the data to define the path where to derive the nominal
stress range, by means of linear interpolation. Two different choices are possible:
− nominal stress in point A linearly derived by strain gauge measurements in deck plate; or
− nominal stress in point D linearly derived by strain gauge measurements in the web of the
stiffener.
The first choice will lead to a higher fatigue classification due to the fact that stresses in the deck are
generally higher than in the rib.
In the following Figure experimental data are reported in terms of nominal stress range linearly derived
by measurements in the web of the rib: the effect of penetration depth is evident.
Figure 1-18: Constant amplitude fatigue tests on stiffener-to-deck joint.
36
The data obtained were statistically evaluated and the following fatigue classes were obtained:
− Manual welded detail (lack of penetration 3-4,5mm) FAT 71
− Automatic welded detail (lack of penetration 1-2,5mm) FAT 114
The fatigue classification of EC3 is conservative with respect of these results:

− lack of penetration > 2,0mm FAT 50
− lack of penetration <= 2,0mm FAT 71
Moreover EC3 classification takes into account other parameters such as gap before welding and throat
of the weld while the first was found not effecting the experimental data reported and the second could
be regarded as directly dependent on the depth of penetration.
Conclusions by previous research works - The gap before welding (0 or 2mm) was found not effecting
the fatigue behaviour of the welded joint while the fatigue strength significantly increases when using
submerged arc welding with larger penetration and larger throat of the weld (data on manual arc
welding from the work carried out by Janss [14] and Maddox [13] were used for comparison).
Tests conducted by IRSID on specimens with lower lack of penetration (<1mm) and higher throat
thickness resulted in crack initiation and propagation in the deck plate leading to a longer fatigue life.
Due to the sensitivity of stiffener-to-deck welded joint on penetration depth it is decided to evaluate the
increase in fatigue resistance by using Laser Hybrid welding technique which can allow for complete
welding penetration.
Table 1-12: Constant amplitude fatigue tests on stiffener-to-deck joint.
37
• Detail B.1 - Stiffener-to-crossbeam joint: out of plane behaviour
Continuous stiffeners pass trough cut-outs in the crossbeam and, due to fabrication needs, cope holes
are provided around the soffit of the stiffeners, so that the welds are made on the stiffener webs only. At
the edge of cut-outs high stresses are reached and several different studies were carried out to reduce
stress concentration by improving cut-outs shape.
The rib-to-crossbeam connection is subjected to the combination of stresses due to longitudinal path
along the stiffener (out of plane behaviour) and transversal path through the web of the crossbeam (in
plane behaviour), so this joint can be regarded as one of the more critical among the orthotropic deck
ones.
Fatigue tests performed by TRRL and TUDelft are reported. Mention is done to tests preformed by LBF
concerning in-plane behaviour.
The number of data provided on fatigue resistance of rib-to-crossbeam joint for out of plane behaviour
can not allow for a statistical analysis, except in the case of triangular stiffeners, no longer used in
bridge construction, that was classified as FAT 80. It is in accordance with Eurocode 3 classification.
Out of plane behaviour In plane behaviour

L.B.F.
Figure 1-19: Fatigue testing arrangements for stiffener-to-crossbeam joint.
Table 1-13: Details of stiffener-to-crossbeam joint specimen from literature.
TRRL TUDelft LBF

Steel grade S355 S355 (Fe510) S355
6mm single pass manual
Welding technique Manual
metal arc welding
Rib section triangular trapezoidal trapezoidal
Rib thickness 6 6 6
Deck thickness 12 12 12
Crossbeam
10 10 10
thickness
38
Figure 1-20: Constant amplitude fatigue tests on rib-to-crossbeam joint.
• B.2 - Stiffener-to-stiffener joint

Stiffener to stiffener connection is performed on site in positions where deck modular units, generally
25 m long, shall be connected (Figure 1-21).
Figure 1-21: On field connection of deck modular units.
Presently this detail is classified as FAT 71 in Eurocode 3.
This detail seems to be the most tested for fatigue as resulted by the amount of data and different
research centres involved. Here below the more recent research are reported in detail but a wider
overview is reported in Figure 1-26.
General testing arrangement for fatigue test of stiffener-to-stiffener joint is reported in Figure 1-22.
39
Figure 1-22: Testing arrangement for fatigue tests on stiffener-to-stiffener joint.
Fatigue tests performed by T.U. Pisa are reported here below. Specimens were made of steel grade Fe
510 C as base material. Specimens were composed of triangular rib 6 mm thick welded to 12 mm thick
top plate with width equal to inter-axis of ribs in actual orthotropic panels.
Four point bending rig was used for the testing ensuring the desired stress field in the stiffener joint.
Two different joint types were tested:
− Type I joint: with backing strip. Root Gap 6mm. Edge prep 45. 6 passes in overhead position.
− Type II joint: butt weld with complete penetration. Root Gap 2mm. Edge prep 60. inside5
passes in overhead position. Outside 2 passes in flat position.
Figure 1-23: Details of joints tested by T.U. Pisa (Type I joint is up and Type II is down) and T.U.
Delft.
Each test was stopped when an increase of 1 cm in the maximum deflection was reached (loss of
stiffness), or when 8 million of cycles had been completed.
Nominal stress range at the lower part of the weld linearly derived by two strain gauge measurements at
15mm and 45mm by the toe of the weld.
In the most part of the specimens failure occurred for cracks initiation and propagation in the weld,
starting from the apex of the rib while in few cases crack initiated in the parent material at the apex of
the rib and propagated in the plate. In one case only three longitudinal cracks appeared in the top plate,
two at the position of the rib-to-top plate connections and the third in the middle of the plate.
40
Table 1-14: Constant amplitude fatigue tests performed by T.U. Pisa on stiffener-to-stiffener joint.
Fatigue tests performed by T.U. Delft are reported here below. Specimens were made of steel grade Fe
510 as base material. Specimens were composed of trapezoidal rib 6 mm thick welded to 12 mm thick
top plate with width equal to inter-axis of ribs in actual orthotropic panels.
Four point bending rig was used for the testing ensuring the desired stress field in the stiffener joint.
Two different joint types were tested:
• Type A joint: with varying root gap (0, 2 and 4mm)
• Type D joint: butt splice with a V-groove and backing strips (root gap 4mm)
As far as possible four different stages in fatigue failure are expressed in number of cycles:
N1 crack detection by strain gauge: 10% reduction in strain measured by the gauge nearest to the
crack
N2 first visible crack
N3 surface crack length of 50 mm
N4 end of test with extensive through cross section cracking and/or loss of symmetry
Each test specimen was instrumented with 9 to 52 different strain gauges to check applied stress range
and obtain information about crack initiation.
The normal stress in the bottom of the rib at the middle of the splice (pure bending stress) was chosen
as the representative nominal stress.
Crack initiate in the weld between the rib and the splice plate, in most cases just above the bend at the
bottom of the rib (stresses 20% lower than in the middle of the bottom weld), and propagated more in
the side weld than in the bottom weld.
Some cracked specimens were cut open and inspection revealed local defects at unexpected crack
initiation point, such as bad penetration and slag inclusions.
Furthermore 4 variable amplitude fatigue tests were performed.
41
Table 1-15: Constant amplitude fatigue tests performed by T.U. Delft on stiffener-to-stiffener joint.
Figure 1-24: Constant amplitude fatigue tests performed by T.U. Pisa and T.U. Delft on stiffener-to-
stiffener joint.
Conclusions by previous works - Root gap is effecting fatigue performances: not enough root gap (<
3mm) can cause penetration defects. Joints with backing strip works better than butt weld with full
penetration, provided that penetration defects are avoided (enough root gap and edge preparation).
The presence of gap between stiffener and backing strip seems not effecting fatigue life.
Triangular ribs seems to work better than trapezoidal ones.
42
Residual stresses effects fatigue resistance and crack initiation points (not the highly stressed points).
Some research works compared different welding procedures effecting residual stresses distribution and
fatigue performances.
Here below other data from Japan researchers [18] and Transport Research Laboratory [19] showing the
importance of root gap are reported:
Figure 1-25: Details of stiffener-to-stiffener butt joint with backing strip from [18] and [19] literature
references.
Table 1-16: Details of stiffener-to-stiffener butt joint with backing strip from literature.
D
P
Type N4
ID Type I I [19] N1 [18] N2 [18] N3 [18] O [18] J [18]
A(4mm) [18]
[15]
[17]
Rib section Triangular Trapezoidal
5mm or
Root gap 6 mm 12 mm 4 mm 0mm 3mm 0mm 4 mm 6 mm
10mm
Edge Single Single Single Single Single Single
Both 45° no Single 45°
preparation 45° 45° 45° 45° 50° 35°
2 passes
I-2
2 passes starting
Welding relaxation
opposite both
procedure after
direc. from the
welding
bottom
Figure 1-26: Comparison of experimental fatigue curves obtained by different researchers on the
stiffener to stiffener joint.
43
WP2 WELDING
Objectives
The aim of WP2 is to investigate practical problems which might occur when duplex stainless steel of
representative structural bridge components are welded. Therefore the activities will be mainly devoted
to provide solutions for prevention of welding related failures and, furthermore, guidelines for welding
procedures (Welding Procedure Specifications) on the possible welding techniques suitable for
fabrication of considered components, both at workshop and on site.
Specific objectives are:
• to select and supply both base material and consumables;
• to fabricate the specimens, fine tuned inside WP1;
• to investigate the practical problems which might occur when the representative structural
bridge components of duplex stainless steel are welded;
• to prepare guidelines for welding procedures (WPS) for the welding techniques potentially
suitable to be used at both the factory and on site.
Activities planned in Task 2.1 (Material selection/supply) are completed, they consists of:
• selection of material grade suitable of bridges in aggressive environment (INDUSTEEL)
• production of material for testing programme development (INDUSTEEL)
Activities planned in Task 2.2 (Welding processes and consumable selection) are completed, they
consists of:
• overview of the welding techniques currently used for the bridge assembly (OMBA)
• selection of the most profitable consumables in terms of cost/benefit (OMBA)
• welding trials for component construction and welds qualification by Inspection report
(OMBA)
• development of Welding Procedures Specifications (WPS) to be deliverable (OMBA)
• extra activity: application of LHW to rib-to-deck joint (CSM)
Activities planned in Task 2.3 (Component construction) are completed, they consists of:
• fabrication of critical welded details selected in WP1 and to be tested in WP3 and WP4
(OMBA)
• delivery of components to the partners in charge for testing (OMBA)
• highlighting differences occurring in fabrication of duplex components with respect to
traditional construction steel (OMBA)
TASK 2.1 MATERIAL SELECTION/SUPPLY

In this Bridgeplex project, the main properties of the material for the bridge construction are the
corrosion resistance, which must be adapted to the corrosive media, and the mechanical characteristics,
which must be high enough to be in accordance with the Eurocode.
In coastal environment, Industeel recommends UR45NMo (S32205), due to the presence of sea water
spray. It is a nitrogen alloyed (≥ 0,15%) austenitic-ferritic stainless steel (2205 type) with high
mechanical properties and high general, localized and stress corrosion cracking resistance properties.
Due to their relative moderate nickel content and austenitic-ferritic microstructure, the duplex family is
a very interesting alternative to austenitic stainless steel or coated carbon steel.
45
Table 2-1: Standard designations
Standard Designation
EURONORM 1.4462 – X2 Cr Ni Mo N 22 5 3
AFNOR Z3 CND 22.05 AZ
DIN W. Nr 1.4462
ASTM UNS S32205
Industeel recommends UR45NMo stainless steel for many reasons:

• the corrosion resistance is increased by chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen optimised
content. In term of pitting corrosion, the Pitting Resistance Equivalent Number
PREN=%Cr+3,3%Mo+16%N2 is often used for ranking materials. With a PREN superior as 35
(PREN = 35,8), the UR45NMo would be suitable to aggressive environment considered in this
project., and will perform much better than 304 and 316L grades.
• the mechanical characteristics are high enough to decrease equipments thickness compare to
austenitic stainless steels, and this allows the designer to save weight. As shown in the
following table, the UR45NMo yield strength is at least 460Mpa. Compared to other austenitic
stainless steels, the UR45NMo yield strength is twice that of 316L. This duplex Y.S. is at the
same level as those of the S460 steel, normally used for the bridge construction.
Table 2-2: Tensile test – required mechanical properties for UR45NMo

Standard Temperature (°C) YS 0,2 (MPa) UTS (MPa)
ASTM
+20 450 655
Thickness > 6mm
EURONORM
+20 460 660
12 > thickness ≥ 75mm
• about welding, the austenitic-ferritic structure of the UR45NMo steel limits hot cracking risk in
the Heat Affected Zone (HAZ), thanks to its ferrite primary solidification. The high nitrogen
concentration improves the Heat Affected Zone structure stability and makes the welding
easier.
The following table describes materials delivered by Industeel to Omba for the welding tests and the
construction of components/details to be tested.
Table 2-3: Material delivered for the Project.
No. of plates Thickness Plate number Heat Number Weight (kg)

45260, 45261,
11 7 45514, 45515, F6435 7392
45516, 45517
45808, 45809,
11 12 F7158 12672
45813, 45814
41061 F6120
3 20 44587 F6435 5760
45815 F7158
1 30 45807 F7158 2880
Total plates
28700
weight
The standard format for plates is 2000 x 6000 mm.

As reported in Table 2-3, Industeel provided 29 tons of plates from three casts, at four different
thickness.
46
TASK 2.2 WELDING PROCESSES AND CONSUMABLES SELECTION
Overview of the welding techniques for bridge construction
Depending on the various requirements at each production phase, the welding techniques currently used
for the bridge assembly are investigated. Moreover, innovative techniques are also considered like the
laser hybrid welding (LHW). All the frequently used fusion arc welding methods can be used to join
duplex stainless steels successfully, provided that proper welding procedures and suitable consumables
are selected. The following welding techniques were considered as currently employed processes for
bridge assembly.
SMAW The Shielded Metal Arc Welding is used for work-shop repair welding; it can be used
instead of semiautomatic GMAW for general field welds (like ribs butt welds, flanges butt
welds and webs butt welds) and during the final assembly but it is presently more expensive
than GMAW and its use is possibly limited to repair. Presently around the 1% of the total
welding in the bridge fabrication is carried out using this technique.
GTAW Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
GMAW Gas Metal Arc Welding
FCAW The Flux Cored Arc Welding process is used to perform T-fillet joints in the welding
processes adopted for work-shop welding, stiffeners to deck, stiffeners to ribs and stiffeners
to web connections and also deck butt welds (1° pass). FCAW is also used for field welding
of prefabricates elements. For duplex stainless steels only FCAW under gas can be used. It
is widely used for field welding of duplex chemical tankers. Presently around the 30% of
the total welding in the bridge fabrication is carried out using this technique.
SAW The Submerged Arc Welding process is presently used, both at the factory plant and on
site, for butt welding large panels and also welding T–fillet joints of the longitudinal and
the transverse reinforcements. Presently around the 70% of the total welding is carried out
using this technique. For duplex an optimisation of the flux/wire couple will probably be
necessary to improve the productivity.
LHW The Laser Hybrid Welding is tested to optimise the arc welding techniques for fabrication
of typical structural bridge components. It is a new welding technique, having already
industrial significant applications in shipyards and considered particularly interesting for
duplex stainless steel.
Selection of consumables
On the basis of the considered welding technologies, the most profitable consumables in terms of
cost/benefit have been selected.
Welded joints have been manufactured, tested and qualified at laboratory level. This first investigation
will allow to identify the correct consumables for each technology and relevant welding procedures.
For a specific base material with fixed welding conditions (process and parameters) the final weld metal
composition in the joint can be influenced only by the chemical composition of the filler metal.
For applications in welded structures intended for service in the as-welded condition, weld metal is
overalloyed in Ni, compared to the base metal. This happen to assure a good balance of the
ferrite/austenite ratio. Moreover, depending on the welding process, dilution which can vary between
almost 0 and 100%, it is important to pay great attention to the actual dilution during welding.
The resulting weld metal composition depends on the following most important factors: base material
composition, material thickness, weld preparation, welding process, welding technique and parameters,
welding consumable composition, consumable type.
In the present project different commercially available filler materials for each considered welding
process are considered and compared. The filler metal material used was finally chosen into the
consumable list of the ESAB (INDUSTEEL subcontractor) catalogue (Figure 2-1 and Table 2-4).
47
Figure 2-1: Consumable material from ESAB catalogue
48
Table 2-4: Consumables selected for each Welding Procedure Specification (WPS)
Welding trials
In the same way as for carbon steel constructions, the welding procedure specifications (WPS) and the
pre-qualification report (PQR) have been written and the pre-test welded specimen properties were in
accordance with the bridge construction requirements.
(a) Duplex butt weld (FCAW and (b) Duplex butt weld (FCAW (c) 304L stud welded on
SAW) with ceramic support and SAW) with ceramic support UR45NMo plate after fold
testing
Figure 2-2: Some welding pre-qualification test views
49
Herein are summarised some of the internal shop checks and laboratory tests for the qualification of
each welded detail considered in the Project (Figure 2-2 and Table 2-5).
These tests validate the welding trials so it was possible to deliver the final Welding Procedures
Specifications (WPS) and fabricate the details and components to be tested in the Project.
Table 2-5: Welded details and controls
Welded details Controls

Ferrite
Thk Vickers Content
WPS Description Proc. Macro (%) in
(mm) hardness HV10
weld
19
metal
A 7
1 SAW 47,7±3,3
1A 12
T1 T2
T3
A B
1A 1B 7÷12
2 SAW
12÷20
48,3±2,7
T1 T2
T3
A B
41,47
1A 1B 7÷12
3 GMAW (average
12÷20
T2
of 3)
T1
50°
12 nA 12 FCAW 43,47
4 2A + 12 (average
CERAMIC
BACKING
1A SAW of 3)
4± 2
50°
nA
8
1A
46,70
5 12 GMAW 12 (average
Plate
of 3)
60
nA
2A
1A 44,00
6 30 SAW 30 (average
1B
4
2B
nB
19 of 3)
0
7 SAW 30 36,5±3,0
All the Welding Procedure Specifications developed during the Project are deliverable
50
Application of laser hybrid welding technique to detail A.4 rib-to-deck joint
During activity performed in the frame of Task 1.3 conclusions by previous research works highlighted
the fatigue strength of rib-to-deck joint (detail A.4) significantly increases when using submerged arc
welding with larger penetration and larger throat of the weld. Due to the sensitivity of detail A.4 on
penetration depth it is decided to evaluate the increase in fatigue resistance by using Laser Hybrid
welding technique which can allow for complete welding penetration.
The experimental activity performed by CSM consists in the application of laser hybrid GMAW (LB-
GMAW) technique to the rib-to-deck joint. The application were devoted to the production of
specimens with the same dimensions of detail A.4 so as to be subsequently tested under constant
amplitude fatigue and compared to the traditionally SAW welded. The welding parameters were varied
to match different needs: weld integrity, high productivity and balanced microstructure. The joints were
qualified in accordance with EN 15614 standard. Non destructive testing included visual inspection,
penetrant testing, metallographic exams and hardness test. A welding procedure specification is
available as a result of best set of welding parameters.
The application of LB-GMAW process consented to obtain a full penetration joint (Figure 2-3) with a
quite high productivity (travel speed of 1,2 m/min). The weld shows a convexity at both cap and root, as
a compromise to obtain high productivity and balanced microstructure.
For LB-GMA welds, Fused Zone is very narrow and Heat Affected Zone is practically absent, resulting
in reduced residual stresses and specimen distortion. Shall be also mentioned the absence of spatters
(particularly critics for duplex steels). Two different welding consumables were used for Laser-GMA
welding (ER2209 or Zeron 100X) with minor differences for the weld microstructure.
The weld microstructure was examined by light optical microscope. The ferrite-austenite balance,
though still not optimal (about 30 % of austenite was measured in the welded zone), would probably
suffice for the application.
SA weld LB-GMA weld
Figure 2-3: Rib-to-deck welded joints macrosection: comparison between SAW and LB-GMAW
51
Figure 2-4: Rib-to-deck SA weld after sand blasting
Figure 2-5: Rib-to-deck LB-GMA weld (as welded): cap appearance (left) and root appearance (right)
TASK 2.3 COMPONENT CONSTRUCTION

The critical welded details and components selected in WP1 have been manufactured with the specific
welding technologies defined.
First a description of bridge construction phases (both shop and field assembly) is done, than shop
works for the construction of components for the Project are reported.
Synthetically, the aspects considered in the development of a constructive project of a bridge can be
reassumed in the followings points:
- make the floor system compatible with the laying technique, particularly as regard the
verification of web stability to the action of local loads;
- reduce the problems list of the transport from the shop to the yard, looking at the prefabricated
elements of girder, with the purpose to reduce the number of weld joints to realize in the yard,
depending also by the operational climatic conditions;
- assure suitable executive reliability of the junctions for the yard assemblage, originally
anticipated all bolts, also in presence of packets to be shut of remarkable dimensions;
- adopt for the execution of the superior plate joints, the most modern and reliable techniques,
also in relationship to the verifications during work and the reliability and operational
possibility of execution of the non destructive controls;
- optimize the executive phases, particularly the assemblage in the yard;
- improve all the connected aspects to the service life of the floor system, in relationship to the
verifications performed for all the optimized sections and for the more severe conditions of
load;
- optimize the project in relationship to the verifications of the elastic stability, also during the
phases of launching and the consequent disposition and typology of the stiffening both
longitudinal then transversal.
52
The constructive planning has also to concern the individualization of the welding procedures to adopt
and the typology and geometry of the joints. However, rules applicable to the constructive planning can
found reference in the European legislation ENV 1090-5: Execution of steel structures, additional rules
for bridges (1998).
The shop construction transforms the initial sheets in prefabricated elements of metallic carpentry
beginning from the floor system project, giving value to the computational hypotheses as it regards,
particularly, the tolerances of construction or geometric defects, inherent in every productive process
(ENV 1090:1998).
In the stability verification, in fact, the so-called initial defects have to be attributed to the structural
elements, to verify the validity of the initial hypotheses of the deformable elements, considering that the
constructive tolerances must respect narrow limits.
For the general optimization of the whole work, from the first realization of the elements in carpentry
have to be respected generally settled mixtures, of the maximum transportable outline and motion,
economically keeping in mind also the maximum dimensions of the single plate format.
The shop activities must consider as pre-workmanships, the main ones are:
- cut of the plates to get strips or panels, with Cartesian fittings of oxygen cutting or plasma with
numerical control (Figure 2-6);
Figure 2-6: Gas cuts of flanges and webs
- calking of the panels edges, for the preparation of the calk of welding, particularly for the deck
plate, with machines for removal and shaving of remarkable dimensions (Figure 2-7);
Figure 2-7: Sheet edge preparation
- pre-sandblasting of all the pieces before any workmanship that needs the use welding
processes, with the purpose to be able to operate under the best conditions eliminating from the
material, the layer of calamine, rust and other impurities;
- composition for welding of the profiles to T and double T with automatic fittings, arc
submerged welding procedures to contrast heads both in twin-arc than in tandem of single wire,
without the necessity of lines thanks to a system of guide in cages of rolls, within which it is
made to flow the profile in welding (Figure 2-8);
53
Figure 2-8: T-master
- cut and perforation of the outlined profiles, of the angular profiles and of the girder settled with
fittings of numerical control; the cut is generally performed with cropper saws and in the case
of maximum dimensions (girders of hmax ≈ 2,5 or 3 m) can be use the translation disk or it is
possible to blade with continuous arc.
The following workmanships are properly those of prefabrication in the specific case of construction of
the plate floor systems, not with assemblage and welding in a single phase, really with the purpose to
give a suitable and correct answer to the expectations of "intrinsic quality" of the manufactured articles,
as we will see following.
The activities of prefabrication are developed according to the following lines:
- panel-line, with the plant that takes this denomination to the plate panels of the deck and the
webs of the main girders are climbed on and settled with only the longitudinal stiffening
(Figure 2-9);
Figure 2-9: Panel-line
- tacking and welding panels, represent the final phase of prefabrication. On special benches
endowed with adjustable comparisons, are placed panels or elements of T sections for the main
girders, longitudinally stiffened preventively and with the employment of travelling
oleodynamic portals, climbing on and pressing the transversal stiffening, just pre worked. The
stiffening are basted with strong lines of welding therefore the panel is transferred to other
bench endowed with moving positioners (Figure 2-10).
54
Figure 2-10: Manual welding of T sections
When the deck panels are settled, to complete the girders, along the edges and to an distance of around
500 m are positioned, with a pressure procedure with the gun (type “Nelson”), imprisoned long studs
M16 120 m to allow the joining of the panels yard, with special “clamp”, before the welding phase of
the deck (Figure 2-11).
Figure 2-11: Inner side with “clampe” and outer side of the deck
Both during the phases of workmanship and the final productive cycle both geometric controls of the
pieces both a not destructive check are performed as regard the settled connections, besides being the
defined welding a “special trial”, to guarantee the quality of welding and of the final elements. Daily
relationships follow the advancement of the construction of the panels of the floor system of the bridge,
to the final issue of the testing certificates and to release the consignment in the yard of every single
component.
To prepare the components for mechanical testing it was necessary the elaborations of several different
shop tables. In particular:
• no.1 overview table with details for fatigue and buckling test (Figure 2-12);
• no. 25 tables with the description of the shop cuts (Figure 2-13);
• no. 29 tables with the assemblage of the elements (Figure 2-14).
55
A1
TP1
A2
A3
A4
TB1 B2
A5
TB2
A6
TB3
Figure 2-12: Shop drawings for fatigue and buckling sample fabrication (Table 1640 A 03 A 001 02)
Figure 2-13: Example of shop cut table (Table 1640 A 03 C P18 04)
56
Figure 2-14: Example of assembling table (Table 1640 A 03 B 039 01)
The welding procedures developed in Task 2.2 allowed the fabrication of the bridge critical
components. Figure 2-15 shows some of realized components of bridge.
Butt welded specimen (1/1 scale)
Welding with SAW process of the trapezoidal ribs to the plate beam (1/2 scale)
Stiffener to cross beam welded joint (1/2 scale)

Figure 2-15: Shop working of some specimens
57
The total specimens fabricated for fatigue and buckling tests are reported in Table 2-6.
Table 2-6: Number of details/components fabricated

Detail No. of specimens fabricated
Shear buckling (Task 3.2)
Shear buckling (TB1) 1 for buckling test (large scale component)
Corrosion resistance (Task 3.3)
small B1 20 for atmosphere corrosion tests
small B2 60 for atmosphere corrosion tests
Fatigue with ref. to the Eurocode 3 classification (Task 4.1)
A1 17 for fatigue tests
A4 (LHW) 15 sheet and 15 trapezoidal stiffener
B1 17 for fatigue tests (large scale component)
B2 17 for fatigue tests (large scale component)
Fatigue mid-scale (Task 4.2)
middle scale fatigue (TP1) 3 for fatigue tests (large scale component)
Corrosion fatigue (Task 4.3)
A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, A6, B1, B2 1 each for corrosion fatigue test
The experience of working duplex stainless steel allowed OMBA to made some considerations on the
differences in duplex steelworking compared with know-how on traditional constructional steels. These
are:
• The welding heat inputs are generally lower for the duplex welds than for carbon steel welds;
• Angular shrinks are more important with duplex than with carbon steel in butt welded plates
and complex shop assemblies. Adopting the correct angle as determined by the pre-test analysis
allowed to meet the required tolerances;
• It is more difficult to cut the duplex sheets with disk saw. So it is necessary to sharpen the saw
blade more often than in the case of cutting carbon steel sheets;
• Preheating is not necessary if the temperature is not less than 0°C. If the temperature is lower
than 0°C preheating shall be applied only to dry the plate;
• When welding duplex the maximum interpass temperature is 150°C; in addition with the
reduction of heat input for duplex, more time is necessary to do the same welded joints than for
carbon steel.
• Since OMBA production lines and stocking areas are not dedicated to stainless steel working
special provisions have done to avoid contaminations by other metals during handling and
working stainless steel sheets.
These considerations resulted in a quantification of increased costs of shop working of about 30%
compared with traditional constructional steel.
58
WP3 STATIC MECHANICAL AND CORROSION PROPERTIES
Objectives
The aims of this WP are:
• to verify the influence of the non-linearity of stress-strain relationship for duplex stainless steel
on the structural elements behaviour made of large plates which can buckle
• to confirm the duplex corrosion resistance in Cl- and Cl- polluted condenses (NOx, SO2, etc.
from the road traffic) also in welded and hard loaded situations aiming at verifying the
resistance of the duplex grade when used in very aggressive marine sites as structural material
in a suspension bridge.

Activities planned in Task 3.1 (Base mechanical properties) are completed, they consists of:
• deep qualification of base material by means of standard EN 10002 tensile tests, microstructural
investigations and Charpy V tests (INDUSTEEL)
• Extra activity: CTOD tests on base material and welded joints have been performed as required
by specifications for steelworks of steel bridges (INDUSTEEL)
Activities planned in Task 3.2 (Buckling) are completed, they consists of:
• execution of three point bending tests (at least 2 tests) to evaluate the ultimate resistance of
welded beams made of duplex stainless steel similar to the main beam supporting the deck
(ULg)
• one extra test was performed over the 2 initially planned (ULg)
• comparisons with the experimental data available and with the mathematical models suggested
by EN 1993-1-5 (ULg)
Activities planned in Task 3.3 (Corrosion resistance) are completed, they consists of:
• selection of specimen and environments (INDUSTEEL)
• laboratory tests (INDUSTEEL)
• field exposures (INDUSTEEL and CSM)
TASK 3.1 - BASE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

The main purpose of this part is to describe the base mechanical properties of the duplex stainless steel
UR45NMo. These data will be used for simulation purpose in the project. The thickest (number 45807,
30mm thick) and the thinnest (number 45514, 7mm thick) plates will be deeper investigated than the
two others (number 45813, 12mm thick and number 44587, 20mm thick), as decided by the Brigdeplex
partners.
Chemical compositions
Chemical compositions for each plate and each heat are given in Table 3-1. First, we can notice that the
compositions are in accordance with the standard 1.4462 for EN 10088-2 and UNS S32205 for ASTM
A240.
We can observe that chemical compositions of the two heats are very similar. For instance, PREN
values (Pitting Resistance Equivalent Number, PREN = %Cr + 3,3%Mo + 16%N2) calculated from the
chemical composition are very close and not so far from 35,5, which indicates that the grade would
have a good localised corrosion resistance.
To predict the structure of this stainless steel, we can use the Schaeffler’s diagram with the Espy’s
formulation (see Figure 3-1). It describes the as-solidified microstructure of a weld metal. This diagram
gives only an idea of the ferrite and austenite contents because it is based only on the chemical
composition and it does not take into account the industrial heat treatment performed on plate. In the
present case, the estimated ferrite content of a weld of same composition would be between 35 to 40%.
59
Table 3-1: chemical compositions (weight %) and PREN values (PREN=%Cr+3,3%Mo+16%N2)
Heat number F6435 F6435 F6435 F7158 F7158 F7158 ASTM
Euronorm
Plate number - 45514 44587 - 45813 45807 UNS
1.4462
Thickness (mm) - 7 20 - 12 30 S32205
C 0,03 0,02 0,02 0,02 0,02 0,02 ≤0,03 ≤0,03
S 0,0006 0,0001 <0,0001 0,0001 <0,0001 <0,0001 ≤0,015 ≤0,02
P 0,024 0,024 0,025 0,026 0,026 0,026 ≤0,035 ≤0,03
Si 0,530 0,530 0,531 0,499 0,499 0,500 ≤1,0 ≤1,0
Mn 1,69 1,70 1,72 1,66 1,66 1,66 ≤2,0 ≤2,0
Chemical composition (%)
Ni 6,15 6,26 6,18 6,01 6,01 6,03 4,5-6,5 4,5-6,5

Cr 22,49 22,71 22,66 22,61 22,61 22,60 21,0-23,0 22,0-23,0
Mo 3,03 3,01 3,00 3,01 3,01 3,02 2,5-3,5 3-3,5
Cu - 0,115 0,117 0,169 0,169 0,169 - -
Sn - 0,007 0,007 0,007 0,007 0,007 - -
Al - 0,009 0,010 0,011 0,011 0,011 - -
V - 0,077 0,078 0,071 0,071 0,071 - -
Ti - 0,0010 0,0010 0,0010 0,0010 <0,0030 - -
Co - 0,0380 0,0390 0,0380 0,0380 0,0380 - -
Nb - 0,0030 0,0020 0,0030 0,0030 <0,0030 - -
B - - 0,0012 0,0020 0,0020 0,0021 - -
W - 0,005 0,005 0,004 0,004 0,004 - -
N2 0,191 0,187 0,187 0,181 0,181 0,184 0,10-0,22 0,14-0,20
PREN 35,54 35,64 35,55 35,62 35,44 35,51 - -
Figure 3-1: Schaeffler/Espy diagram
Micrographic study
The following micrograph (see Figure 3-2) shows the duplex microstructure of the four plates. The
associated table gives the value of ferrite contents measured by the metallographic method (according
60
to ASTM A562) and predicted by the software developed by Industeel (Formulinox [25]). For
metallographic method, the samples must be enough etched to have a well contrasted structure.
Lichtenberger colour etching has been used. The magnification must be appropriate to fine structure,
especially under the skin of the plate. Concerning prediction, Formulinox is able to evaluate, in the base
metal, the H.A.Z. and the weld metal:
- the structure (ferrite percents, risk of intermetallic phase precipitation…),
- some mechanical properties (toughness, hardness, ultimate tensile strength, …) and
- some corrosion properties like critical pitting temperature (CPT in ferrous chloride solution
according to ASTM G48A).
This calculation is based on:
- chemical compositions of the base metal and of the pure weld metal,
- the dimensions of the welded joint,
- the welding parameters (welding process, heat input…),
- and the heat treatment temperature.
Ferrite content:
%ferrite (ASTM A562) 40
%ferrite (Formulinox) 40
Figure 3-2: Micrograph of duplex stainless UR45NMo structure (austenite in white, ferrite in brown) in
the quarter of the thickness - plate number 45514, heat number F6535, th. 7mm
This micrograph is representative of all the observed microstructure. It shows a clean ferritic-austenitic
microstructure, without intermetallic phases, or carbo-nitride precipitates. We can also notice a light
difference in work hardening between the surface and the heart of the plate, especially when the
thickness increases.
Concerning ferrite content, all the results are equal or higher than 40%. The measured and the predicted
values are very similar (see Figure 3-3), and higher than the Schaeffler/Espy evaluation, for the reasons
previously explained. Plates containing the lowest austenite former elements (plate number 45813,
12mm, and number 45807, 30mm from the heat number F7158) exhibit the higher ferrite content.
ASTM A562 predicted by Formulinox

45
44
43
Ferrite percent
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Thickness (mm)
Figure 3-3: Comparison between the results of the ASTM A562 method and the Formulinox prediction
61
Tensile properties
The tensile tests have been performed on cylindrical specimens for two temperatures (room temperature
and –40°C) and for two thickness: 7mm (5mm as diameter and 30mm as length as specimen
dimensions) and 30mm (10 mm as diameter and 70mm as length). The tensile tests were performed
with an uniaxial strength on a 100kN tensile machine. 2 loading rate have been used, depending on the
test temperature:
for –40°C, the test is controlled with 40MPa/s
for +20°C, the test is controlled with 10MPa/s
The Table 3-2 presents all the experimental results obtained on the duplex stainless steel UR45NMo 7
and 30mm thick plates, in both longitudinal and transversal direction.
Table 3-2: Tensile test performed on the UR45NMo; results from both conventional and the True
stress/true strain curves.
7mm thick UR45NMo plate (no45514, heat 30mm thick UR45NMo(no45807, heat F7158)
F6435)
Longitudinal Transversal Longitudinal Transversal
-40°C 20°C -40°C 20°C -40°C 20°C -40°C 20°C
U.T.S. (MPa) 916 791 961 815 852 724 872 745
Conventional
Y.S. (MPa) 619 565 685 597 576 503 595 517
E5d (%) 54 46 40 44 48 41 47 39
RA (Z%) 77 78 74 76 77 74 77 71
True stress
/ true strain
K 1154 1134 1594 1157 1244 1038 1260 1067
n 0,151 0,132 0,200 0,121 0,134 0,127 0,132 0,126
The Yield strength (Y.S.0,2), ultimate tensile strength (U.T.S.) and elongation measured at room
temperature and at -40°C on both plates are higher than the minima values required by ASTM A240
(450MPa, 650MPa and 25%), as shown in the Figure 3-4. Y.S.0,2 and U.T.S. decrease as thickness
increases, and are higher in the transverse direction than in the rolling direction. This is usual for duplex
structure. This difference is less pronounced for the 30mm thick plate than for the 7mm thick plate.
1100
750
1000
650
U.T.S. (MPa)
Y.S. 0,2 (MPa)
900
550
800
450
350 700
250 600
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)
7mm thick 20mm thick 30mm thick ASTM A240 requirements EN 10088-2 requirements
750
Figure 3-4: Yield strength (Y.S.0,2) and Ultimate Tensile Strength (U.T.S.) of the UR45NMo
(Sampling transverse to the rolling direction)
62
Toughness
The conditions of toughness test (Charpy V) are defined by the EN 10045 standard.
In order to evaluate the toughness property of the duplex stainless steel UR45NMo, 3 samples with the
section of 10x10 (55mm long) were machined for each test temperature, in two directions for both 20
and 30mm thick plates. Results are presented in Figure 3-5.
The length of the specimen is transverse to the rolling direction for TL or parallel to the rolling
direction for LT. Notch is perpendicular to the skin of the plate and the crack propagation direction is
parallel to the rolling direction for TL or transverse to the rolling direction for LT.
400
350
300
250
KCV (Joule)
200
150
100
50
0
-140 -90 -40 10 60
Temperature (°C)
20mm, transverse to the rolling direction, plate 41061, heat F6120 20mm, parallel to the rolling direction, plate 41061, heat F6120
30mm, transverse to the rolling direction, plate 45807, heat F7158 30mm, parallel to the rolling direction, plate 45807, heat F7158
Minimal value transverse direction (EN 10088-2) Minimal value longitudinal direction (EN 10088-2)
Figure 3-5: Average toughness of the duplex stainless steel UR45NMo (transverse and parallel are the
direction of the length of the specimen)
The following observations can be made:

- the toughness of the two investigated plates, measured at room temperature, are higher than the
minimal values required by EN 10088-2 for the grade 1.4462,
- the toughness at constant temperature decreases when the plate gets thinner, especially in the
transition part of curves: this is probably due the tensile strength which is slightly high for the 20
mm thick plate.
- the toughness values stay at high level until –50°C and acceptable until –120°C. These good results
predict a good behaviour of the grade during the CTOD tests, on the 30mm thick plate.
- the toughness gives lower results when it is measured on sample taken in the direction transverse to
the rolling direction.
Crack Tip opening Displacement (CTOD)

The conditions of CTOD test are defined by the ASTM E1820-99a / BS 7448.
Fracture mechanics tests are often required for bridge construction. First of all, the Crack Tip Opening
Displacement (CTOD) test has been performed on the 30mm thick UR45NMo plate on 6 specimens
(CT25 type) at -30°C. They are sampled transverse to the rolling direction and the notch is parallel to
this rolling direction (TL). To be in accordance with the British and ASTM standards, the loading of
each specimen is stopped when the maximum force is reached. The Table 3-3 gives the results of the
CTOD measurement.
These six CTOD values are few scattered one from the others, and are also high. They are as high as
those from S690 carbon steel. When the tested material is ductile, the CTOD and the KV value can be
compared. The duplex UR45NMo is ductile at -30°C with a high level of toughness. As expected
before, the CTOD value of this duplex actually high too at the same test temperature.
63
Table 3-3: CTOD values on the UR45NMo base metal
Heat number F7158

Plate number 45807
Thickness (mm) 30
Temperature test delta Average delta
(°C) (mm) (mm)
-30 0,64
-30 0,58
-30 0,63 0,60
-30 0,58
-30 0,59
-30 0,60
Then, one welded joint has been made by OMBA, dedicated to test the weld metal and the duplex Heat
Affected Zone (H.A.Z.) from a fracture mechanic point of view. The weld preparation is a ½ V groove.
Submerged Arc Welding is used with OK Flux 10.93 as flux, and OK Autrod 16.86 as filler metal. The
used welding heat input is typical of welding duplex and in accordance with the Industeel welding
recommendations. Twelve notched specimens (CT25 type) are sampled in the transverse direction to
the plate rolling direction. The notch is through the full thickness of the assembly, and is located:
- Either in the HAZ: 0,5 mm for the fusion line, in the vertical side of the groove, for 6 samples,
- Or in the weld metal for the 6 other samples.
For both studied areas of the weld, two temperatures are chosen to perform the fracture mechanics tests:
0° and -30°C. The Table 3-4 gives the results of CTOD measurements for the austenite/ferrite HAZ and
the weld metal.
Table 3-4: CTOD values on the UR45NMo welded joint (HAZ and weld metal)
Temperature test
delta (mm) Average delta (mm)
(°C)
Weld metal
-30 0,44
-30 0,43 0,45
-30 0,49
0 0,59
0 0,51 0,50
0 0,40
Heat Affected Zone
-30 0,71
-30 0,64 0,65
-30 0,59
0 0,59
0 0,59 0,60
0 0,61
The weld metal CTOD values are lower than those from the base metal and the HAZ. This is in
accordance with the decrease of the toughness properties of the weld metal, compared to those of the
base metal.
The HAZ CTOD values are high as those from the base metal. The failed samples for HAZ have been
investigated by metallography. The Figure 3-6 shows the microstructure of the failed CTOD sample.
Whereas the notch is at 0,5 mm from the fusion line, it is not in the HAZ, which is very thin. In spite of
the care brought to the samples preparation, and since the fusion line is not linear with a thin HAZ, it
will be difficult to make samples with the notch only in the HAZ.
64
Notch of the UR45NMo
CTOD sample duplex plate
Fusion line
and HAZ
2209 SA
weld metal
Fragile failure
(nitrogen liquid
immersion) 1 mm
Figure 3-6: Metallographic examination of a failed HAZ sample
The Figure 3-7 shows all the CTOD average results obtained on the UR45NMo base metal, on the weld,
and the required value for the material specification for bridges at 0°C (indication of the specification
for steelworks of the Railway Italian company ). At the tested temperatures, the CTOD values of each
weld areas are higher than the requirement. The toughness values of the base metal were high too and in
the ductile part of the Charpy V curve. This checks that the CTOD values can be predicted by the
toughness values in the ductile part of the Charpy V curve [26].
All CTOD values are high for the UR45NMo and the weld metal, and they are in accordance with the
specification.
Base metal Weld metal

Base metal (HAZ tests) Minimal value (material specification for bridges
0,70
0,60
0,50
Delta (mm)
0,40
0,30
0,20
0,10
0,00
-35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5
Temperature (°C)
Figure 3-7: Average CTOD values on UR45NMo SA welded joint (30mm thick) with duplex filler
metal (2209 type)
65
TASK 3.2 - BUCKLING
Plate-girders with so-called unstiffened webs, i.e. without longitudinal stiffeners and without transverse
stiffeners (except at the supports), are commonly met in buildings while bridge- and crane girders need
mostly to be transversely stiffened and sometimes longitudinally stiffened in addition. Provided the
transverse stiffeners fulfil appropriate stiffness and strength criteria – that are specified in the existing
European standards - , web buckling under direct and/or shear in-plane stresses is then restricted to the
web panels limited by adjacent transverse web stiffeners.
Experimental data relative to shear buckling tests conducted on unstiffened (or transversely stiffened) I-
girders made of C-steels as well as few data relative to plate girders made of stainless steels (see [27]to
[30], [32]) demonstrate that the ultimate shear resistance exceeds significantly the elastic critical shear
buckling load of the web by an amount that depends on i) the depth-to-thickness ratio hw/tw of the web,
ii) the aspect ratio α = a/hw (a being the length of the web panel) of the web panel and iii) the relative
rigidity of the flanges. Of course the capacity of the web to exhibit its post-critical strength reserve is
subordinated to sufficient ductility of the material.
Shear buckling in European standards - The specifications of EN1993-1-5 [33], applicable to plated
structures made of C-steels, fully valorise the post-critical strength reserve. In contrast to the pair of
models proposed in ENV1993-1-1 [31] , the single physical model specified in [33] refers henceforth to
the concept of “rotating stress field” and the ultimate shear resistance is the sum of two contributions
that are respectively designated as “web contribution” an “flange contribution”.
As far as stainless steels are concerned, reference shall be made to EN1993-1-4 [34] that deals with
supplementary rules for such steels. For what regards especially the shear resistance, the design
philosophy of EN1993-1-4 is similar to the one of EN1993-1-5; only the detailed design expressions are
slightly modified. For the purpose of comparison, the specifications relative to shear resistance given
respectively in EN1993-1-5 and in EN1993-1-4 are summarised in Table 3-5.
Experimental activity
Test specimens and instrumentation - Because of the lack of information regarding the shear buckling
resistance of duplex steel specimens, a limited number of tests are carried out. These tests aim at
investigating whether the specifications of EN1993-1-4 are applicable without reservation to duplex
steel.
In order to have realistic effects of imperfections on the ultimate shear capacity, the scale of the test
specimens is 1:2 to 1:1. Moreover a rather large depth-to-thickness ratio hw/tw = 1260/7 = 180 is adopted
so as to favour a significant post-critical strength. Three girder specimens are tested in shear (Figure
3-8). Each specimen has two nominally identical adjacent panels, the aspect ratio α = a/hw of which is
equal to unity, it has also same lower and upper flanges. The transverse stiffener at mid-span and the
end posts are made of double-sided 75x20 mm flats. Each end post is composed of a pair of such
stiffeners so as to get a so-called rigid H-section end post. Only the sizes of the flanges are varied from
specimen to specimen so as to get varying flange contributions to the ultimate shear resistance:
• 160 x 12 mm for TG1;
• 160 X 20 mm for TG2;
• 220 x 20 mm for TG3.
According to EN1993-1-4 [34], the nominal limit width-to-thickness ratio cf/tf of the compression
flange for enabling a Class 2 flange is 9,4ε. With a 0,2% yield strength fyf of about 600 Mpa (see later),
this limit amounts 5,9. As a result, the compression flange of TG2 and TG3 is expected to be fully
effective up to the ultimate while the limit of full efficiency is closely approached for TG1. That is fully
confirmed by the experiments; indeed no flange buckling is observed for TG2 and TG3 while it occurs
in the post-limit range – but very soon after the ultimate shear load is reached – for TG1. It is worth
stressing that the both-sided stiffeners at mid-span of TG2 do not have their outer faces aligned but
exhibit a misalignment of 20 mm.
66
Table 3-5 : Comparison of the respective specifications of EN1993-1-5 and EN1993-1-4
EN1993-1-5 (Carbon steels) EN1993-1-4 (Stainless steels)
Elastic critical shear stress τcr : τ cr = kτ σ E

where k is the shear buckling coefficient:
kτ = 5,34 + 4(hw / a) 2 when a / hw ≥ 1

kτ = 4 + 5,34(hw / a) 2 when a / hw < 1
and σE is the Eulerian reference stress:
2
π2 E  tw 
σE = 2  
12(1 − ν )  hw 
f yw hw
Web reduced slenderness λw : λ w = 0, 76 =
τ cr 37, 4t ε kτ
235
− with ε = and f yw is the yield strength of the web material
f yw (in N/mm²)
Av ( f y 3)
Plastic shear resistance : V pl . Rd =
γM0
with, for a welded section subjected to shear in the web plane, the shear area given as Av = η hwtw
η f yw hw t
Ultimate shear buckling resistance : Vb . Rd = Vbw . Rd + Vbf . Rd ≤
3 γ M1
where Vbw.Rd is the contribution of the web:
χ w f yw hwt
Vbw.Rd =
3 γM1
and Vbf.Rd the contribution of the flanges (in the absence of bending moment)
b f t 2f f yf
Vbf .Rd =
c γM1
Reduction factor χw
Rigid Non rigid
λw<0,83/η η η λw ≤ 0,6/η χw = η
0,83/η ≤λw<1,08 0,83/λw 0,83/λw
λw > 0,6/η χw = 0,11 + 0,64/ λw - 0,05/ λ²w
λw≥1,08 1,37/(0,7+λw) 0,83/λw
Anchorage distance c
 1, 6b f t 2f f yf   3,5b f t 2f f yf 
c =  0, 25 + a c =  0,17 +  a and c/a ≤ 0,65
 tw hw2 f yw   t w hw2 f yw 
67
Figure 3-8 : Dimensions of test specimens for shear buckling tests (duplex steel)
Each test girder is simply supported at both ends with the supports centred on the inner pair of stiffeners
(Figure 3-9); the span is thus 2560 mm. A point load is applied at mid-span (it is thus centred on the
intermediate transverse stiffener) by means of an hydraulic jack of 5000 kN capacity; the reaction to it
is resisted by a single bay steel frame fixed on the testing slab and bridging the test girder. The test
girder is thus subjected to three-point bending; each panel experiences a same significant shear force
while the bending moment is mostly negligible. Lateral supports are provided at the ends and at mid-
span so as to prevent lateral torsional buckling.
Figure 3-9 : Lateral supports
In an attempt to get two results of the shear resistance from a single girder, the following trick is used
(Figure 3-10). First Panel L (L = Left) is fitted with a temporary diagonal member made of two tubular
sections that are located respectively on either side of the web and clamped by packing at the opposite
corners of the panel; the aim of this diagonal member is to substitute the web for the load transfer. The
girder is tested in these conditions so as to get the shear resistance of Panel R (R = Right). Once Panel R
is unloaded, the diagonal member is removed from Panel L and installed in Panel R and Panel L is then
tested. Of course, this trick may only be contemplated when the residual out-of-plane deflection (i.e.
after unloading) of the first tested web panel (Panel R) does not prevent the move of the diagonal
member from Panel L to Panel R. It shall be noticed that:
• For test girder TG3, there was no difficulty in proceeding accordingly;
68
• For test girder TG2, the magnitude of the residual buckle in the web after unloading was so large
that a portion of the web in the most buckled area had to be removed by flame cutting to permit the
installation of the strengthening diagonal members in Panel R;
• For test girder TG1, as yet said above, local buckling occurred in the compression flange
immediately after the ultimate shear of Panel R was reached; the deformation of the “crushed”
flange and adjacent part of the web made the girder unemployable for another shear test of Panel L.
Panel L Panel R
Panel L Panel R
Figure 3-10 : Reinforcing one panel for testing the other one (R = Right; L = Left)
The test specimens are instrumented as follows:

• Electronic transducers are installed to measure the vertical displacement of the girder at mid-
span, the lateral displacements of both flanges at mid-span and the out-of-plane deflection at several
points within the tested web panel (only the displacements in the panel under testing are recorded);
• Eight uniaxial strain-gauges are located on the outer face of both flanges and the web is fitted
with rosettes located opposite at five different locations along the tensile diagonal and at both
extremities of the compression diagonal.
More details may be found in the complete test report given in the appendices to present Final Report.
The loading is applied monotonously by means of an hydraulic jack with a control of the applied load.
It is proceeded by load increments, the magnitude of which is governed by what is possibly observed on
the test specimen. At the end of each load increment, the strains as well as the vertical and horizontal
displacements are carefully recorded by the data acquisition system.
Tensile test on the base material - Tensile tests have been performed on samples drawn from the 7 mm-
thick web plate. The first sample is loaded monotonously up to rupture; for the two other samples, an
unloading followed by reloading up to rupture is operated at about 80% of the expected ultimate tensile
strength. The relevant stress-strain diagrams are established based on both measured load and
elongation of the reference length so that the stress is not affected by the value of the Young modulus.
These diagrams are plotted in Figure 3-11; two zooms made successively in the range of small strains
are given in Figure 3-12 and Figure 10. Based on these three tests, the value 600 N:mm² is clearly found
appropriate as the conventional proof yield strength fy = σ0,2 at 0,2 % ; the Young modulus measured in
the stress range up σ0,2 to approaches 186 GPa. These values, which confirm those drawn from tensile
tests carried out independently by other partners, are used for the evaluation of the shear strength in
accordance with Eurocode specifications.
69
[N / mm²] Duplex steel - Tensile tests
900
800
700
600
500
400
σ
300
200 Sample 1
Sample 2
100 Sample 3
FEM
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
ε [%]
Figure 3-11 : Tensile tests on the base material of the 7 mm-thick web
Duplex steel - Shear Buckling test

800
700
600
500
σ [N / mm ]
2
400
300
200 Sample 1
Sample 2
100 Sample 3
FEM
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
ε [%]
Figure 3-12 : Zoom of the stress-strain diagrams in range up to 6%
Duplex steel - Shear Buckling test

700
600
500
σ [N / mm ]
2
400
300
200
Sample 1
Sample 2
100 Sample 3
FEM
0
0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1,0
ε [%]
Figure 3-13 : Zoom of the stress-strain diagrams in range up to 1%
70
For the purpose of numerical simulations of the shear buckling tests, the actual stress-strain curve is
approached by a tri-linear curve (see above figures) defined as follows:
• A modulus of 186,1 GPa from 0 N/mm² up to 0,2% proof yield strength 600N/mm² (≈ 0,3% strain);
• A modulus of 2,5 GPa from 600 N/mm² up to 718 N/mm² (5% strain);
• A modulus of 0,48 GPa beyond 718 N/mm² with 20% maximum strain.
Actual dimensions of plate components

Prior to the shear buckling tests, the dimensions of the plate elements are measured. They are
summarised as follows:
Test girder TG1 : (nominal) flanges 160 x 12
Flange thickness tf 12,66 mm
Flange width bf 162,3 mm
Web thickness tw 7,44 mm
Thickness of vertical stiffeners ts 20,78 mm
Maximum out-of flatness of web panels (L/R) w0 -9,6 mm (L); 20,6 mm (R)
Test girder TG2 :(nominal) flanges 160 x 20
Maximum out-of flatness of web panels (L/R) w0 13,4 mm (L); -12,7 mm (R)
Test girder TG3 : (nominal) flanges 220 x 20
Maximum out-of flatness of web panels (L/R) w0 - 15,6 mm (L); -14,8 mm (R)
All the girders exhibit several types of initial geometric imperfections, more especially:
• An out-of-straightness of the flanges;
• A lack of perpendicularity of the flanges with respect to the web;
• An out-of-flatness of the web plate.
These imperfections have magnitudes that exceed mostly the usual fabrication tolerances; as far as
shear buckling is concerned, most of them are not of major importance for what regards the shear
capacity but they are likely to influence the behaviour of the test girders during testing. While it is
known that the shear capacity is not much depending on the magnitude of the out-of-flatness of the web
plate, the latter is nevertheless measured so as to be accounted for in the numerical simulations.
From the detailed measured values (see the complete test report given in the appendices to present Final
report), it may be observed that:
• The largest magnitude of the out-of-flatness is always observed in the central region of the
panel, in the vicinity of the geometric centre of the web panels;
• Much lower but still significant values of the out-of-flatness are also observed in the corner regions;
• The magnitude of the out-of-flatness seems to confirm that, in accordance with the initial
request, no local flame heating after fabrication was used in the workshop to straighten the web;
• The distribution of the initial out-of-flatness of the web plate is rather random; indeed, above
results show that the initial deflections in the adjacent web panel may be opposite (case of TG1 and
TG2) or in the same direction (case of TG3).
Above measured amplitudes of the initial out-of-flatness are far larger than the fabrication tolerance in
force in accordance with EN1090-2 , which is about 1/250 of a reference length (web depth hw or panel
length a) ; indeed, with hw = a = 1260 mm, one gets a ratio w0/hw = w0/a in the range of 1/131 up to
1/61 with an average (over the six absolute values) of 1/ 87.
71
Comparison with literature data and Eurocode models
Besides the experimental values, the ultimate shear capacity of the test girders is assessed based
respectively on i) numerical simulations using FE techniques and ii) the specifications of the Eurocodes.
Shear capacity obtained by FE techniques - Numerical simulations are carried out with the home-made
materially and geometrically non linear software FINELG. For that purpose, use is made of the mean
measured thickness/width of the plate components and of the tri-linear modelling of the constitutive law
(see above). Also an initial imperfection is accounted for; it has an amplitude equal to the maximum
measured value (see previous section) but it is simply chosen affine to the first shear buckling mode.
Therefore a bifurcation analysis is first carried out and the deflected geometry of the web is then
appropriately normalised so as to generate the imperfect web of the girder to be simulated.
The structural imperfections that consist mainly in residual stresses due respectively to plate rolling,
plate cutting at appropriate sizes and welding are not accounted for in the numerical simulations: neither
explicitly, nor as an amplification of the initial out-of flatness of the web plate. As these structural
imperfections always have a detrimental influence on the ultimate capacity, the results of the numerical
simulations are expected to exceed the experimental results by about 10% (range observed in other
similar shear buckling tests).
The results of the numerical simulations are presented in terms of applied shear load in each panel –
that is half the load applied at mid-span – versus the vertical displacement at mid-span. The relevant
curves as well as the deflected configuration in the post-limit domain are found quite similar to those
observed on test girders made of carbon steel :
• A first part of the curve is quasi linear till a load of about 70 to 75% of the ultimate shear capacity;
• Beyond that point, the deflection grows faster with the applied load till
the latter reaches its maximum value for a vertical deflection that amounts 12 to 15 mm;
• In the post-limit range, the shear capacity decreases slowly while
deflection increases substantially.
As an example, the load-deflection curve and the deflected pattern at the ultimate relative to TG2 are
given in Figure 3-14 and Figure 3-15. For more details, and especially for the curves relative to TG1
and TG3, see the appendices to present Final Report.
Test Girder 2 (flanges 160 x 20 mm)

2000
1800
1600
1400
Shear load [kN]
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Vertical displacement [mm]
Figure 3-14 : Load-deflection curve for TG2 (FE calculations)
72
Figure 3-15 : Deflected pattern of TG2 at the ultimate (FE calculations)
The values of the “numerical” shear capacity obtained by numerical simulations are as follows:
Test Girder TG1 (flanges 160 x 12 mm) : Vu = Vb.R.num = 1700 kN
Shear capacity according to the Eurocodes - When calculating in accordance with the specifications of
Eurocodes, the measured dimensions of the test specimens and the value of the 0,2% proof yield
strength are used.
There is no need for initial out-of flatness of the web plate; indeed the shear model of Eurocodes has
been validated against existing experimental results so that it accounts implicitly for such an
imperfection, the magnitude of which is not specified in the codes but supposed to be in agreement with
the fabrication tolerances.
The procedure enabling the assessment of the “theoretical” shear capacity requires the Young modulus
amongst the data; two values of the Young modulus E are successively considered:
• E = 200000 N/mm², as specified in EN1993-1-4 as material property for EN1.4462 steel grade
(duplex steel).
• E = 186000 N/mm², as drawn from the tensile tests on 7 mm-thick samples of duplex steel web.
Also the value of the η factor – to be specified in the National Annex - is questionable. This factor
aims at accounting for the material ability to strain hardening when assessing the shear capacity. For
carbon steels, the recommended value depends on the steel grade: η = 1,2 for normalised C-steel
grades up to S460 (large strain hardening range) and η = 1,0 for higher steel grades (reduced strain
hardening range). For stainless steels, that normally exhibits a substantial range of strain-hardening, the
value η = 1,2 is adopted because the specific procedure leading to the shear capacity has been calibrated
accordingly. It shall however be noticed that the influence of η is restricted to range of small web
slenderness; as the slenderness of the test girders is not within this range, the question of η is here
meaningless.
Because the values of the shear capacity of the test girders obtained in accordance with the Eurocode
specifications (“code” shear capacity) are aimed at a comparison with those obtained from experiments
(“experimental” shear capacity) and with those calculated by means of FE techniques (“numerical”
shear capacity), all the partial safety factors γF and γM are taken equal to 1,00.
The results of the computations conducted according to the specifications of EN1993-1-5 and EN1993-
1-4 are summarised in Table 3-6.
73
Table 3-6 : Shear capacity of the test girders according to EN1995-1-5 and EN1993-1-4
Reference Young modulus Shear Test girder Test girder Test girder
resistance TG1 TG2 TG3
EN1993-1-5 E = 186 GPa V bw.R 1384 1400 1434
[6] V bf.R 49 129 168
V b.R 1432 1529 1602
E = 200 Gpa V bw.R 1423 1440 1475
V bf.R 49 129 168
V b.R 1472 1569 1643
EN1993-1-4 E = 186 Gpa V bw.R 1158 1171 1197
[7] V bf.R 70 175 224
V b.R 1227 1346 1421
E = 200 Gpa V bw.R 1186 1200 1227
V bf.R 70 175 224
V b.R 1256 1375 1451
Based on the results of Table 3-6, some conclusions may be drawn:

• Increasing the stiffness of the flanges contributes an increase in the shear capacity; this increase is
about 10% for the “strongest” flange (TG3) compared to the “weakest” one (TG1);
• Using 200 GPa (material property specified in EN1993-1-4) instead of 186 GPa (value drawn from
tensile tests on duplex material samples) increases the shear capacity Vb.R by less than 3%;
• Compared to rules for carbon steels, specific rules for stainless steels result in a reduction of the
“theoretical” shear capacity Vb.R by an amount of 15 to 17%, that is the outcome of a decrease of the
contribution of the web that overcomes the increase of the contribution of the flanges
• When focusing on the results obtained with the specific rules for stainless steels, the contribution of
the web Vbw.R is found larger (5 to 15 times) than the contribution of flanges Vbf.R; the ratio Vbf.R/ Vbw.R
increases with the stiffness of the flanges.
The detailed calculations that lead to above values of the “code” shear capacity are given in the
complete test report (see appendices to present Final Report).
Shear capacity obtained from experiments - The test girders are loaded in shear up to the ultimate. This
ultimate state is identified as the maximum of the load-deflection curve. It is reminded that Panel R (R =
Right) panel is first tested with Panel L (L = Left) panel reinforced by temporary diagonals connecting
the lower bearing of the beam to the load point at mid-span. In a second step, Panel L is tested with
Panel R reinforced similarly on its own. Of course the shear capacity obtained for Panel L should just be
informative as it is likely to be affected by the condition of the girder after testing of Panel R and
subsequent unloading; therefore the results relative to Panel L are given below between brackets:
• Test girder TG1 (flanges 160 x 12 mm)
Panel R : Vb.R.exp = 3030 kN/2 = 1515 kN
Panel L : Lateral torsional buckling of the compression flange in the plastic range and of
adjacent web area (occurred just after the ultimate shear capacity of Panel R is
reached) does not permit to test Panel L.
Panel R : Vb.R.exp = 3409 kN/2 = 1705 kN
(Panel L : Vb.R.exp > 3100 kN/2 = > 1550 kN )
Panel R : Vb.R.exp = 3404 kN/2 = = 1702 kN
(Panel L : Vb.R.exp = 3284 kN/2 = = 1642 kN)
74
The values of the ultimate shear capacity relative to Panel R of TG2 and TG3 are rather close to each
other; the effect of flange stiffness on the shear capacity is thus hardly observable. The proximity of the
results might be justified by a slightly larger out-of-flatness in both panels of TG3 compared to TG2, on
the one hand, and by the perturbation brought by the misalignment of one of the pair of stiffeners at
mid-span.
The shear capacity of Panel R of TG1 is about 10% lower than the ones of the similar panel of TG2 and
TG3; here the reduced contribution of the flanges is clearly observable.
The values of the shear capacity of Panel L of TG2 are lower, but not so much, than those obtained for
Panel R; that might be expected because some degradation of the test girders results necessarily from
the testing of the right panel.
The values of the ultimate shear capacity relative to Panel L of TG2 and TG3 may be considered as
similar if it is reminded that the value relative to TG2 is a lower bound. Extrapolating the load-
deflection curve to what would be the peak of this curve let expect a value within the range [1600 kN-
1630 kN]. The shear capacity of Panel L of both TG2 and TG3 is thus a bit less than the one relative to
Panel R of the same girders. This very slight reduction may result from some unavoidable degradation
of the girders resulting from the previous testing of Panel R. There are some testimonies of that:
• The patch loaded flange area, i.e. the part of the flange on which the load is applied at mid-span
through a solid distribution pad, yields locally;
• The residual vertical deflection at mid-span after testing of Panel R is about 10 mm for TG2 and
6 mm for TG3;
• The vertical stiffener exhibits a residual out-of-straightness after testing of the Panel R; that is
especially noticeable for TG2;
• The initial twist of the compression flange of TG2 is increased after testing of Panel R;
• The relative verticality of the web of TG2 and TG3 is less after testing of Panel R.
Comparison - At this stage, the ultimate shear capacity of the three test girders is characterised by:
• “Experimental” values obtained from “tests” (Vtest);
• “Numerical” values obtained by numerical simulations using “FE techniques” (VFE);
• “Theoretical” values corresponding to the application of “code specifications”, either specific to
stainless steels (Vcode,1-4) or – informatively – to carbon steels (Vcode,1-5); these values are established
based on a Young modulus of 200 GPa that is the material property specified in EN1993-1-4 for the
type of duplex steel investigated herein.
All these values, as well as their ratios, are collected in Table 3-7.
Compared to test results, the values obtained by applying both sets of standard specifications with all
the partial safety factors taken equal to 1 and the measured values of the Young modulus are mostly
conservative. The results obtained with EN1993-1-4 (standard applicable to stainless steels) are found
about 15% lower than those obtained with EN1993-1-5 (standard applicable to carbon steels).
The data base of shear buckling tests on unstiffened girders (i.e. without longitudinal stiffeners but with
transverse stiffeners) made of stainless steel may be implemented by 10 tests carried out at the
Polytechnical University of Catalogne (see [5] and [6]), that are referred to in the following as “UPC
tests”. An evaluation of the UPC tests may be found in the second of above references but a new one is
required in order to make it in full agreement with the most recent drafts of both EN1993-1-4 and
EN1993-1-5. The detailed results of this new evaluation are given in the appendices to present Final
Report; they are summarised in Table 3-8 and Table 3-9.
75
Table 3-7 : Comparison of predicted and measured values (in kN) of the shear capacity
Girder Panel Vtest Vcode,1-5 Vcode,1-4 VFE Vtest /Vcode,1-5 Vtest/Vcode,1-4 Vtest / VFE
TG1 R 1515 1472 (*) 1256 (*) 1700 1,03 1,21 0,89
(*)
1432 (**) 1228 (**) 1,06 1,23
L - 1472 (*) 1256 (*) 1700 1,03 1,21 0,89
(*)
1432 (**) 1228 (**) 1,06 1,23
TG2 R 1705 1569 (*) 1375 (*) 1810 1,09 1,24 0,94
(*)
1529 (**) 1346 (**) 1,12 1,27
L (1550) 1569 (*) 1375 (*) 1810 (0,99) (1,13) (0,86)
1529 (**) 1346 (**) (*) (1,01) (1,15)
TG3 R 1702 1643 (*) 1451 (*) 1880 1,04 1,17 0,91
(*)
1602 (**) 1421 (**) 1,06 1,21
L (1642) 1643 (*) 1451 (*) 1880 (1,00) (1,13) (0,87)
(*)
1602 (**) 1421 (**) (1,03) (1,16)
(*) With E = 200 GPa (**) With E = 186 GPa
Table 3-8 : Evaluation of extended data base (stainless steels) with respect to EN1993-1-5
Vtest/Vcode,1-4 Subset 1: UPC Subset 2: ULg Total:

tests tests (UPC + ULg)
Number of tests N 10 3 13
Maximum value 1,18 1,12 1,18
Minimum value 0,96 1,06 0,96
Mean value m 1,032 1,078 1,043
Standard deviation s 0,070 0,032 0,066
Characteristic value m-2s 0,89 1,01 0,91
Table 3-9 : Evaluation of extended data base (stainless steels) with respect to EN1993-1-4
Vtest/Vcode,1-5 Subset 1: UPC Subset 2: ULg Total:

tests tests (UPC + ULg)
Number of tests N 10 3 13
Maximum value 1,25 1,27 1,27
Minimum value 1,12 1,20 1,12
Mean value m 1,180 1,233 1,192
Standard deviation s 0,041 0,036 0,045
Characteristic value m-2s 1,10 1,16 1,10
76
Conclusions
The results of the new evaluations, in terms of Vtest/Vcode ratios, confirm that the specifications of
EN1993-1-5 applicable to carbon steels may not be used for stainless steels; indeed though the safety is
just enough when reference is made to the sole subset of the ULg tests, it is no more satisfactory when
reference is made to the subset of the UPC tests or to the set composed of both UPC and ULg tests. In
contrast, the specifications of EN1993-1-4, that address specifically stainless steels, are found
appropriate whatever the type of construction: either buildings (γM1 = 1,00) or bridges (γM1 = 1,10).
Compared to the experimental results Vtest, the values VFE obtained by numerical simulations are
generally larger by an amount that peaks about 10% as well for the UPC tests as for the ULg tests; that
magnitude is known as being realistic of the influence of the residual stresses that – as yet stated above
– are not accounted for neither directly nor indirectly in the numerical simulations.
It shall be stressed that FE calculations are conducted based on an initial imperfection similar to the first
buckling mode but with a magnitude of the imperfection equal to the largest measured value for the
ULg tests (so as to be realistic) but equal to a constant value equal to 0,004 mm for the UPC tests (the
aim being here to initiate the buckling phenomenon and nothing more). Comparing the individual
values Vtest/VFEM for respectively the UPC tests and the ULg tests support the well known statement that
the shear buckling resistance is not significantly sensible to the magnitude of the initial imperfection.
77
TASK 3.3 - CORROSION RESISTANCE
Aqueous corrosion on the base metal
The corrosion resistance of the UR45NMo duplex grade has been evaluated through the standard
corrosion tests: ASTMG48E for the Critical Pitting Temperature (CPT) and the ASTM G48D for the
Critical Crevice Temperature (CCT). The results are presented in Figure 3-16 and Figure 3-17. For
comparison proposal, same data were acquired on the austenitic stainless steel grade 316L, sometimes
used in marine atmosphere, and 304L but also on lean duplex grade UR35N (UNS S32304, EN 1.4362).
In ferric chloride solution, the UR45NMo has much higher CPT and CCT than those of 304L, 316L or
UR35N. Even if these operating conditions are not representative of the application, this test permits a
ranking of the stainless steel grades according to their resistance to localized corrosion in chlorides
containing, acidic and oxidising solution.
UR35N UR45NMo
Figure 3-16: Critical pitting temperature (CPT) according to ASTM G48-03 method E (FeCl3 6% +
HCl 1%)
35
30 27,5
25
CCT (°C)
20
15
10
<5 <5
5
0
304L 316L S32205
UR45NMo
Figure 3-17: Critical crevice temperature (CCT) according to ASTM G48-03 method D (FeCl3 6%)
In addition pitting potential was evaluated from polarization curves in chloride containing neutral
solutions in order to simulate concentrated sea water environments. Higher is the pitting potential,
higher is the pitting corrosion resistance. The values of pitting potential for the UR35N and the
UR45NMo but also for the 304L and 316L austenitic grades are given in the Figure 3-18.
78
UR35N UR45NMo
Figure 3-18: Pitting potential values (Epit) in [NaCl]=50g/L, pH=6,4 and T=60°C
In 50g/l NaCl neutral solution at 60°C, no pitting potential was measured on the UR45NMo specimen,
whereas 304L, 316L and UR35N show increasing pitting potentials.
In order to estimate the difference of pitting corrosion resistance between 316L and UR45NMo, the
aggressiveness of the operating conditions were increased. Pitting potential values were measured on
the duplex grade with both higher temperature and chloride concentration (see Figure 3-19a and Figure
3-19b). Pitting potentials were measured on duplex grade only in 100g/l NaCl solution at 60°C. Pits
initiate on the duplex grade at a very high potential, whereas the pitting potential of the 316L grade is
very low. Consequently, the UR45NMo is more pitting corrosion resistant than the 316L grade in
synthetic brine.
UR45NMo UR45NMo
(a) [NaCl]=100g/L, pH=6,4, T=50°C (b) [NaCl]=100g/L, pH=6,4, T=60°C

Figure 3-19: Pitting potential values (Epit).
Atmospheric exposures
Material - The Table 3-10 gives a description of the 4 types specimens of UR45NMo grade that were
exposed on each site.
Sample 1 is a base material with as-delivered industrial surface state.
The sample 2 is a specimen with a bead of welding made by GMAW process and duplex filler metal.
Before exposure this sample is equipped, with two multi crevice assemblies (see Figure 3-20), in order
to test the crevice corrosion resistance of heat affected zone (HAZ) and base material. The applied
torque is 8,5 Nm.
79
Figure 3-20: drawing and picture of the multi crevice assembly (MCA) in acetal resin
Table 3-10: description of the 4 specimen types for atmospheric exposure

Number
Surface state
Sam Dimensions exposed Angle of Atmospheric
ple
Photographs of the specimens type 3 finish before
(mm ) on each inclination behaviour of
exposure
site
Industrial shot Base

150 x 100 x
1 blasted and 3 45° material
7
pickled pitting
Welded
CRMC sand
assembly
150 x 100 x blasted and
2 3 45° pitting and
7 pickled after
crevice
welding
susceptibility
45°
In
CRMC sand Welded
100 x 300 x horizontal
B1 blasted and 6 assembly
150 and
pickled pitting
vertical
position
45
CRMC sand In Stress
B2 130 x 25 x 7 blasted and 4 horizontal corrosion
pickled position susceptibility
only
80
Samples B1 are specimens made by OMBA. They are exposed at 45° as following: 3 samples with the
weld parallel to the horizontal direction and 3 samples with the weld parallel to the 45° direction.
Sample B2 are used for four point bend test. This test is performed with 2 B2 type specimens made by
OMBA (see Figure 3-21) in order to study the stress corrosion cracking resistance of this welded
specimen type. The applied stress is 100% of the actual Y.S.0,2%.
σ
Test specimen d
Deflection calculation df:

h 2h
σ × H ² × (1 − ) × (1 + )
df = H H
3Σt
with df = specimen deflection
σ = tensile stress (MPa)
H = length of specimen (mm)
h = distance between inner supports (mm)
σ = modulus of elasticity (MPa)
t = thickness of specimen (mm)
Stress gauges
Figure 3-21: drawing and picture of four point bending assembly
Locations and aggressiveness of field exposure - For natural exposure three sites were selected: one in
France (Brest site) and two in Italy (Genoa and Roma):
- The French site is located on the Atlantic coast (see Figure 3-22a), it is managed by Institute de la
corrosion (which belongs to Swerea, Sweeden).
- The first Italian site is located in Genoa on the Mediterranean coast. It is within the port and the air is
polluted by both the road traffic and the industries. It is located just near the sea (see Figure 3-22b).
- The second Italian site is located inside CSM area at the south of Roma (see Figure 3-22c) and is at 5
km from the Mediterranean coast.
(a) Brest site (b) Genoa site (c) Roma site

Figure 3-22: Sites for atmospheric exposure
81
To evaluate the aggressiveness of each site, reference samples (aluminium, zinc, copper and steel) are
exposed during the same test period, in accordance with standard practice ISO 9223. For each specimen
the corrosion rate has been measured. Ranking has been performed from the measured corrosion rates.
The Table 3-11 presents the aggressiveness and atmospheric data of each test site.
Table 3-11: Aggressiveness and atmospheric data
Relative Time of wetness Rain

Aggressiveness Temperature Average concentration (6 month
humidity (hours per water
Test (°C) average value)
(HR%) month) pH
site (standard practice
ISO9223) Ave- Ave- Ave- Ave- Chloride NOx SOx
Max Min Max Min Max Min
rage rage rage rage mg/m²/day mg/m²/day mg/m²/day
Brest C3/C5 25 -1 12.6 100 24 83 580 455 516 5.6 10.5 - -
Genoa C2/C4 33.1 3.3 17 100 16 67 351 101 206 6.5 2.65 1.58 1.37
Roma C1/C3 38.7 0.8 17 100 22 80 577 222 414 6.0 0.7 0.7 0.6
The aim is on one hand to correlate the main parameters of the atmosphere with the corrosion behaviour
of the stainless steel grade. On the other hand it is to evaluate the aggressiveness of another location by
comparison between tests sites and so to check the suitability of the grade in a new environment.
One year exposure results - After about one year exposure specimens are removed on each site
exposure to calculate the eventual mass loss and for deep examination.
1 – Base material (specimen 1) and samples with bead of welding (specimen 2)

No weight loss has been measured on each site (corrosion rate equal to 0). For the Genoa site, little
cosmetic corrosion is observed on specimen by visual examination. Transversal cut is performed on
these indications. After micrographic examination of the section no localized corrosion was identified.
2 – Omba B1 samples
A weight loss is measured on B1 specimen from each site, on horizontal or vertical position. Before
washing weight loss is between 90 to 160 mg. After water washing weight loss is increasing between
150 to 230 mg.
With visual examinations rust stain is observed around the toe of the weld (Figure 3-23). A transversal
cut of the considered area is performed for macro and micrographic examinations (see Figure 3-24). A
lake of fusion is detected with corrosion products inside. No localized corrosion on base material is
observed inside the defect. This type of defect is due to the reduction of welding travel speed at this
localization. The welder should be aware of such difficulty to avoid it.
a) b)
Figure 3-23: a) Localization of the corrosion deposit on the B1 specimen; b) rust tint on the toe of the
weld
82
a) b)
Figure 3-24: a) Macrograph of the defect (transversal cut); b) Micrograph of the defect
Weight losses are observed on each B1 specimen and are the consequence of localized dissolution of
residual welding oxides inside the lake of fusion. Corrosion rate of the base material can not be
calculated from these weight losses.
3 – Omba B2 samples for stress corrosion cracking

No sign of localized corrosion or stress corrosion cracking susceptibility have been observed on
samples exposed with 100% Rp0,2 stress applied.
Conclusions
If few cosmetic indications have been detected, no localized corrosion was observed on all specimens
investigated after about one year exposure, whatever the exposure site and its aggressiveness.
The calculated corrosion rate has been evaluated from the base material as being lower than 0,5 µm per
year. It demonstrates that no uniform corrosion occurs after one year exposure.
In addition, no stress corrosion cracking occurs after one year exposure.
The atmospheric exposures are still in progress on each site and results after the 2nd year of exposures
on Brest site are available at the time of report publication, the above conclusions are confirmed.
83
WP4 FATIGUE AND CORROSION FATIGUE
Objectives
• to verify the applicability of Eurocode 3 suggestions for fatigue design of welded bridges to
duplex stainless steel;
• to evaluate the differences in terms of fatigue behaviour of welded structural elements more
complex than a simple specimen made of either carbon steel or duplex stainless steel;
• to check if and under which conditions fatigue corrosion can occur on duplex welded elements.

Activities planned in Task 4.1 (Tests with reference to the Eurocode 3 classification (small specimens))
are completed, they consists of:
• Constant amplitude fatigue tests on 6 general welded details (at least 15 tests per specimen)
(OMBA, RWTH and ULg).
• Constant amplitude fatigue tests on 2 details specific of bridge deck (OMBA and ULg); the
specimen became full scale components during the project and both for material/construction
costs and testing costs the number of tests performed is reduced to 15 per specimen instead of
30 tests planned.
Activities planned in Task 4.2 (Tests on mid-scale specimens) are completed, they consists of:
• constant amplitude fatigue tests on large bi-dimensional specimen containing several welded
details among those tested in task 4.1 (CSM); one extra test was performed over the 2 initially
planned.
Activities planned in Task 4.3 (Corrosion fatigue) are completed, they consists of:
• fatigue corrosion tests on specimens selected among the critical components of bridges. The
selected environments are of high chloride concentration and representative of expected in
service conditions. A series of test in air has been performed for comparison (INDUSTEEL).
85
TASK 4.1 - TESTS WITH REFERENCE TO THE EUROCODE 3
CLASSIFICATION (SMALL SPECIMENS)
Constant amplitude fatigue tests have been performed on 8 standard critical constructional details of
welded bridges (Figure 4-1).
A.5 A.6
B.2
A.4
B.1
A.1
A.3
A.2
Figure 4-1: Standard constructional welded details of welded bridges under investigation
The constructional welded details investigated in the framework of present research contract belong to
some standard details listed in EN1993-1-9 (see [55] and [52]). More especially, they are :
• A.1 : Ends of longitudinal stiffeners
• A.2 : Transverse splices in plate or flat;
• A.3 : Transversal stiffener;
• A.4 : Rib-to-deck connection;
• A.5 : Transverse splice with backing strip (Tack welds inside the shape of butt welds);
• A.6 : Shear stud welded on base material;
• B.1: Rib-to-crossbeam connection;
• B.2: Rib-to-deck connection with backing strip.
As far as possible, the tests are performed in fatigue testing machines. However, due to the sizes of few
specimens, testing of the latter is conducted in a testing rig especially built on the testing floor of the
laboratory and the load is applied by an hydraulic actuator. The fatigue tests are conducted under
constant stress range ∆σ with a stress ratio close to the one used in the past for similar tests on C-steel
specimens. In view of the statistical evaluation of the test results, the S-N curve of each constructional
detail is determined by performing about 15 tests under constant amplitude stress range ∆σ .
For test specimens A1, A2, A3, A5, A6, B1 and B2, the whole range fatigue loading is kept in
tension with a stress ratio R = σmin/σmax ≈ 0,1. The stress ratio for specimen A4 is fixed to R = –
1,15, so as to approach the loading conditions observed actually in an orthotropic deck. For all
the tests, the maximum stress amplitude is preliminary fixed so as not to exceed ∆σ = fy/1,7;
thus the maximum stress is restricted to the value σmax = (fy/1,7)/(1-R); furthermore the
maximum stress is kept lower than 70% of the nominal yield strength fy. For test series A1 and
A3 tests on stress ranges and maximum stresses exceeding the values fixed have additionally
been performed to get a first impression on a possible influence of the continues material
behaviour on the fatigue strength and to take overstrength into account.
86
For all the details investigated herein, a literature review has first been conducted on fatigue
tests performed with C-steels (see [36] to [51]) and regular stainless steels (see [57]). These
results as well as those obtained from own tests [53] are statistically evaluated in order to
determine the relevant S-N curve and more especially the fatigue detail category ∆σc (i.e. the
characteristic strength at 2.106 cycles). For that purpose the ∆σc values are based on both load
(∆P/A) and strain (∆ε x αE) measurements (see below). The statistical evaluation is carried out
by using the linear regression analysis described in [51]. The results are the 50% and 95%
probability of survival for a variable slope m and for a fixed slope m = 3, the latter being
adopted in EN1993-1-9 for C-steels [52]. For that purpose, only tests data with fatigue life in
the range 104 to 2 106 cycles are considered.
Usually the stress range ∆σ is calculated from the applied load range ∆P deduced from load cell
measurements and the measured cross-sectional area A of the specimen; then:
∆σi = (∆P / A) [Load cell]
Alternatively it may be determined based on strain measurements by means of appropriately located
strain-gauges according as :
∆σi = (∆ε x E) [Strain gauges]
where E is the Young modulus of the steel material.
During evaluation of the results a question arose on the value of E modulus to be adopted for. In
accordance with EN1993-1-4, the value of E of EN 1.4462 steel grade is E = 200 GPa for general
purposes while at Serviceability Limit State reference should be made to the secant modulus of
elasticity Es. The modulus of elasticity E of Uranus 45NMo duplex steel deduced from the stress-strain
curves recorded during a tensile test on the standard specimens ranges from 180 to 190 GPa; it varies
with both the plate thickness and the direction of the specimen compared to the direction of rolling
(Task 2.1). A limited experimental campaign performed by CSM for the evaluation of material
constitutive modelling confirmed the value of E = 200 GPa being reasonable when adopting the
Ramberg-Osgood-Rasmussen material model (Task 5.2). In the following the value E = 200 GPa is
adopted in the statistical evaluation when transforming the strain into stress according to above relation.
For sake of consistency, the fatigue strength should refer to the value Eα of the Young modulus used in
the static analysis; therefore the fatigue strength ∆σc drawn from the statistical evaluation has to be
multiplied by the factor:
α = Eα / 200000
so as to get the relevant fatigue strength to be used for fatigue verifications :
For specimen A.4, the stress has also been computed based on an analysis using FE techniques:
∆σi = (∆σ)FEM
For tests A.1, A.2, A.3 and A.5 the stress ranges have been determined from both load cell and strain
gauge measurements.
The most interesting data and results are given below for each constructional detail. The sizes of the
test specimen as well as, when useful, the testing conditions are given. Also the results of the statistical
evaluations (two separate evaluations as said above) are provided. Also the test results are plotted in a
log ∆σ – log N diagram, as well as the S-N curve derived from the statistical evaluation conducted
with a fixed slope m = 3; for sake of comparison, the standard curve applicable to the same
constructional detail made of C-steels , in accordance with EN1993-1-9, is plotted too.
More details relative to the fatigue test specimens and the testing conditions, on the one hand, and on
the statistical evaluation of the test results may be found in the appropriate test reports.
Summarised information regarding the fatigue tests conducted to the selection of constructional welded
details is given in the following Tables.
87
Table 4-1 : Experimental results of Detail A.1
Test A.1 Ends of longitudinal stiffeners
12
12
100
150
1000 250
1000
m = 3 (DUPLEX)
m = 3 (C-Steels)
Test results
log ∆σ [N/mm2]
100
∆σ = ∆P
A
10
1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07
log N [-]
S-N curve 95% fractile

R n
properties (∆P/A) (∆ε x αE)
m variable 2,84 _
∆σc (N/mm²) 69,1
Literature ≈ 0,10 103
m=3 _
72,8
∆σc (N/mm²)
m variable 2,68 2,63
∆σc (N/mm²) 67,2 81,7
New tests ≈ 0,10 15
m=3
72 87,6
∆σc (N/mm²)
88
Test A.2 Transverse splices in plate or flat

(Welds not ground flush; run-on and run-off pieces;
welded from both sides; checked by NDT)
30
500 500 100
1000
∆σ = ∆P
A
log ∆σ [N/mm2]
100
m = 3 (DUPLEX)
m = 3 (C-Steels)
Test results
Test results (ground flushed)
10
1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07
log N [-]

R n
∆σc (N/mm²) 67,2 101,8
m=3
85,4 103,3
∆σc (N/mm²)
89
Test A.3 Transversal stiffeners
100
12
100
20
1000 150
1000
∆σ = ∆P
A
log ∆σ [N/mm ]
2
100
m = 3 (DUPLEX)
m = 3 (C-Steels)
Test results
10
1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07
log N [-]

R n
∆σc (N/mm²) 94,1 105,3
m=3
88,2 106,5
∆σc (N/mm²)
90
Test A.4 Rib-to-deck connection

(Partial penetration weld with a ≥ t)
750
400
150 300 300

12
7
Tests were carried out in a simple
300
testing rig built on the testing floor of

the laboratory with the load applied by
150 means of an hydraulic actuator.
1000
∆σ = ∆P
A
log ∆σ [N/mm2]
100
m = 3 (DUPLEX)
m = 3 (C-Steels)
Test results
not considered
10
1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07
log N [-]

R n
properties (∆σFEM) (∆ε x αE)
∆σc (N/mm²) 105 105,7
New tests ≈ -1,15 12
m=3
161,6 159
∆σc (N/mm²)
91
Test A.5 Transverse splice with backing strip

(Tack welds inside the shape of butt welds.)
12
500 500 100
1000
∆σ = ∆P
A
log ∆σ [N/mm2]
100
m = 3 (DUPLEX)
m = 3 (C-Steels)
Test results
Test results (ground flushed)
10
1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07
log N [-]

R n
∆σc (N/mm²) 111,5 133,5
m=3
72,7 86,1
∆σc (N/mm²)
92
Test A.6 Shear stud welded on base material
log ∆σ [N/mm²]
log N [-]

R n
m variable 2,98 _
∆σc (N/mm²) 119,6
New tests ≈ 0,10
m=3
121,9 _
∆σc (N/mm²)
93
Table 4-7 : Experimental results of Detail B.1
Test B.1 Rib to crossbeam connection
∆P
800 700 20
12 12
7
300
600
150
300
A few tests were first performed in a specific

testing rig built on the testing floor of the
laboratory with the load applied by an
hydraulic actuator. Testing was pursued in a
hydraulic testing machine.
log ∆σ [N/mm²]
log N [-]

R n
m variable _ 1,48
∆σc (N/mm²) 52,4
m=3
_ 155,9
∆σc (N/mm²)
94
Table 4-8 : Experimental results of Detail B.2
Test B.2 Rib to deck connection with backing strip
1000
∆σ = ∆P
A
log ∆σ [N/mm ]
2
100
m = 3 (DUPLEX)
m = 3 (C-Steels)
Test results
10
1,E+04 1,E+05 1,E+06 1,E+07
log N [-]

R n
m variable 2,81 _
∆σc (N/mm²) 88,7
m=3
101,8 _
∆σc (N/mm²)
95
The results of the statistical evaluation obtained with the assumed slope m = 3 are summarised in the
table below (Table 4-9 ).
Table 4-9: Summary of the results of the statistical evaluation for m = 3
Duplex steel Uranus 45 NMo

C- steel
Fatigue strength (∆P/A) Increase (∆ε x αE) Increase
95% 95% % 95% %
A.1 56 72 29 88 57
A.2 87 85 (*) -2 103 (*) 18
A.3 80 88 10 107 34
∆σc (N/mm²)
A.4 71 - - 159 124

m=3
A.5 71 73 3 86 21
A.6 80 122 53 - -
B.1 71 - - 156 120
B.2 71 - - 102 45
(*) Size effect included
Conclusions
The outcome of the evaluation can be summarized as follows:

• Minor yielding occurred in duplex steel specimens do not have a significant influence on the
fatigue strength.
• The fatigue strength of the investigated constructional details is always larger – and sometimes
significantly larger - for duplex steel than for C-steels.
• Because of the limited number of test results on duplex steel, it is premature to propose detail
categories other than those applicable to C-steels; further experimental investigations should be
needed in this respect.
• Using for duplex steel the detail categories specified in EN1993-1-9 for C-steels is
recommended though probably over-conservative.
• Due to the non linear stress-strain curve of duplex steel, the fatigue strength depends on the
Young modulus where the stress range is based on strain measurements; therefore the need to
consider, for the fatigue verifications, the influence of the Eα-modulus used in the static analysis.
96
TASK 4.2 - TESTS ON MID-SCALE SPECIMENS
Three constant amplitude fatigue test have been conducted by CSM on a large bi-dimensional part of an
orthotropic deck where several rib-to-crossbeam welded connections are present. The results are
compared with experimental data from T.U. Pisa [16] on similar specimens made of S355 steel
collected during activities of Task 1.3.
In order to compare the fatigue behaviour of different steel grades the testing rig arrangement used by
T.U. Pisa (see Figure 4-2) is adopted and the dimensions of the test specimen are chosen similar to
those found in literature. However, a few modifications are brought so as to account for the plate
thickness availability and for the most common shape of the stiffeners presently used.
Figure 4-2 : Constant amplitude fatigue test at T.U. Pisa [16]
a) b)
Figure 4-3 : Mid-scale test specimen a) dimensions and load application areas (red arrows); b) test
specimen and testing rig arrangement used at the T.U. Pisa
The tested mid-scale specimen is represented in Figure 4-3: it consists in a 2000 mm × 1500 mm deck
with a 12 mm thick plating stiffened by three 7 mm thick trapezoidal stiffeners passing through the
97
12 mm thick web of crossbeams. For sake of comparison, the test layout used at the T.U. Pisa is also
shown in Figure 4-3 .
The two specimens differ for: the section of the ribs (7 mm thick trapezoidal ribs instead of 6 mm thick
triangular ribs); the thickness of the crossbeam (12 mm instead of 10 mm) and of course the welding
procedures for the fabrication of the test specimen are specific for Duplex stainless steel; dedicated
trials are commented on Task 2.2
The constant amplitude fatigue loads are applied on the top plate over two contact areas of 300 mm ×
300 mm, located 600 mm away from the web of the crossbeam and symmetrically with respect to the
beam itself. The fatigue loads are centred between the central and the lateral ribs, in the position
demonstrated by the static analysis as the most severe with regard to the stress pattern around the cut-
outs.
During the fatigue tests carried out at the T.U. Pisa, the local stresses were monitored by means of strain
gages. The experimental data are reported in Table 4-10 ; in the table the stresses are the peak stresses
at the free edge of the cut-out measured by means of strain gauges.
Table 4-10 : Experimental data from literature [16]
ID σmin [MPa] σmax [MPa] ∆σ [MPa] Pmin [kN] Pmax [kN] ∆P [kN] Number of cycles
1 15 265 250 14 244 230 500’000
2 15 265 250 14 244 230 350’000
3 15 175 160 14 162 148 2’000’000
4 15 175 160 14 162 148 1’600’000
A review of the data and information available in the literature highlights the fact that the cracks always
appear in the cross-beam, starting under the loaded area from the free edge of the cut-out. Those fatigue
cracks develop in zones subjected to compressive principal stresses, the stress pattern being the one
shown in Figure 4-4. The authors state that “crack initiation should be caused by residual stress pattern
in these zones, while propagation may be due to out of plane and prying effects”.
Figure 4-4 : Principal stress pattern along the free edge of the cut-outs [16]
With the aim of investigating both the stress pattern in the specimen to be tested and the load levels to
be developed by the testing machine, the specimen is modelled by FE Method and is subjected to a
static analysis (see Figure 4-5). For that purpose, the nonlinear MSC Marc Code is used; model details
are reported in Task 5.1.
The principal stress pattern at the free edge of the cut-outs seem to match those drawn from literature
(see Figure 4-6).
98
Lateral Central
stiffener stiffener
Figure 4-5 : FE model of the mid-scale specimen (left); principal stress pattern in a static analysis for a
100 kN total applied load (right).
Figure 4-6 : Larger principal stresses along the free edge of cut-outs for lateral and central stiffener:
comparison between CSM numerical data and TU Pisa experimental data
Figure 4-7 : Strain-gauges on the first test specimen (left); FE model crack enlarging stress pattern
(right).
To check that the actual stresses match the ones calculated with the FE model, the first specimen is
equipped with strain-gauges (see Figure 4-7) located at two points of the lateral cut-out that the FE
99
model shows the critical ones in terms of the stress tending to enlarge a potential crack (see Figure 4-7);
they are positioned on each side of the cross-beam (to verify the effective symmetry of the specimen).
Though the loading is applied in a symmetric way, the strain-gauge output exhibits remarkable
differences in stresses at the corresponding points of the two sides of the crossbeam (see Table 4-11
where errors are calculated on the mean stress values). These discrepancies are likely due to some
specimen misalignment during the test; they make the results obtained by the FE model unreliable, so
that it has been necessary to locate strain-gauges on the two other mid-scale specimens too: it is then
possible to evaluate directly the loads to be applied by the testing machine so as to obtain the desired
stress range ∆σ at the critical locations. Between the respective outputs relative to the two sides of the
crossbeam, reference is made to the larger value, assuming thus that the corresponding location is the
most likely to see the crack rises on.
Table 4-11 : Discrepancies between the indications provided by the strain-gauges (First test specimen)
1st couple of strain gauges 2nd couple of strain gauges
Sg 1 Sg 2 Sg1 Sg 2
Maximum principal stress [MPa] 111,6 80,2 -3,9 -10,8

Minimum principal stress [MPa] 5,5 7,3 -120 -158,1
Mean maximum principal stress [MPa] 95,9 -7,35
Mean minimum principal stress [MPa] 6,4 -139,05
Error on maximum principal stress [%] 16,4 46,9
Error on minimum principal stress [%] 14,1 13,7
The test layout is shown in Figure 4-8.
Figure 4-8 : Test layout
The experimental test results are given in Table 4-12, where reference is made to the
longitudinal stress calculated in the rib web at the point of crack initiation. In Table 4-13
principal stresses around cut-out edge - the larger absolute value amongst those measured – are
compared with principal stresses calculated by FEM in the same position. The test results are
plotted in Figure 4-9.
100
Table 4-12 : Fatigue on mid-scale specimen experimental results
Number of
ID σmax [MPa] σmin [MPa] ∆σ [MPa] Pmax [kN] Pmin [kN] ∆P [kN] Result
cycles
1 126 13 113 143 14,3 128,4 1’045’000 failure
2 188 19 169 213 21,3 191,7 480’000 failure
3 386 39 347 438 43,8 394,2 52’000 failure
Table 4-13: Comparison between finite element model output and experimental results
σmax [MPa] σmax [MPa] Error [%]

ID Pmax [kN]
calculated measured
1 143 158 171 8,2
2 213 260 255 -2,0
3 438 459 524 14,1
Figure 4-9 : Fatigue on mid-scale specimen: experimental results.
It may be noticed in Figure 4-10 and Figure 4-11 that the fatigue crack initiates always at the
same place: in the web of lateral rib directly under the load, at the weld toe of the rib-to-
crossbeam joint, initiating at the apex of cut-out and propagating longitudinally along the web
of the rib. Thus, for Duplex steel, the critical region of the constructional detail under
investigation seems to be the weld itself and not the cut edge. Thus, in contrast with C-steels,
101
the weld - instead of the crossbeam - is the critical zone for Duplex steel. That detail is
classified FAT 71 in EN1993-1-9.
Figure 4-10 : Specimen ID 1 fatigue crack location and its magnified view
Figure 4-11 : Specimen ID 2 fatigue crack (left); specimen ID 3 fatigue crack (right).
Conclusions
Though the number of tests – three – is far from sufficient for enabling fully reliable results in terms of
fatigue statistical data, the experimental results give to believe that the curve Category 71 specified by
Eurocode for C-steels is safe for Duplex steel too.
Moreover comparing duplex and S355 orthotropic deck specimens the following observations arise:
- points of crack initiation are different for the two series of specimens: duplex developing in the rib-
to-crossbeam joint while S355 in the crossbeam at the free edge of cut out; thus, in contrast with C-
steels, the weld - instead of the crossbeam - is the critical zone for Duplex steelwork;
- both those points of crack initiation are compressive zones, this fact should confirm the elevate
contribution of residual stress patterns in this kind of specimen;
- since residual stresses are influenced by welding procedures, the different welding procedure used
for duplex together with different material distortion tendency during fabrication can induce a
different point of crack initiation.
102
TASK 4.3 - CORROSION FATIGUE
Fatigue and fatigue corrosion tests have been performed on stiffener-to-stiffener welded joint specimens
machined from detail B.2 (see Figure 4-12a)). The joint is a butt weld with full penetration and with
steel backing plate. 7mm thick UR45NMo plates were assembled with Submerged Arc Welding
process, 2209 duplex welding consumables and support plate. The weld has been divided into
50x300mm length pieces (B2 specimens) with the dimensions described in Figure 4-12b).
In the Eurocode 3 the detail category is FAT71 in case of carbon steel. This means that the fatigue of
carbon steel B2 specimens must be, at least, 71MPa for 2 millions cycles. The same requirement has to
be taken into account for the duplex B2 assemblies.
Stiffener
B2
specimen
Rib
a) b)
Figure 4-12: a) Assembly of the two stiffeners and localization of the B2 specimen; b) B2 specimen
dimensions.
Constant amplitude fatigue tests have been performed in two different environments: air and synthetic
sea water. For this second environment two operating conditions were used: in immersion and with
aspersion.
Fatigue test in air - The fatigue tests in air have been performed with a cycle frequency of 10Hz. 15
specimens have been tested with 3 different levels of strength amplitude, from 160 to 360MPa. Figure
4-13 describes the tests results performed in air and the FAT 71 curve for comparison.
10000
Fatigue limit of the UR45NMo base metal FAT 71 Fatigue tests of B2 welded joints in air
1000
∆σ (MPa)
Not failed
100
10
10000 100000 1000000 10000000
Number of cycles
Figure 4-13: S-N curve of the B2 specimens in air
103
The fatigue crack initiates either from the toe of the capping pass, or from the toe of the root pass under
the support plate, as shown in Figure 4-14. In one case, the crack initiated on a defect (probably a slag
inclusion), since the failure occurs at the same number of cycles as other tests for a similar stress range,
the defect does not appear more detrimental than the weld geometry (toe and support plate).
The results are a slighltly scattered, because the angle between the plate and the weld metal is more and
less marked and because of the misalignment of the welded samples (welding preparation and welding
shrinkage), although for each specimen, this misalignement is lower than 2,5°, and is in accordance
with the IIW recommendations [58].
Crack initiation from the toe of the capping pass Crack initiation from a slag inclusion
360MPa, 10Hz, 32 950 cycles 220MPa, 10Hz, 1 367 561 cycles
Crack initiation from the toe of the root pass

260MPa, 10Hz, 498668 cycles
Figure 4-14: Initiation of fatigue crack (B2 specimen)
Fatigue corrosion tests in synthetic sea water - The weld of B2 specimens is immerged in synthetic sea
water [59], as described in Figure 4-15. Compared to the fatigue tests in air, the frequency have been
here reduced to 1Hz, in order to increase the test duration and to promote the eventual synergy between
corrosion and fatigue. Specimens have been tested at 4 different levels of stress amplitude, from 110 to
350MPa.
104
Figure 4-15: Installation of fatigue corrosion tests in synthetic sea water immersion
To avoid localized corrosion between the weld and the support plate, the gap has been fulfilled with
silicon. It is representative of the final use of the B2 weld in the bridge, because the support plate side is
hidden and is not exposed to sea water.
Figure 4-16 describes the tests results performed in artificial sea water.
10000
Fatigue limit of the UR45NMo base metal
FAT 71
Fatigue tests of B2 welded joints in synthetic sea water immersion
1000
∆σ (MPa)
100 Not failed
10
10000 100000 1000000 10000000
Number of cycles
Figure 4-16: S-N curve of the B2 specimens in sea water immersion
The fatigue crack initiates either from the toe of the capping pass on the upper skin, or from the toe of
the root pass under the support plate, as described in Figure 4-17.
When the crack initiates from the capping pass, few corrosion products are detected on the skin of the
specimen. 3 specimens with different levels of strength have been selected for deep investigations (see
Table 4-14). For each of them the fatigue crack is localized in the toe of the capping pass. The aim is to
identify the failure mechanisms (fatigue and/or corrosion) and to evaluate the competition between each
of them.
105
Crack initiation from the toe of the Crack initiation from the toe of
capping pass the root pass
260MPa, 0,36Hz, 102 600 cycles 180MPa, 1Hz, 283 597 cycles
Figure 4-17: Initiation of fatigue failure (B2 specimen)
Table 4-14: Details of the test conditions for the 3 samples selected for deep investigations
Specimen Strength Number of Immersion
No amplitude (MPa) cycles duration (h)
1 350 30 900 43
6 220 187 400 116
4 150 1 156 300 453
After opening the defect, corrosion product and rust have been detected and removed to observe the
fracture surfaces by SEM. The crack starts from the toe of the capping pass due to the geometry effect,
but the initiation of the crack has been damaged by corrosion. This rust may appear during the crack
propagation, due to crevice corrosion mechanism.
For the 3 specimens the fracture surfaces can be divided in two parts meaning two different
mechanisms for crack initiation and crack propagation, in particular: first the failure starts with fatigue
corrosion mechanism (Figure 4-18a); then, few millimetres under the skin, the fracture surface aspect
changes (Figure 4-18b) and striations appear, in this part the crack propagates following a pure fatigue
mechanism.
(a) Initiation of crack by fatigue corrosion (b) Propagation of crack by fatigue only
Figure 4-18: Fracture mechanisms observed in the cracks – case of the specimen no4
106
The above mentioned fracture surface parts have different extension for 3 specimens, as described in
Table 4-14: higher the strength amplitude, thinner is the fatigue corrosion area, and larger is the pure
fatigue part.
Table 4-15 : Depth of the fatigue corrosion area for the 3 samples selected for deep investigations.
Specimen Strength amplitude Depth of fatigue
Number of cycles
No (MPa) corrosion area (mm)
1 350 30 900 1
6 220 187 400 3,5
4 150 1 156 300 5
When the failure occurs under the support plate, the material is not exposed to the sea water. In that
case, initiation of crack by corrosion fatigue is not expected.
Fatigue corrosion tests with sea water aspersion - These tests consist of the fatigue behaviour evaluation
of the B2 specimens with sea water [59] aspersion. Each sample is fatigue tested with stress amplitude
in the range from 350 to 110MPa. The tests are performed with the following experimental conditions:
- 2 hours as wet period: the capping passes of the specimen are sprayed with sea water. In such
conditions the temperature test is about 22,5°C and the relative humidity (RH) is about 90%.
- 4 hours as dry period: the test temperature is about 28°C ant the RH about 40%. This period is long
enough to create a white and continuous deposit of salt on the skin of the samples.
The gap made by the support plate is fulfilled with silicon to not disturb the final results with additional
corrosion phenomena.
The following graph illustrates the results obtained
10000
Fatigue limit of the UR45NMo base metal
FAT 71
Fatigue tests of B2 welded joints with synthetic sea water aspersion
1000
∆σ (MPa)
Not failed
100
10
10000 100000 1000000 10000000
Number of cycles
Figure 4-19: S-N curve of the B2 specimens with sea water aspersion
As for the two previous series of fatigue tests, the fatigue failure begins for the new conditions mainly
either from the toe of the capping pass on the upper skin, or on the toe of the root pass under the support
plate.
107
Conclusions
Figure 4-20 summarizes the fatigue results. The following observations and comments can be made:
- The failure keeps the same localizations, either in the toe of the capping pass or under the support
plate on the root pass. This is in agreement with the IIW data [58] for B2 welded joint. The beginning
of the crack depends mainly on geometry. For the same level of strength, the number of fatigue cycles
is consequently increased when the toe geometry is smooth.
- The three S-N curves are closed to each others (Figure 4-21). Taking into account the geometry effect,
the misalignment of specimen and the test uncertainty, the fatigue curves appear very similar. In the
case of sea water immersion, the crack initiates with fatigue corrosion mechanism but not differences in
terms of fatigue life are observed when comparing data obtained in air. This indicates that the presence
of corrosive environment does not decrease significantly the fatigue resistance of duplex. In other
words, the weld geometry has a more detrimental effect on fatigue than the sea water.
10000
FAT 71
Fatigue tests of B2 welded joints in air
Fatigue tests of B2 welded joints in synthetic sea water
Fatigue tests of B2 welded joints with synthetic sea water aspersion
1000
∆σ (MPa)
100 Not failed
10
10000 100000 1000000 10000000
Nomber of cycles
Figure 4-20: S-N curves of the B2 specimens in the different environments
- The FAT 71 is the requirement for the B2 specimen made with carbon steel. Figure 4-21 gives the
comparison of the FAT 71 and the results obtained for the B2 specimens made in duplex. First the
experimental curves with m=3 is above the FAT 71 line, and it confirms that the duplex B2 specimens
have at least the same behaviour as carbon steel B2 assembly. It also shows that the influence of the
environment, in air, in sea water or salt spray, is very negligible for the tests conditions, according to
the fatigue limits ∆σc for m=3.
108
1000,0
FAT 71
Fatigue tests of B2 welded joints in air
Fatigue tests of B2 welded joints in synthetic sea water
∆σ (MPa)
prEN 1993-1-9
100,0 In sea
In air water
(95%) (95%)
m=variable 4.65 4.09
∆σc (MPa) 109.28 97.09
m=3
∆σc (MPa) 73.20 75.66
10,0
10000 100000 1000000 10000000
Number of cycles
Figure 4-21: S-N curves for m=3 and with the fatigue limit (in air an in sea water), compared to the
FAT 71 requirement
109
WP5 NUMERICAL COMPUTATION
Objectives
Aim of this WP is twofold:
• to give a contribution to the WP3 and WP4 for the geometry optimisation of the components to
be tested;
• parametric study to extend the experimental results and make possible a more complete
comparison between carbon steel and duplex stainless steel bridge;

Activities planned in Task 5.1 (Contribution to the tests) are completed, they consists of:
• give a contribution to study and optimise the single details of the welded components. In
particular contributions to arrange testing activities have been given to detail A.4 and B.1 in
task 4.1 and mid-scale specimen in task 4.2 (CSM and RWTH).
Activities planned in Task 5.2 (Parametric study) are completed, they consists of:
• a final design of some structural parts of bridge using experimental data obtained. In particular
a vehicle crossing analysis on the Verrand Viaduct case study in consideration of realistic
traffic loads has been performed with the scope of fatigue verification of duplex made bridge
(RWTH)
• enlarging the conceptual results experimentally obtained in view of the Eurocode
implementation. In particular: the investigation of simple design rules for fatigue verification of
main longitudinal girders made of duplex stainless steel (RWTH); and nonlinear stress-strain
relationship on the basis of experimental campaign (extra tests on material behaviour have been
performed for the scope, CSM).
TASK 5.1 - CONTRIBUTION TO THE TESTS

In the frame of this task finite element models have been developed by RWTH and CSM with the scope
of supporting experimental activities. RWTH performed the modelling of details A.4 and B.1 of task
4.1 while CSM developed a model for mid-scale specimen of task 4.2. The last is reported here below
while the others were detailed in the Mid-term Report of the project.
Contribution to mid-scale specimen (Task 4.2)
A finite element model is realised for the mid-scale specimen (Task 4.2) to be tested. The aim is to
investigate the stress pattern in this specimen and to evaluate the required load levels to be developed
by the testing equipment.
The model is generated by means of MSC Mentat and analysed by MSC Marc software. A static load
analysis is performed and the graphical output is shown in Figure 5-1. Due to the symmetry of the
problem, only an half of the specimen is modelled - the section line being in correspondence of the
crossbeam - while appropriate symmetry conditions are introduced.
The specimen is simply supported at the ends of the crossbeam, where two hinges are modelled. The
load is applied as a pressure in correspondence of the nodes; this pressure is distributed over two areas
of 300 mm × 300 mm, located symmetrically with respect to the crossbeam and positioned, in the top
plate, between both the lateral and the central stiffeners.
The type of finite element used for the numerical simulation is the one designated as no.75 in the
Mentat library, i.e. a 4-node thick shell element.
The constitutive law of the material corresponds to an elastoplastic behaviour with strain hardening ; it
is modelled by interpolation of an experimental true stress-true strain curve of a 12 mm thick grade EN
1.4262 plate in the rolling direction.
111
Figure 5-1 : FE model of mid-scale specimen realized by MSC Marc, with principal stress pattern in a
static analysis for a 100 kN applied load (50 kN +50 kN).
The elastic modulus at the origin is taken equal to 200 GPa; the Poisson’s ratio is 0,3 and the initial
yield limit Rp0,01 (i.e. 305 MPa in the present case) is adopted. For the value of the conventional yield
strength Rp0,01 instead of Rp0,2 is used because the latter seems sometimes cause a non fully satisfactory
modelling.
In a first attempt, anisotropy due to strain hardening is fully disregarded. Moreover neither residual
stresses nor fillet material strength contribution are modelled because a rough evaluation of the load
levels to be applied is sufficient.
TASK 5.2 - PARAMETRIC STUDY

Influence of the fatigue resistance of Duplex steel on the bridge design - a span length
investigation
In the scope of task 5.2 a vehicle crossing analysis has been performed by RWTH on the Verrand
Viaduct in Italy in consideration of realistic traffic loads (see mid-term report). The fatigue details have
been differentiated into details governed by the global system, see Figure 5-2, and details stressed by a
local system, see Figure 5-3.
Detail A.3 (Detail A.6)

(support)
Detail A.3
(field)
Detail A.1
Detail A.2
Figure 5-2: Details global system
112
Detail A.5
Detail A.4
M ll M rr
≤
∆σ
a≥t ≤ 22 mm
mm
M ww
≤
≤ 22 mm
mm
Detail B.1 t
7 1
t
Detail B.2
∆σ
Figure 5-3: Details local system
For each detail the relevant moment-history-diagram has been calculated from which the stress histories
are evaluated, see exemplary Figure 5-4a. In a next step the stress range spectrum is derived for each
detail, see exemplary Figure 5-4b for detail A.1.
16000 14.79
range spectrum [N/mm²]
14000 13.87
[kNm]
12.96
[kNm]
12000 12.04
10000 11.13
Moment [kNm]
Spannungsschwingbreite
8000
10.21
9.30
Moment
6000 8.39
4000 7.47
6.56
2000
5.64
0 4.73
0 20 40 60 80 100 3.81
-2000
2.90
Stress
-4000
1.98
Zeit [s]
Time [s] 1.07
0.15
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Anzahl
Number of [-]
cycles [-]
a) Max. field moment [element 68] b) Stress range spectrum (A.1) [element 68]
Figure 5-4: Example of outcome of vehicle crossing analysis performed on the Verrand viaduct
The fatigue design check has been carried out considering a design life of the bridge equal to 100 years.
Fatigue resistance obtained during the project are used. The vehicle crossing analysis on the Verrand
Viaduct has shown that fatigue is not a problem for the main structural members and its critical details
made of duplex stainless steel. This is a result of the span lengths of the bridge of 97,50 m and 133,00
m.
For large span lengths, the design of the main longitudinal girders is governed by the stress verification,
so that the fatigue verification becomes negligible.
According to the background documentation for the Eurocode3 [67] with German NAD [64] the fatigue
resistance of the main longitudinal girders of steel road bridges has not to be verified for the case that
the spans are larger than 45 m and the notch categories of the fatigue details are at least 71 N/mm². This
rule is based on research activities concerning structural C-steels from S235 to S355 [64].
Such a simplified verification of fatigue resistance would also be very useful in regard to bridge
construction in Duplex steel. Due to the higher yield strength of the Duplex steel however, the
simplified approach with a minimal span of 45 m may become unconservative as the limit from which
the fatigue resistance is governing the design and not the stress verification is shifted towards lower
spans. Therefore an analysis has been carried out identifying from which span a fatigue verification
113
based on the notch detail ∆σC = 71 N/mm² is required. Further, taking into account the fatigue
behaviour of the most critical details met in welded bridges, which has been estimated within the
Bridgeplex project, the span lengths has been identified, for which the fatigue resistance is expected to
be relevant for design. This investigation is described in the following. It is based on the Eurocode
1 [66] and German NAD (DIN Fachbericht 101 [62]) and Eurocode 3 [67] and German NAD (DIN-
Fachbericht 103 [62]).
After a short description of the considered bridge cross section the load assumptions are given, which
are taken into account within the present span length research. Based on these load assumptions the
internal forces of the structure and stresses are derived. Then, by calculating the equivalent stresses in
the structure, the required stiffness of the main longitudinal girders is estimated to meet the ultimate
limit state requirements. In consideration of the required cross section properties the fatigue resistance
of the main longitudinal girders is verified subsequently.
The calculations are performed considering spans from 20 to 80 m and steel grades S235, S355 and
Duplex 1.4462, so that the span length is identified, for which the fatigue resistance is relevant for
design.
Bridge structure - Within the investigation the cross section of the Verrand Bridge in Italy is considered
(see Task 1.1).
The structural system of the Verrand Bridge is characterized by a cross section with a high torsional
stiffness and an orthotropic deck, which has got an average width of 20 m. With a distance of 9,70 m
transversal steel girders are arranged. For stiffening in transversal direction a wind bracing is located
underneath the main girders. The bridge deck consists of an orthotropic deck.
Both simple beam and continuous beam systems are regarded. In each case the spans of the bridge
structures are varied.
Load assumptions - In the framework of the pre-design, which is carried out for the ultimate limit state,
the required stiffness of the cross section for every bridge span is estimated in consideration of the
following load cases: dead load of the structure, additional dead load and traffic loads according to
DIN-Fachbericht 101 [62].
For the arrangement of the traffic loads the bridge deck has to be subdivided into 3 m wide notional
lanes, which do not correspond to the real road lanes. Within the ultimate limit state design and the
fatigue verification different traffic load models have to be considered. For the ULS design of the main
longitudinal girders load model 1 (LM 1) and for the simplified fatigue verification fatigue load model
FLM 3 is taken into account. LM 1 includes dynamical effects, so that an additional dynamic
coefficient needs not to be considered. FLM 3 is used to estimate the relevant cyclic loading ∆σLM . It
consists of a 48 t vehicle with four axles, each with two identical wheels (geometry see Figure 5-5). The
weight of each axle is 120 t and the contact surface of each wheel is a square of side 0,40 m.
Figure 5-5: Traffic load model FLM 3 for fatigue verification acc. to DIN Fachbericht 101 [62]
Calculation of the relevant stresses of the main longitudinal girders - In regard to the relevant stresses of
the main longitudinal girdershave to be estimated. To calculate the relevant stresses for ultimate limit
state design, LM 1 is applied on the transverse system as shown in Figure 5-6.
114
Figure 5-6: Traffic load model LM 1 of the transversal system for ULS design
The assumption, that the main girders are represented by fixed bearings, leads to the loading of the main
girders. Due to the transversal stiffness of the cross section a symmetrical distribution of the vertical
loads is assumed. Furthermore a torsional moment is considered as a result of the eccentricity of the
traffic loads, see Figure 5-7.
Figure 5-7: Simplified load arrangement transversal system considering LM 1
Based on the simplified load arrangement on the transversal system the loading of the main girders is
estimated. For both simple and continuous beam system it is assumed that the ultimate limit state design
is ruled by the mid-span moment. The support moment is not taken into consideration. The relevant
load situations are given in Figure 5-8. From these loadings the relevant stresses for the min girders in
the ultimate limit state can be derived.
a) Simple beam b) Continuous beam
Figure 5-8: Loading of the main girders considering LM 1, simple and continuous beam system
The stresses which have to be taken into consideration for the fatigue verification, result from FLM 3,
since all other load cases do not produce any load cycle changes. Concerning the fatigue resistance of
the main longitudinal girders only the longitudinal stresses are of interest, influences from torsion and
shear forces can be neglected. For simplification both the loads from LM 1 and FLM 3 are applied on
the bridge in terms of a concentrated load, which is save-sided. In regard to FLM 3 also a symmetrical
distribution of the vertical loads on the two main girders is assumed, so that each girder carries a load of
240 kN. From this loading the mid-span moments for simple and continuous beam systems can be
derived, which leads to the relevant stresses for fatigue verification.
115
Ultimate limit state design - The stresses which have to be taken into account for the ultimate limit state
design are calculated according to the following term:
S d = γ G ⋅ S dead load + γ P ⋅ S settlement + γ Q1 ⋅ S traffic + γ Q 2 ⋅ψ 0, 2 ⋅ S temperature
Load and combination factors are taken from DIN-Fachbericht 101 [62] with γG = 1,35 and γQ1 = 1,50
(similar to Eurocode), loadings from settlement and temperature are not considered. The verification for
the ultimate limit state is performed by means of equivalent stresses:
σ V = σ x2 + 3τ inf
2
Q + 3τ inf T
2
It has to be shown that

σ V , Sd ≤ σ Rd = f yk / 1,15
Figure 5-9: Required cross-section area (y-axis) against span length (x-axis) to meet the requirements
for ultimate limit state design of the main girders
In a first step the required cross section areas of the main girders are calculated, so that the allowed
equivalent stresses are not exceeded. The critical location is the connection between web and lower
flange. For realisation of larger spans the cross section area of the main girder needs to be increased. It
is assumed that the cross sections of the orthotropic deck and the lower flange do not change. Thus only
the web geometry is changed to achieve the required stiffness for ULS verification. The results are
given in Figure 5-9.
The next step is to carry out the fatigue verification of the main girders considering the different cross
sections, which are related to the analysed span lengths.
Verification of fatigue resistance - The fatigue resistance is verified according to DIN-

Fachbericht 103 [62] in terms of the simplified fatigue verification. Firstly the fatigue stresses have to
be estimated. As already discussed the relevant load positions of FLM 3 for simple and continuous
beams have to be considered. With this model the maximum and minimum stresses for each cycle of
stress fluctuation is calculated, so that the stress range ∆σLM for fatigue verification is evaluated as
follows:
∆σ LM = σ P ,max − σ P ,min
The concept for fatigue verification implemented in [62] yields to a verification of stresses; for road
bridges it has to be shown that
116
∆σ c
γ Ff ⋅ λ ⋅ ∆σ LM = γ Ff ⋅ ∆σ E , 2 ≤
γ Mf
By considering the λ-factor several characteristics of the bridge are included (cf. [62]). This approach is
allowed for bridges with spans lower than 80 m.
Results - For validation of the research concept the first step was to prove the design rule given in [64]
(no fatigue verification required for the main longitudinal girders of steel road bridges with spans larger
than 45 m and the notch categories not less than 71 N/mm²) on the basis of the Verrand cross section.
Since the rule refers to a notch category of ∆σC = 71 N/mm², this notch category is considered within
the check. A critical detail with ∆σC = 71 N/mm² could be for example the connection between an
additional plate under the main girder and the lower flange. In Figure 5-10 the utilisation level of the
verification for different steel grades concerning simple and continuous beam systems is shown.
Figure 5-10: Utilisation level for ∆σc = 71 N/mm², simple and continuous beam system
The fatigue verification depends strongly on the span length, the used steel grade and the statical
system. Concerning continuous beam systems the utilisation level is much higher compared to simple
beam systems. With regard to simple beam systems the boundary value of 45 m for the relevant span
length is quiet save-sided. Using steel grade S235 the fatigue resistance is already verified for 20 m
spans. Using steel grade S355 at least 32 m are enough to meet the fatigue requirements. Concerning
the continuous beam system again the boundary value of 45 m is clearly verified for steel grade S235.
The utilisation level for a span length of 45 m using steel grade S 355 is marginally exceeded. For the
case that Duplex steel is used, which strength properties correspond to S460, the fatigue requirements
for a 45 m span are met only in case of a simple beam system. In regard to a continuous beam system
the structural analysis is ruled by fatigue up to a span of 70 m. These results correspond to the outcomes
of investigations carried out by Kuhlmann [65]. Within these investigations relevant span lengths were
estimated in consideration of composite bridge structures using steel grades S355 and S460; also in
regard to simple and continuous beam systems. The simplified fatigue verification method from [64]
can consequently not be applied for the case, that Duplex steel is used and designed as S460.
In WP4 the fatigue tests on critical details made in Duplex show a similar or better fatigue behaviour
compared with the fatigue behaviour of standard steel grades. Therefore the main outcome of the
Bridgeplex project can be applied here by implementing these fatigue test results into the span length
research the curves shift towards the conservative side. For demonstration the utilisation level for the
critical detail A.3 (web stiffener, cf. Task 4.1) has been estimated taking span lengths from 20 to 80 m
into account. For standard steel grades the fatigue resistance of ∆σC = 80 N/mm², for details made in
Duplex steel a fatigue resistance of ∆σC = 95 N/mm² has been considered. The results of the
calculations are illustrated in Figure 5-11.
117
Figure 5-11: Utilisation level for Detail A.3 considering the Duplex fatigue test results, simple
and continuous beam system
Conclusions from span length investigation
Taking the higher fatigue resistance of Duplex steel into account the utilisation level curves belonging
to Duplex steel and S355 are shifting closer. Although the bearing capacity of the Duplex structure is
significantly higher, the relevant span length for fatigue verification is almost the same. Hence a chance
of cost reduction for bridges also with small and medium spans can be derived, since a less amount of
material is required to realize a defined span. Assuming that the fatigue resistance of the Duplex
structure is 20% higher compared to a S355 structure, the material reduction could turn out to be quite
significant. To exploit this benefit systematically, further investigations of the fatigue behaviour of
Duplex steel are required.
Parametric study on ultimate shear resistance

Typical elements of steel bridges, i.e. the main longitudinal beams, have very high web subjected to
both bending and transversal concentrated loads. The influence of constitutive law and its parameters
(elastic modulus, yielding stress) on the ultimate shear resistance of such structures has been
investigated by CSM.
Figure 5-12 : 3D solid model of the test specimen
118
In this section, the results of a numerical study on the ultimate shear resistance are reported. A nonlinear
FE model of the complete test specimen tested in Task 3.2 is implemented in the FE code MSC Marc
(Figure 5-12).
The selected configuration is defined by a thickness of 7 mm of the web panel, 1260x75x20 mm
stiffeners and measure is 160x12 mm flanges.
The initial linear elastic parameters of the model are selected as the nominal values taken for the 1.4462
duplex stainless steel, i.e.:
- Young modulus: E = 200 GPa
- Yield strength: fy = 600 MPa
The whole model (see Figure 5-13) is simply supported and the terminal parts of the upper flange are
also restrained for what regards the out of plane translation. The load is applied at five central upper
nodes.
A first linearised bifurcation analysis is performed to obtain the first buckling mode of the FE model.
The result is given in Figure 5-14 and the calculated elastic critical shear buckling load is 933 kN.
The first buckling deformed shape is properly scaled, according to the measured geometry
imperfections of the web (see Task 3.2), and then is given as initial imperfection to the nonlinear FE
model in the post-buckling analysis.
The nonlinear post-buckling analysis is performed to obtain the whole equilibrium path of the structure.
From the calculated path the ultimate ultimate shear resistance is then defined as the maximum of the
load-displacement curve.
Figure 5-13 : Nodal boundary conditions for the 3D FE model
119
Figure 5-14 : First linearised buckling mode for the 3D FE model
Two kinds of nonlinearity are accounted for in the FE model: (i) the material nonlinearity is considered
by defining the nonlinear stress-strain curve in accordance with the experimental campaign carried out
on the duplex grade 1.4462, and investigating, in a second step, the variations of the material properties,
in particular the initial elastic modulus E0, and the proof yield strength fy; (ii) the geometric nonlinearity
is taken into account by the software when the analysis is performed. In order to account appropriately
for both kinds of nonlinearity, large displacements and large strains options of the software are
activated.
The structure equilibrium path is hence calculated by carrying out a nonlinear static analysis and
controlling the load factor λ. The selected parametric solver is one of the arc-length methods, where the
equilibrium equations are augmented with a constraint equation expressed typically as the norm of
incremental displacements. In particular the Riks-Ramm formulation is used, in which a linearised
version of the constraint equations is employed.
A limited experimental campaign aimed at the characterization of the parameters variations of the
Duplex grade 1.4462 has been performed by CSM.
With respect to the rolling direction, a series of longitudinal and transversal specimens are drawn from a
20 mm-thick plate. Tensile tests are carried out so as to derive the experimental stress-strain curves.
An analytical modelling of the stress-strain curve relative to nonlinear material such as stainless steel
may be contemplated; the most common approach to do accordingly is the so-called Ramberg-Osgood
equation. This equation is used here in a more general form: the one proposed by Rasmussen [68]:
σ σ 
n
 + p σ ≤σp
 E0  σ p 
 
ε = m
,
σ − σ p  σ −σ p 
 + εu   + ε p σ >σp
 σu −σ p
 E p  
with:
120
ln ( p 0, 0001) σp E0
n= m = 1 + 3,5 Ep =
ln (σ p σ 0,01 ) σu 1 + pnE0 σ p
where ε and σ designate respectively the strain and the stress, and :
σ0,01 stress at the proportional limit,
p proof yield strain,
σp proof yield strength (also designated fy),
εp total strain at σp,
εu total ultimate strain,
σu ultimate stress,
n,m transition parameters,
E0 initial elastic modulus,
Ep tangent plastic modulus.
Starting with their nominal values, the parameters of the above equations are iteratively updated to
obtain the optimal match between the experimental stress-strain curves and the equivalent curves
obtained by the selected constitutive model function.
A summary of the obtained results is given in Table 5-1, in terms of Rasmussen model parameters
variation:
Table 5-1 : Results in terms of Rasmussen model parameters
Symbol Max min Mean

E0 (MPa) 244845 186702 203955
σ0,01 (MPa) 374,317 259,33 333,55
ε0,01 0,00209 0,00157 0,00184
σu (MPa) 780,104 736,60 757,153
εu 0,3040 0,2256 0,26438
p (%) 0,15 0,0925 0,11679
σp (MPa) 515,17 469,115 496,615
n 8,13 4,18 6,43629
m 3,36 3,19 3,28857
Ep (MPa) 58712,2 41219,5 51769,1
By focusing the attention on three main parameters, i.e. E0, p, and σp, it shall be noticed that the
obtained variations of these parameters, selected from the optimal curves that best match the
experimental ones, are sometimes far from the nominal values. More specifically, a value of 0,2% is
generally assumed for the proof yield strain p while it is found to vary from 0,09% to 0,15%. That
means that the proof yield strength is found for lower values than the nominal one (here assumed as
600 MPa). In contrast, the value of the elastic modulus E0 is found in good agreement with the nominal
one (see the mean value in the table), taken here equal to 200000 MPa.
Some results of the parametric optimization of the Rasmussen stress-strain model are plotted in Figure
5-15 and Figure 5-16 for, respectively, longitudinal and transverse rolling directions.
121
800
700
600
500
experimental
p=0,1%
° 400 p=0,15%
p=0,2%
300
200
100
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14
Figure 5-15: Matching between σ-ε experimental curves for longitudinal and transversal rolling
directions and Rasmussen curves, when p varies – Longitudinal (rolling) direction
800
700
600
experimental
500
p=0,1%
p=0,15%
p=0,2%
400
σ
300
200
100
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14
directions and Rasmussen curves, when p varies – Transverse direction
The parameters variations derived from the Rasmussen stress-strain model are then used to evaluate the
ultimate shear resistance VFE,Marc, obtained by FE simulations with Marc software. The influence of both
the modulus of elasticity and the proof yield strength are investigated. The simulation procedure is
described above.
122
The results of the FE simulations got for the sole specimen TG1 are reported on.
The values of the parameters used in the numerical simulations are summarised in Table 5-2 and Table
5-3, where the values of the “numerical” values of the ultimate ultimate shear resistances VFE,Marc are
given too.
The equilibrium paths are represented in Figure 5-17 and Figure 5-18 together with the experimental
value for the test specimen TG1, i.e. Vtest = 1515 kN.
From the numerical simulations, the vertical displacement near the maximum shear load is found about
5 mm while this value was expected, before performing the analysis, to be greater. One possible
explanation is that a substantial horizontal component of the displacement due to transverse deflection,
is also present.
Table 5-2 : Variation of the initial elastic modulus E0
E0 σp = fy Limit load VFE,Marc

[MPa] [MPa] [kN]
Test 1 186000 600 1671
Test 2 200000 600 1706
Test 3 210000 600 1711
Table 5-3 : Variation of the proof yield strength σp = fy
E0 σp = fy Limit load Vb,R.num

[MPa] [MPa] [kN]
Test 1 200000 600 1706
Test 2 200000 550 1550
Test 3 200000 515 1483
Test 4 200000 495 1451
Test 5 200000 470 1441
1800
1600
1400
1200
load (KN)
1000
800
experiment
Test 1 600
Test 2
Test 3 400
200
0
-20.00 -18.00 -16.00 -14.00 -12.00 -10.00 -8.00 -6.00 -4.00 -2.00 0.00
vertical displacement (mm)
Figure 5-17 : Influence of the modulus of elasticity
123
1800
1600
1400
1200
load (KN)
1000
experiment
Test 1 800
Test 2
Test 3 600
Test 4
Test 5 400
200
0
-20.00 -18.00 -16.00 -14.00 -12.00 -10.00 -8.00 -6.00 -4.00 -2.00 0.00
vertical displacement (mm)
Figure 5-18 : Influence of the proof yield strength
Conclusions from parametric study on ultimate shear resistance

The few shear buckling tests (see Task 3.2) and the subsequent parametric study lead to the following
concluding remarks:
• Numerical simulations conducted with same material properties (modulus of elasticity, proof
yield strength) but with a constitutive law modelled differently (trilinear in Task 3.2 and Ramberg-
Osgood in Task 5.2) - so as to approach the actual σ−ε diagram drawn from a standard tensile test -
do not provide significantly different values of the ultimate shear capacity of the web panel
subjected to predominant shear.
• For a given (realistic) value of the proof yield strength fy, there is only a very slight influence of
the value of the modulus of elasticity E on the shear capacity in the range.
• Expectedly, for a given (realistic) value of the modulus of elasticity E, the effect of the proof
yield strength is significant; defining the latter as σ0,2 enables the numerical simulations to provide
realistic values of the ultimate shear capacity.
• Considering that the effects of residual stresses are likely to decrease the “numerical” shear
capacity by about 10%, the so reduced numerical values are found in good agreement with the test
results.
• For the nonlinear material modelling it is recommended to use a stress-strain law that account
for a not-fixed position of the yielding proof strain and to characterize the material nonlinear
parameters by means of a dedicated laboratory testing campaign.
124
WP6 LIFE CYCLE COST ANALYSIS AND SUGGESTION FOR
EUROCODES
Objectives
To carry out a comparison in terms of Life Cycle Costs analysis between a C steel bridge and a duplex
stainless steel bridge.
To prepare suggestions for the Eurocodes implementation.

Activities planned in Task 6.1 (Life Cycle Costs Analysis) are completed, they consists of:
• carry out a deep Life Cycle Costing analysis comparing two significant analogous bridges made
of Carbon steel and duplex stainless steel, on the basis of technical results of the present project
(CSM and OMBA)
• evaluate if and when the initial cost increase due to the duplex steel is approximately balanced
owing to the different requirements in terms of maintenance during the expected service life of
the infrastructure (CSM and OMBA)
Activities planned in Task 6.2 (Suggestion for Eurocodes) are completed, they consists of:
• prepare suggestions for the Eurocodes implementation on the basis of test results acquired
within the WP3 and WP4, and the parametric investigation of the WP5 (CSM, RWTH and
ULg)
• evaluate how the duplex welded components behave with respect to those made of carbon steel
(RWTH and ULg).
TASK 6.1 - LIFE CYCLE COSTS ANALYSIS

The life-cycle cost (LCC) of the Verrand viaduct is evaluated on the basis of ASTM E917-05 “Standard
practice for measuring life-cycle costs of buildings and building systems” [69]. LCCs of alternative
structural material choice for the same bridge deck are compared. In particular EN 1.4462 unprotected
stainless steel is taken as an alternative to S460 painted steel.
Experimental activities performed during the project confirmed the duplex stainless steel alternative
material satisfies the design requirements: structural safety and integrity (Task 3.2 and 4.1), reliability
(Task 2.3), durability (Task 4.3) under the same operational conditions of Verrand bridge and
considering a class C5 environment [1]. That is a fundamental assumption when comparing the LCCs
of alternatives in general.
Considering the attitude of duplex stainless steel to be placed in service without any corrosion
protection, that is also in very aggressive environments classifiable as C5, the most sensitive parameters
to be assessed in LCC analysis are those related with corrosion protective systems and their
maintenance (cost of protective coatings, the cost and frequency of inspections and maintenance
actions). With this respect it is important to note that those parameters are influenced by bridge owner
standard practice and can vary by country to country, also technical knowledge is always in progress
and new protective systems can arise at the market. As a consequence in the following LCCs analysis
the presently most diffuse protective system for S460 steel bridge is considered, it is a three layer
coating system an example is reported in Table 1-4.
Maintenance operations and scheduling are selected with CSM experts with experience in the field of
steel bridge corrosion protection and reported in Table 6-1. That maintenance programme is selected
with reference to the following environmental aggressiveness categories:
C5-I Exterior- Industrial areas with high humidity and aggressive atmosphere
C5-M Exterior – Coastal and off-shore areas with high salinity
125
for which the low-carbon steel-mass loss after first year of exposure is in the range of 650 – 1500 g/m2
that means 80 - 200 µm.
Table 6-1: Bridge inspection and preventive maintenance for corrosion purpose
High strength low alloy S460 EN 1.4462 duplex
steel coated with a 3 layer stainless steel
coating system
Maintenance operation
Frequency [years] Frequency [years]
maint1 maint2
Washing and routine inspection 1 2 4
In-depth inspection (eventual repair of 4 6 -
coating in critical point)
Spot repair and over-painting of parts 12 15 -
subjected to erosion or photo oxidative
degradation
Paint renewal 25 30 -
A schematic representation of the lower frequency (maint2) maintenance programme is reported in

Figure 6-1 with the estimated costs for each maintenance operation
A - Routine inspection and Washing 4 €/t C - Overcoating 150 €/t
B - In-depth inspection and spot repair 50 €/t D - Paint renewal 220 €/t
Scaffolding and Protections:

2
In-depth inspection, spot repair and overcoating 50 €/m of the deck surface = 100 €/t
2
Paint renewal 100 €/m of the deck surface = 200 €/t
HIGH PERFORMANCE COATING SYSTEM
A every 2 years
B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 51 54 57 60 63 66 69 72 75 78 81 84 87 90 93 96 99 100 years
D C D C D C
Figure 6-1: Maintenance timing of three layer painting systems for S460 bridge.
Some effects of alternative materials highlighted during both the fabrication of steelworks for testing
and the evaluation of test results, are economically assessed in the present LCC analysis:
- The experience of working duplex stainless steel allowed OMBA to made a quantification of
increased costs of shop working of about 30% compared with traditional constructional steel. This
value is used in the Life Cycle Cost analysis also for yard assembly cost.
- The total quantity of base material and consumables is the same as for the carbon steel bridge as for
the duplex bridge in accordance with the available mechanical test results. In particular base
material quantity is 6’000 t while consumables for orthotropic deck typology is 2% of the base
material weight.
126
- The increment in the fatigue endurance of the austeno ferritic stainless steel welded details shown
by the testing activities is disregarded in favour of safety in the following LCC although it can lead
to material saving and/or reduction of fatigue repair costs.
Some of the effects of alternative materials are more difficult to quantify in monetary terms, that is the
case of users costs related with the reduction of speed or complete closure of the bridge. For example
German Steel Association evaluates for ordinary maintenance operations 20 days of speed reduction
from 120 km/h to 60 km/h, while for exceptional maintenance operations 40 days of speed reduction are
expected. What this means in monetary terms is also difficult to be further evaluated but this aspect
should be listed with the others and taken into account in the final evaluations
The LCCs of both bridge alternatives are calculated in present-value that means all costs are discounted
to the base time (time of bridge construction). The study period is the expected service life for the
bridge that is 100 years. LCC analyses are calculated in constant monetary value (net of general
inflation). Bridge is treated as public utility infrastructure (non-profit building) so income tax effects are
not included in the LCC analysis.
The discount rate is used to convert costs occurring at different times to equivalent costs at a common
point in time consequently it reflect the investor’s time value of money. That is, the discount rate
should reflect the rate of interest that makes the investor indifferent between paying or receiving an
euro now or at some future point in time. The discount rate is a very sensitive parameter for LCCs
comparisons with money savings mostly spreaded into the future, as in the present case study.
As no agreement was found among project partners on the value to be used here two different values for
the real (net of general price inflation) discount rate are used in the LCCs analysis with the scope of
evaluating the sensitiveness to this parameter. The values used are assumed to be the boundary values
for an investment in the public sector, as confirmed by some indications coming from the U.S.
government agencies [70]:
Study period 100 years

Real discount rate 3,0% and 1,5%
Investment cost data S460 EN 1.4462

Material cost 1’100 €/t 5’500 €/t (2006 price)
3’000 €/t (2001 price)
Consumables 1’600 €/t 15’000€/t (2006 price)
Shop cost 320 €/t 420 €/t
Yard assembly cost 160 €/t 210 €/t
Assembly equipments 200 €/t 200 €/t
Corrosion protective coating 35 €/m2 -
Scaffolding and protections included
Maintenance cost data (scaffolding and protections included)

Routine inspection 4 €/t 4 €/t
In-depth inspection and repair 50 €/t -
Over-painting 25 €/m2 -
Paint renewal 35 €/m2 -
Repair for corrosion (% of initial investment) 5,16% -

Repair for fatigue(% of initial investment) 12,3% 12,3%
User costs related with reduction of service or closure of the bridge during maintenance
operations are not monetary evaluated but should be taken into account in the comparison that for
ordinary maintenance operations 20 days of speed reduction from 120 km/h to 60 km/h, while for
exceptional maintenance operations 40 days of speed reduction are expected.
End of service resale S460 EN 1.4462

30% 75%
of material cost
127
The results of LCC evaluations are reported and compared in Figure 6-2 and Figure 6-3, the first figure
shows the costs after 100 years of service life while the latter shows the time of recovery of initial
investment using EN 1.4462 duplex stainless steel instead of S460 carbon steel.
38,6 Real discount rate

1.5%
32,4
27,9
24,3
x 10 €
6
EN 1.4462 5'500 €/t

EN 1.4462 3'000 €/t
S460 maint1
S460 maint2
42,8
Real discount rate
3.0%
26,6 25,6
x 10 €
23,0
6
EN 1.4462 5'500 €/t

EN 1.4462 3'000 €/t
S460 maint1
S460 maint2
Figure 6-2: Whole service life costs.
128
Figure 6-3: Recovery time of the initial investment.
Conclusions
LCCs of a steel bridge deck in aggressive environment (class C5 EN ISO 12944) have been evaluated
comparing EN 1.4462 duplex stainless steel grade with traditional high strength structural steel S460.
Some difficulties in the comparison are highlighted:
- the evaluation of a consistent discount rate especially considering the long service life (100
years): in the present analysis two different discount rates are considered;
- the variation of the price of duplex stainless steel: since 2001 the price changed from 3’000 €/t
to 5’500 €/t; and
- the evaluation in monetary terms of some effects of the material alternatives, in particular the
user cost related with reduced traffic or closure of the bridge.
129
Taking into account all these limits of the LCCs evaluation the comparisons reported in Figure 6-3
show that initial investment cost of high performance material can be recovered for money savings
during service life when duplex cost is 3’000 €/t (2001 price). If the price reaches the level of 5’500 €/t
(2006 price) the LCC of the bridge is from 39% to 86% higher than using an S460 steel (depending on
discount rate variations), that is obtained considering duplex cost is 400% more than S460 steel and not
considering some advantages related with the use of duplex due to the difficulty of their monetary
evaluation (i.e. end user costs related with the bridge reduced capacity during maintenance operations).
From the comparison of two different discount rates the following observations arise: supposing the
price of duplex is 3’000 €/t as in 2001, considering the less favourable discount rate (3,0%) we obtained
quite same building cost at the end of service life while initial investment is recovered after about 50
years of service when considering a more favourable discount rate (1,5%).
In conclusion duplex stainless steel has many attractive characteristics for bridge construction:
corrosion resistance, high strength and also aesthetics ones. All of those where demonstrated for the
specific application during the research project. Duplex stainless steel can be also economically
attractive when considering whole service life costs: initial capital expense is recovered after 50 years
of service, provided that producers can keep the price into the lower level of the last years
(i.e. 3’000 €/t).
TASK 6.2 - SUGGESTION FOR EUROCODES

A main goal of the research project is to encourage the application of Duplex steels in the field of civil
engineering. Therefore an improvement and simplification of the design process in case of using duplex
steels is needed.
An important requirement in this context is the further development of the Eurocodes with regard to
duplex steels. Producers and designers both depend on binding material specifications which have to be
sufficient to guarantee a consistent design process.
Within the following chapters the main outcomes of the project connected with Eurocode specifications
are presented. In each case the current status of the code is described and the specifications are
compared with the project results. If there are not any specifications available within the Eurocodes or if
there are significant discrepancies between code and project results, recommendations for improvement
are made.
Cyclic properties for fatigue design
In the EN1993-1-9 the nominal, modified nominal or geometric stress ranges due to frequent loads ψ1
Qk (see EN 1990) shall not exceed
∆σ ≤ 1,5 f y for direct stress ranges. (6.1)
Further it shall be verified that under fatigue loading

γ Ff ∆σ E , 2
≤ 1,0 (6.2)
∆σ C / γ Mf
with γFf acc. to EC3-1-9 Table 3

γMf acc. to EC3-1-9 Table 3
∆σE,2 = equivalent constant amplitude stress range related to 2 million cycles according
to EC3-1-9 chapter 6.2
∆σC = constant amplitude stress range ∆σC
The quantitative relationship between the stress range and number of stress cycles to fatigue failure,
used for the fatigue assessment of a particular category of structural detail is given by the fatigue
130
strength curves. They are defined by constant amplitude stress range ∆σC for a particular detail category
for an endurance N = 2⋅106 cycles.
For comparison between these reference value of the fatigue strength at NC = 2 million cycles of duplex
steel to carbon steel the following critical welded details have been selected to be investigated in duplex
stainless steel:
(A1) Welded longitudinal attachment (Detail 1, Table 8.4 of EN1993-1-9);
(A2) Transverse butt weld (Detail 5, Table 8.3 of EN1993-1-9);
(A3) Welded transverse attachment (Detail 7, Table 8.8 of EN1993-1-9);
(A4) Rib-to-deck weld (Detail 7, Table 8.8 of EN1993-1-9);
(A5) Transverse butt weld with backing strip (Detail 14, Table 8.3 of EN1993-1-9);
(A6) Shear stud welded on base material (Detail 9, Table 8.4 of EN1993-1-9);
(B2) Joint in rib, full penetration butt weld with steel backing plate (Detail 4, Table 8.8 of EN1993-1-9).
A.5 A.6
B.2
A.4
B.1
A.1
A.3
A.2
In addition the reference value of the fatigue strength ∆σC at NC = 2 million cycles have been
determined based on 2 different approaches:
(1) based on the stresses derived from the cyclic load ∆P divided by the area (∆P / A),
(2) based on the stresses derived from measured cyclic strains as follows:
∆σ C , E = α ⋅∆σ C (1)
where α = Eα / 200000 and
Eα is the modulus of elasticity used in the static analysis for the calculation of the applied
stress range ∆σi.
The statistical evaluation has been carried out using the linear regression analysis described in [60] to
determine the probability of failure for 50% and 5% with respectively variable slope and fixed slope m
= 3, as adopted in EN1993-1-9. Finally the results of the statistical evaluation are compared to each
other and to the detail category given by the EN1993-2.
The fatigue results obtained for duplex steel are compared to the detail categories for C-steel in Table
6-2.
Table 6-2: Comparison of evaluation (Eα = 200000 N/mm²).
131
C-steel Duplex steel
Fatigue
- (∆P/A) Inc. (∆ε αE) Inc.
strength
95% 95% % 95% %
∆σc (N/mm²) A1 56 72 29 88 57
A2 87 (*) 85 -2 103 18
A3 80 88 10 107 34
m=3
A4 71 162 127 159 124

A5 71 73 3 86 21
A6 80 122 53 - -
B2 71 98 38 - -
(*) Size effect considered
The outcome of the evaluation can be summarized as follows:

• The fatigue strength of a detail category for duplex steel is at least equivalent to the one applicable to
C-steel and given in EN1993-1-9.
• Due to the non linear constitutive law of duplex steel, the fatigue strength is not independent of the
Young modulus when the stress range is based on strain measurements; therefore the need to
consider the influence of the Eα-modulus (used in the static analysis) on the results of the statistical
evaluation .
• Accordingly , the fatigue strength is given as:
where the fatigue strength ∆σC for E = 200 GPa is multiplied by an a factor:
α = Eα / 200000
• Minor plastifications occurred in duplex steel specimens do not have a significant influence on
the fatigue strength.
Ultimate shear resistance

The test results are found conservative when compared to the nominal shear resistance calculated based
on both the specifications EN1993-1-5 for carbon steels and EN1993-1-4 for stainless steels. EN1993-
1-4 is however less conservative by about 15% than EN1993-1-5.
The statistical evaluation of the test results implemented by those especially documented obtained at
UPC confirms that the specifications of EN1993-1-5 may not be used for stainless steels (including
duplex steels) as far as design values are concerned.
In contrast, the same evaluation shows that the specifications of EN1993-1-4 which address especially
stainless steels are found appropriate whatever the type of construction: building or bridge.
Above conclusions are drawn based on a limited number of test results.
Material model
For the nonlinear material modelling EN1993-1-4 recommend the Ramberg-Osgood equations with
0,002 yielding proof strain.
We recommend to use a stress-strain law that account for a not-fixed position of the yielding proof
strain as it is the generalization of the Ramberg-Osgood-Rasmussen material law in [68]. The material
nonlinear parameters should be characterized by means of a dedicated laboratory testing campaign.
132
WP7 MANAGEMENT AND REPORTING
Objectives
• to prepare the detailed project plan together with the task leaders.
• to compile six-monthly, mid term and final reports.

Activities planned in Task 7.1 (Management of the project) are completed, they consists of:
• the management of the relations between the partners, the project and the Commission;
• the monitoring of the progress of the project in agreement with the contractual work-
programme and the proposition of opportune needed modifications;
• the proper fulfilment of the contractual clauses.
Activities planned in Task 7.2 (Reporting of the results) are completed, they consists of:
• The elaboration, forwarding, presentation, discussion and feedback within the TGS8 meetings,
of the required reports.
• Periodic cost statements have been collected and summarised too.
TASK 7.1 MANAGEMENT OF THE PROJECT

With the scope of monitoring the progress of the project and discuss results obtained and any eventual
corrective action no. 7 technical meetings have been organized in the frame of the project, date and
venue of each are here reported:
30-9-2004 Rome
2-3-2005 Torri di Quartesolo (VI)
9-11-2005 Le Creusot
5-4-2006 Liege
26-9-2006 Aachen
16-2-2007 Rome
20&21-6-2007 Grado (GO)
The meeting minutes have been prepared and circulated among the partners. The actions agreed during
meetings have been monitored and reported.
With regard to the publication and presentation of project activities in journals and congresses, all the
partners have been advised on. A list of publications is reported in the following section 5 of the Final
report.
TASK 7.2 REPORTING OF THE RESULTS
All technical and financial reports required in the Contract have been submitted in due time and ways. It
is for six-monthly summaries (no. 4 concise reports), the Mid-term report and the relevant Mid-term
financial statements, the present Final report and the relevant Final financial statements.
Also a Publishable report will follow the approval of the present Final report.
Mid-term technical report has been also discussed at the TGS8 meeting held on May 2006 in Brussels.
Comments and suggestions coming from TGS8 experts were reported to the project partners and
implemented in the subsequent activities.
133
4. CONCLUSIONS
Maintenance costs are a significant item in life cycle of steel bridges, becoming of paramount
importance in aggressive environments. The use of duplex stainless steels for bridge decks would be a
major step forward in providing durable, low maintenance structures, exploiting both their corrosion
resistance and high mechanical properties.
Although the duplex basic mechanical properties are well known, it is not enough to promote this
material for huge welded bridge construction but, because of the relevance of such a structure, more
specific investigations on structural components typical of bridge structure are needed.
Steel bridges are increasingly using complex welded steelwork solutions to emphasise the lightness and
aerodynamic shaping steel construction can offer. In this view the recently most diffuse constructional
typology is the orthotropic deck. It is important to note that with orthotropic deck constructional
typology are realized bridges from medium span length (from 100 m) up to the longest span suspension
bridges (Akashi Kaikyo, Storebaelt East), as results from an overview of the most significant bridge
typologies (OMBA - Task 1.1).
The orthotropic deck is identified as the most interesting for the scope of this investigation: that bridge
typology contains all the critical welded details of the other bridge typologies and some specific of
orthotropic deck bridge. Consequently many research projects and experimental activities have been
devoted in the recent past to study the in service behaviour of this complex steelwork, leading to design
and execution recommendations. But all of them were developed and verified on traditional
constructional steel grades, i.e. S355 (CSM - Task 1.3).
With the scope of verifying duplex steelworks behaviour the critical details have been selected for
testing and 29 tons of UR45NMo (EN 1.4462) have been produced for the scope. During fabrication of
the components for testing (OMBA - Task 2.2) the cost of shop fabrication was evaluated 30% over that
of traditional construction steel. Difficulties have been advised in keeping the components distortion
into the tolerances: special attention shall be devoted to adopting the correct shrink angles. With this
respect the use of innovative LB- GMA welding technique in shop welding has demonstrated to be
effective (CSM – Task 2.2).
Since the bridge deck is the structural part mainly subjected to cyclic loads so as in many cases Fatigue
Limit State is the relevant one in the design phase, in the project 5 welded details and 3 large scale
specimens are selected for fatigue testing. 15 points per detail at 3 different stress ranges allowed for
statistical evaluation of S-N curves. The fatigue strength of the investigated constructional details is
always larger – and sometimes significantly larger - for duplex steel than for C-steels (All - Task 4.1)
Typical elements of steel bridges, i.e. the main longitudinal beams , have very high web subjected to
both bending and transversal concentrated loads. Three girder specimens have been tested in three-point
bending to assess them ultimate shear resistance (Ulg - Task 3.2). The results of the evaluations confirm
that the specifications of EN1993-1-4, that address specifically stainless steels, are found appropriate
whatever the type of construction: either buildings (γM1 = 1,00) or bridges (γM1 = 1,10) indeed giving
quiet conservative values for the tests performed on duplex plated girders (characteristic value 1,16 ).
Material nonlinearity sometimes leaded to a non unique evaluation of the parameters for material
modelling, in particular in the evaluation of strain gauge measurements during fatigue tests a question
arose on the value to be adopted for elastic modulus, while a limited experimental campaign performed
by CSM and the subsequent optimisation of parameters highlighted a not fixed position of yielding
proof strain. For the nonlinear material modelling EN1993-1-4 recommend the Ramberg-Osgood
equations with 0,002 yielding proof strain. We recommend to use a stress-strain law that account for a
not-fixed position of the yielding proof strain as it is the Rasmussen generalization of the Ramberg-
Osgood material law. The material nonlinear parameters (elastic moduli, yielding proof strain, etc.)
should be characterized by means of a dedicated laboratory testing campaign (CSM - Task 5.2)
The Verrand viaduct (the existing bridge chosen for the scope of the project) virtually made of duplex
steel has been verified for fatigue of the relevant details. The vehicle crossing analysis on the Verrand
135
Viaduct has shown that fatigue is not a problem for the main structural members and its critical details
made of duplex stainless steel (RWTH – Task 5.2). This is a result of the span lengths of the bridge of
97,50 m and 133,00 m.
Taking the higher fatigue resistance showed by duplex steel into account the bearing capacity of the
duplex structure becomes significantly higher than those of S460 (i.e. not limited by fatigue), hence a
chance of cost reduction for bridges since a less amount of material is required to realize a defined span.
It is also demonstrated with small and medium spans (RWTH – Task 5.2).
All the technical information acquired during the project contributed to the LCC leading to the
following conclusions: stainless steel has many attractive characteristics for bridge construction:
corrosion resistance, high strength and also aesthetics ones. Experimental activities performed during
the project confirmed the duplex stainless steel satisfies the design requirements: structural safety and
integrity (Task 3.2 and 4.1), reliability (Task 2.3), durability (Task 4.3) under the same operational
conditions of Verrand bridge and considering a class C5 environment. Duplex stainless steel can be also
economically attractive when considering whole service life costs (Task 6.1): initial capital expense is
recovered after 50 years of service, provided that producers can keep the price into the lower level of
the last years (i.e. 3’000 €/t).
5. EXPLOITATION AND IMPACT OF THE RESEARCH RESULTS

The following conference presentations resulted from the project:
Hechler O., Feldmann M., Maquoi R. Fatigue design of bridge construction made in duplex stainless
steel. Proceedings of The third international conference on structural engineering, mechanics and
computation (SEMC 2007). Cape Town, South Africa (2007).
Fanica A. and Maiorana E., UNS S32205 for bridge construction: an experience of application, Duplex
2007 Int. Conf. Proc. Grado, Italy (2007).
Hechler O., Feldmann M., Maquoi R. and Zilli G., Bridge construction made in duplex stainless steel.
Duplex 2007 Int. Conf. Proc. Grado, Italy (2007).
Zilli G., Fattorini F. and Maiorana E., Application of duplex stainless steel for welded bridge
construction in aggressive environment Duplex 2007 Int. Conf. Proc. Grado, Italy (2007).
Sorrentino S. Fersini M. and Zilli G Confronto tra saldatura SAW e laser applicate a strutture in duplex
per ponti. Italian Institute of Welding (IIS) workshop on austero-ferritic and iron steelworks Genoa,
Italy (2007)
136
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-1: Akashi Kaikyo Bridge and Storebaelt East Bridge............................................................... 19
Figure 1-2: Bridge sections: (a) Akashi Kaikyo Bridge, (b) Storebaelt East Bridge .............................. 19
Figure 1-3: Verrand viaduct view............................................................................................................ 22
Figure 1-4: Orthotropic deck section....................................................................................................... 23
Figure 1-5: Lateral view, plan and sections............................................................................................. 23
Figure 1-6: Assemblage of the panels in yard ......................................................................................... 24
Figure 1-7: Transversal (left) and longitudinal (right) stiffeners ............................................................ 26
Figure 1-8: Diaphragms........................................................................................................................... 26
Figure 1-9: a) Transversal sections view. Connection with the insertion of trapezoidal ribs. b) Detail.. 27
Figure 1-10: Welded details to check in fatigue verification .................................................................. 28
Figure 1-11: Some welded details in the Verrand viaduct’s section ....................................................... 30
Figure 1-12: Scheme of ultimate shear resistance test on welded plate girder........................................ 31
Figure 1-13: Experimental data collected on carbon steel plate girders. Ultimate shear resistance,
normalized with the web thickness, vs. aspect ratio........................................................................ 32
Figure 1-14: Experimental data collected on stainless steel plate girders. Ultimate shear resistance,
normalized with the web thickness, vs. aspect ratio. Data from [3], [4] and [5]............................. 32
Figure 1-15: Comparison of data concerning both C steel and stainless steel plate girders.................... 34
Figure 1-16: Fatigue testing arrangement for stiffener-to-deck joint. ..................................................... 35
Figure 1-17: Points of fatigue crack initiation at the stiffener-to-deck joint ........................................... 36
Figure 1-18: Constant amplitude fatigue tests on stiffener-to-deck joint. ............................................... 36
Figure 1-19: Fatigue testing arrangements for stiffener-to-crossbeam joint. .......................................... 38
Figure 1-20: Constant amplitude fatigue tests on rib-to-crossbeam joint................................................ 39
Figure 1-21: On field connection of deck modular units......................................................................... 39
Figure 1-22: Testing arrangement for fatigue tests on stiffener-to-stiffener joint................................... 40
Figure 1-23: Details of joints tested by T.U. Pisa (Type I joint is up and Type II is down) and T.U.
Delft................................................................................................................................................. 40
Figure 1-24: Constant amplitude fatigue tests performed by T.U. Pisa and T.U. Delft on stiffener-to-
stiffener joint. .................................................................................................................................. 42
Figure 1-25: Details of stiffener-to-stiffener butt joint with backing strip from [18] and [19] literature
references......................................................................................................................................... 43
Figure 1-26: Comparison of experimental fatigue curves obtained by different researchers on the
stiffener to stiffener joint. ................................................................................................................ 43
Figure 2-1: Consumable material from ESAB catalogue........................................................................ 48
Figure 2-2: Some welding pre-qualification test views........................................................................... 49
Figure 2-3: Rib-to-deck welded joints macrosection: comparison between SAW and LB-GMAW ...... 51
Figure 2-4: Rib-to-deck SA weld after sand blasting .............................................................................. 52
Figure 2-5: Rib-to-deck LB-GMA weld (as welded): cap appearance (left) and root appearance (right)
......................................................................................................................................................... 52
Figure 2-6: Gas cuts of flanges and webs................................................................................................ 53
Figure 2-7: Sheet edge preparation.......................................................................................................... 53
Figure 2-8: T-master................................................................................................................................ 54
Figure 2-9: Panel-line.............................................................................................................................. 54
Figure 2-10: Manual welding of T sections ............................................................................................ 55
Figure 2-11: Inner side with “clampe” and outer side of the deck .......................................................... 55
Figure 2-12: Shop drawings for fatigue and buckling sample fabrication (Table 1640 A 03 A 001 02) 56
Figure 2-13: Example of shop cut table (Table 1640 A 03 C P18 04) .................................................... 56
Figure 2-14: Example of assembling table (Table 1640 A 03 B 039 01)................................................ 57
Figure 2-15: Shop working of some specimens ...................................................................................... 57
Figure 3-1: Schaeffler/Espy diagram....................................................................................................... 60
Figure 3-2: Micrograph of duplex stainless UR45NMo structure (austenite in white, ferrite in brown) in
the quarter of the thickness - plate number 45514, heat number F6535, th. 7mm .......................... 61
137
Figure 3-3: Comparison between the results of the ASTM A562 method and the Formulinox prediction
......................................................................................................................................................... 61
Figure 3-4: Yield strength (Y.S.0,2) and Ultimate Tensile Strength (U.T.S.) of the UR45NMo
(Sampling transverse to the rolling direction) ................................................................................. 62
Figure 3-5: Average toughness of the duplex stainless steel UR45NMo (transverse and parallel are the
direction of the length of the specimen) .......................................................................................... 63
Figure 3-6: Metallographic examination of a failed HAZ sample .......................................................... 65
Figure 3-7: Average CTOD values on UR45NMo SA welded joint (30mm thick) with duplex filler
metal (2209 type)............................................................................................................................. 65
Figure 3-8 : Dimensions of test specimens for shear buckling tests (duplex steel)................................. 68
Figure 3-9 : Lateral supports ................................................................................................................... 68
Figure 3-10 : Reinforcing one panel for testing the other one (R = Right; L = Left).............................. 69
Figure 3-11 : Tensile tests on the base material of the 7 mm-thick web ................................................ 70
Figure 3-12 : Zoom of the stress-strain diagrams in range up to 6% ...................................................... 70
Figure 3-13 : Zoom of the stress-strain diagrams in range up to 1% ...................................................... 70
Figure 3-14 : Load-deflection curve for TG2 (FE calculations) ............................................................. 72
Figure 3-15 : Deflected pattern of TG2 at the ultimate (FE calculations)............................................... 73
Figure 3-16: Critical pitting temperature (CPT) according to ASTM G48-03 method E (FeCl3 6% +
HCl 1%)........................................................................................................................................... 78
Figure 3-17: Critical crevice temperature (CCT) according to ASTM G48-03 method D (FeCl3 6%).. 78
Figure 3-18: Pitting potential values (Epit) in [NaCl]=50g/L, pH=6,4 and T=60°C .............................. 79
Figure 3-19: Pitting potential values (Epit)............................................................................................... 79
Figure 3-20: drawing and picture of the multi crevice assembly (MCA) in acetal resin ........................ 80
Figure 3-21: drawing and picture of four point bending assembly ......................................................... 81
Figure 3-22: Sites for atmospheric exposure........................................................................................... 81
Figure 3-23: a) Localization of the corrosion deposit on the B1 specimen; b) rust tint on the toe of the
weld ................................................................................................................................................. 82
Figure 3-24: a) Macrograph of the defect (transversal cut); b) Micrograph of the defect....................... 83
Figure 4-1: Standard constructional welded details of welded bridges under investigation ................... 86
Figure 4-2 : Constant amplitude fatigue test at T.U. Pisa [16]................................................................ 97
Figure 4-3 : Mid-scale test specimen a) dimensions and load application areas (red arrows); b) test
specimen and testing rig arrangement used at the T.U. Pisa ........................................................... 97
Figure 4-4 : Principal stress pattern along the free edge of the cut-outs [16].......................................... 98
Figure 4-5 : FE model of the mid-scale specimen (left); principal stress pattern in a static analysis for a
100 kN total applied load (right). .................................................................................................... 99
Figure 4-6 : Larger principal stresses along the free edge of cut-outs for lateral and central stiffener:
comparison between CSM numerical data and TU Pisa experimental data.................................... 99
Figure 4-7 : Strain-gauges on the first test specimen (left); FE model crack enlarging stress pattern
(right)............................................................................................................................................... 99
Figure 4-8 : Test layout ......................................................................................................................... 100
Figure 4-9 : Fatigue on mid-scale specimen: experimental results. ...................................................... 101
Figure 4-10 : Specimen ID 1 fatigue crack location and its magnified view ........................................ 102
Figure 4-11 : Specimen ID 2 fatigue crack (left); specimen ID 3 fatigue crack (right). ....................... 102
Figure 4-12: a) Assembly of the two stiffeners and localization of the B2 specimen; b) B2 specimen
dimensions..................................................................................................................................... 103
Figure 4-13: S-N curve of the B2 specimens in air ............................................................................... 103
Figure 4-14: Initiation of fatigue crack (B2 specimen) ......................................................................... 104
Figure 4-15: Installation of fatigue corrosion tests in synthetic sea water immersion .......................... 105
Figure 4-16: S-N curve of the B2 specimens in sea water immersion .................................................. 105
Figure 4-17: Initiation of fatigue failure (B2 specimen) ....................................................................... 106
Figure 4-18: Fracture mechanisms observed in the cracks – case of the specimen no4........................ 106
Figure 4-19: S-N curve of the B2 specimens with sea water aspersion ................................................ 107
Figure 4-20: S-N curves of the B2 specimens in the different environments ....................................... 108
Figure 4-21: S-N curves for m=3 and with the fatigue limit (in air an in sea water), compared to the
FAT 71 requirement ...................................................................................................................... 109
138
Figure 5-1 : FE model of mid-scale specimen realized by MSC Marc, with principal stress pattern in a
static analysis for a 100 kN applied load (50 kN +50 kN). .......................................................... 112
Figure 5-2: Details global system.......................................................................................................... 112
Figure 5-3: Details local system ............................................................................................................ 113
Figure 5-4: Example of outcome of vehicle crossing analysis performed on the Verrand viaduct....... 113
Figure 5-5: Traffic load model FLM 3 for fatigue verification acc. to DIN Fachbericht 101 [62] ....... 114
Figure 5-6: Traffic load model LM 1 of the transversal system for ULS design .................................. 115
Figure 5-7: Simplified load arrangement transversal system considering LM 1................................... 115
Figure 5-8: Loading of the main girders considering LM 1, simple and continuous beam system ...... 115
Figure 5-9: Required cross-section area (y-axis) against span length (x-axis) to meet the requirements
for ultimate limit state design of the main girders......................................................................... 116
Figure 5-10: Utilisation level for ∆σc = 71 N/mm², simple and continuous beam system.................... 117
Figure 5-11: Utilisation level for Detail A.3 considering the Duplex fatigue test results, simple and
continuous beam system................................................................................................................ 118
Figure 5-12 : 3D solid model of the test specimen................................................................................ 118
Figure 5-13 : Nodal boundary conditions for the 3D FE model............................................................ 119
Figure 5-14 : First linearised buckling mode for the 3D FE model ...................................................... 120
directions and Rasmussen curves, when p varies – Longitudinal (rolling) direction .................... 122
directions and Rasmussen curves, when p varies – Transverse direction ..................................... 122
Figure 5-17 : Influence of the modulus of elasticity ............................................................................. 123
Figure 5-18 : Influence of the proof yield strength ............................................................................... 124
Figure 6-1: Maintenance timing of three layer painting systems for S460 bridge. ............................... 126
Figure 6-2: Whole service life costs...................................................................................................... 128
Figure 6-3: Recovery time of the initial investment.............................................................................. 129
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1-1– Overview of roadway bridge typologies. .............................................................................. 16
Table 1-2– Overview of railway bridge typologies................................................................................. 17
Table 1-3 - First ten long span bridges in the world................................................................................ 18
Table 1-4: Paint system for general external surface, corrosion category C 5. ....................................... 20
Table 1-5: Paint system for general internal surface, corrosion category C 5......................................... 21
Table 1-6: Selected critical welded details .............................................................................................. 28
Table 1-7: Distribution of testing activities among the Project partners. ................................................ 30
Table 1-8: Summary of experimental data collected............................................................................... 31
Table 1-9: Experimental data on carbon steel plate girders collected by Davies and Griffith [9]. ......... 33
Table 1-10: Experimental data on stainless steel plate girders from [3], [4] and [5]. ............................. 34
Table 1-11: Details of stiffener-to-deck joint specimen from literature.................................................. 35
Table 1-12: Constant amplitude fatigue tests on stiffener-to-deck joint. ................................................ 37
Table 1-13: Details of stiffener-to-crossbeam joint specimen from literature. ....................................... 38
Table 1-14: Constant amplitude fatigue tests performed by T.U. Pisa on stiffener-to-stiffener joint. .... 41
Table 1-15: Constant amplitude fatigue tests performed by T.U. Delft on stiffener-to-stiffener joint. .. 42
Table 1-16: Details of stiffener-to-stiffener butt joint with backing strip from literature. ...................... 43
Table 2-1: Standard designations ............................................................................................................ 46
Table 2-2: Tensile test – required mechanical properties for UR45NMo ............................................... 46
Table 2-3: Material delivered for the Project. ......................................................................................... 46
Table 2-4: Consumables selected for each Welding Procedure Specification (WPS) ............................ 49
Table 2-5: Welded details and controls ................................................................................................... 50
Table 2-6: Number of details/components fabricated ............................................................................. 58
Table 3-1: chemical compositions (weight %) and PREN values (PREN=%Cr+3,3%Mo+16%N2) ..... 60
Table 3-2: Tensile test performed on the UR45NMo; results from both conventional and the True
stress/true strain curves. .................................................................................................................. 62
139
Table 3-3: CTOD values on the UR45NMo base metal.......................................................................... 64
Table 3-4: CTOD values on the UR45NMo welded joint (HAZ and weld metal).................................. 64
Table 3-5 : Comparison of the respective specifications of EN1993-1-5 and EN1993-1-4.................... 67
Table 3-6 : Shear capacity of the test girders according to EN1995-1-5 and EN1993-1-4..................... 74
Table 3-7 : Comparison of predicted and measured values (in kN) of the shear capacity ...................... 76
Table 3-8 : Evaluation of extended data base (stainless steels) with respect to EN1993-1-5 ................. 76
Table 3-9 : Evaluation of extended data base (stainless steels) with respect to EN1993-1-4 ................. 76
Table 3-10: description of the 4 specimen types for atmospheric exposure............................................ 80
Table 3-11: Aggressiveness and atmospheric data.................................................................................. 82
Table 4-1 : Experimental results of Detail A.1........................................................................................ 88
Table 4-7 : Experimental results of Detail B.1........................................................................................ 94
Table 4-8 : Experimental results of Detail B.2........................................................................................ 95
Table 4-9: Summary of the results of the statistical evaluation for m = 3 .............................................. 96
Table 4-10 : Experimental data from literature [16]................................................................................ 98
Table 4-11 : Discrepancies between the indications provided by the strain-gauges (First test specimen)
....................................................................................................................................................... 100
Table 4-12 : Fatigue on mid-scale specimen experimental results........................................................ 101
Table 4-13: Comparison between finite element model output and experimental results..................... 101
Table 4-14: Details of the test conditions for the 3 samples selected for deep investigations .............. 106
Table 4-15 : Depth of the fatigue corrosion area for the 3 samples selected for deep investigations. .. 107
Table 5-1 : Results in terms of Rasmussen model parameters .............................................................. 121
Table 5-2 : Variation of the initial elastic modulus E0 .......................................................................... 123
Table 5-3 : Variation of the proof yield strength σp = fy ....................................................................... 123
Table 6-1: Bridge inspection and preventive maintenance for corrosion purpose ................................ 126
Table 6-2: Comparison of evaluation (Eα = 200000 N/mm²)................................................................ 131
LIST OF REFERENCES
Task 1.1 and 1.2
[1] UNI EN 1993-2. Eurocode 3. Design of steel structures. Part 2: Steelbridges, 2002.
[2] MIAZZON A., The Verrand viaduct in Courmayeur, an orthotropic deck bridge. Design,
construction, assembly and launching, Costruzioni Metalliche n.1, ACAI Servizi, 2005
[3] RAMPIN L., Miazzon A. and others, Fatigue design in steel bridges, XIX Congres CTA,
Genua, 2003.
[4] BRISEGHELLA L., Maiorana E., Miazzon A., Duplex stainless steel: an alternative for
structural applications, Costruzioni Metalliche n.1, ACAI Servizi, 2004.
[5] MIORANA E., Miazzon A., High strength steels for launching bridges structures, 1st
International conference on Super high strength steels, Rome, 2005.
[6] MIAZZON A., Elementi di costruzione di ponti stradali e ferroviari. Parte prima: tipologie
strutturali, Rassegna del CTA (Collegio dei Tecnici dell’Acciaio), Editor Emanuele Maiorana,
Milano.
[7] MIAZZON A., Large span bridges: the construction of steel plated box girders. An example:
the Storebaelt East Bridge, Costruzioni Metalliche n.6, ACAI Servizi, 2004.
[8] VIROLA J., The leading 17 long-span suspension bridges in the world, Costruzioni Metalliche
n.3, ACAI Servizi, 2000.
[1] EN ISO 12944. Paints and varnishes - Corrosion protection of steel structures by protective
paint systems
[2] ISO 8501 Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products -
Visual assessment of surface cleanliness
140
Task 1.3 - Shear buckling data
[3] Unosson E., Olsson A., 2003, “Stainless steel girders – Resistance to concentrated loads and
shear”. Proc. of the Intern. experts seminar of stainless steel in structures. Steel Construction
Institute, Ascot, Berkshire, 2003.
[4] Real, Estrada, Mirambell, 2003, “Experimental and numerical investigation on shear response
of stainless steel plate girders”. Proc. of the Intern. experts seminar of stainless steel in
structures. Steel Construction Institute, Ascot, Berkshire, 2003.
[5] Real, 2001, “Aportaciones el estudio del comportamiento a flexiòn de estructuras de acero
inoxidable”. PhD thesis, Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, 2001.
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Catalunya, Barcelona, 2005
[7] AA. VV., 2000, ECSC Project: Development of the use of Stainless steel in Construction. Final
Report (EUR 20030 EN 2001).
[8] Van den Berg, 2000, "The effect of the non-linear stress-strain behaviour of stainless steels in
member capacity”. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 54 (2000) 135-160.
[9] Davies A. W., Griffith D. S. C., 1999, “Shear strength of steel plate girders”. Proc. Instn. Civ.
Engrs. Structs & Bldgs. 134. Pages 147-157.
Task 1.3 – Fatigue data
[10] BRULS A (EDITOR) Measurement and interpretation of dynamic loads in bridges - Phase 3 :
Fatigue behaviour of orthotropic steel decks. Synthesis report. EUR 13378 EN (1991) 117 pp.
[11] BRULS A;POLEUR E Mesures et interprétation des charges dynamiques dans les ponts -
Troisième phase : Résistance à la fatigue des dalles en acier des ponts-routes. Université de
Liège, Institut du Génie Civil, Liège (BE). EUR 12747 FR (1990) 93 pp.
[12] Bignonnet A., Caracilli, Jacob B. Mesures et interprétation des charges dynamiques dans les
ponts. - Troisième phase – Final Report. Institut de Recherches de la Sidérurgie Française.
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ponts-routes. Université de Liège, Institut du Génie Civil, Liège (BE). EUR 12747 FR, 1990.
[13] Maddox S.J.: The fatigue behaviour of trapezoidal stiffener to deck plate welds in orthotropic
bridge decks. Department of the Environment, Transport and Road Research Laboratory,
Report 96UC, Crowthorne, 1974
[14] Thonnard, Janns Comportement en fatigue des dalles orthotropes avec raidisseurs
trapézoidaux. CRIF : Section Métallique - MT 161 - August 1985.
[15] CARAMELLI S;CROCE P;FROLI M;SANPAOLESI L, Misure ed interpretazioni dei cariche
dinamici sui ponti - Terza fase : Resistenza a fatica di piastre ortotrope per ponti in acciai.
Rapporto finale. Università di Pisa, Istituto di Scienza delle Costruzioni (IT). EUR 13653 IT
(1991) 174 pp.
[16] CARAMELLI S;CROCE P;FROLI M;SANPAOLESI L, Measurement and interpretation of
dynamic loads in bridges - Phase 4 : Fatigue behaviour of steel bridges. Final report. EUR
17988 EN (1998) 116 pp
[17] KOLSTEIN M H, DE BACK J, Measurements and interpretation of dynamic loads in bridges
– Phase 3. Final Report. DELFT University of Technology, Stevin Laboratory.
[18] Yamada K., Kondo A., Aoki H., Kikuchi Y. Fatigue strength of field-welded rib joints of
orthotropic steel decks. IIW doc. XIII-1282-88, Department of Civil Engineering, Nogoya
University, Nogoya, 1998.
[19] Cuninghame J.R. Steel bridge decks: fatigue performance of joints between longitudinal
stiffeners. Report No. LR 1066, 1982.
[20] Lihavainen V.M., Niemi E., Viherma R. ECSC Project: Development of the use of stainless
steel in costruction. WP7-Fatigue. Final Report. Outokumpu, Finland, 2000.
[21] S Maddox, C Branco, C Sonsino. Fatigue design of welded stainless steels, ECSC Information
day, Stainless steels – New products and developments, Seville, Spain. 1998.
[22] M Koskimäki, E Niemi. Applications of Stainless Steels ’92, 9-11 June, 1992, Stockholm,
Vol. 2, p. 889.
[23] Koskimäki M., Kyröläinen A. The fatigue endurance of stainless steels – In: Kähönen A.,
Sipilä S., editors. Väsymismitoitus (Fatigue Design), VTT Symposium 137, Espoo, Finland,
1993:217-38.
[24] Liljas, Ericsson. Fatigue behaviour of stainless steel welds ACOM 1-2/2002.
141
Task 3.1
[25] Bonnefois B., Soulignac P.: Statistical system of prediction for duplex and superduplex weld
properties,; Duplex stainless steel 97, 5th world conference Maastricht; 21- 23/10/1997.
[26] Sieurin H., Westin E.M., Liljas M., Sandström R.: Fracture toughness of welded commercial
duplex stainless steel (proceeding of Duplex 2007, international conference, 18-20 June 2007)
Task 3.2
[27] Basler K.: Strength of plate girders. PhD Thesis, Lehigh University, 1959.
[28] AIPC-IVBH-IABSE: Colloquium held in London on the Design of Plate and Box Girders for
Ultimate Strength, Proceedings, Vol. 11, 1971.
[29] ECCS: Second International Colloquium on Stability, Introductory Report, 2nd Edition, 1976.
[30] ECCS – Technical Committee 8 – Structural Stability: Behaviour and Design of Steel Plated
Structures. Collective work edited by P.Dubas and E.Gehri, 1986.
[31] European Standard: ENV1993-1-1: 1992 – Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures – Part 1-1:
General Rules and Rules for Buildings, CEN, Brussels, February 1992.
[32] Background Documentation to Eurocode 3 – Design of Steel Structures: Evaluation of test
results for the design rules of shear buckling resistance for stiffened and unstiffened webs.
Doc. II.5.1 and II.5.2, RWTH , December 1995.
[33] European Standard: EN1993-1-5: 2005 – Eurocode 3 : Design of Steel Structures – Part 1-5:
Plated structural elements, CEN, Brussels, September 2005.
[34] European Standard: EN1993-1-4: 2005 – Eurocode 3 : Design of Steel Structures – Part 1-4:
Supplementary rules for stainless steel, CEN, Brussels, September 2005.
[35] European Standard EN1090-2: 2008 – Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures
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WP4
[36] Laboratorium Magnel voor gewapend beton: Belastingsproeven op een orthotrope plaat.
Proefrapport n°74/2704, Rijksuniversiteit Gent, 1974.
[37] Nunn D.E. and Cunninghame J.R.: Stresses under wheel loading in steel orthotropic decks
with trapezoidal stiffeners. Department of the Environment, Transport and Road Research
Laboratory, Supplementary Report SR59UC, Crowthorne, 1974.
[38] Nunn D.E. and Morris S.A.H.: Trials of experimental orthotropic bridge deck panels under
traffic loading. Department of the Environment, Transport and Road Research Laboratory,
Report LR627, Crowthorne, 1974.
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deck panel. Department of the Environment, Transport and Road Research Laboratory, Report
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[40] Onderzoek naar het gevaar voor het ontstaan van vermoeiingsscheuren in de langslas tussen
het dek en de verstijvingsrib in een orthotrope plaatbrug. TNO Report B 76.398, Delft, 1976.
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T.H.Delft, Report 6.74.16.
[43] Langhoff H.J. and Granzen H.: Fabrication of box girder bridges. Proceedings of the
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[44] Cullimore M.S. and Smith, J.W.: Local stresses in orthotropic steel bridge decks by wheel
loads. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, Vol. 1, n°2, 1981.
[45] Mehue P.: Ponts routiers à platelage métallique. Colloque International sur la Gestion des
Ouvrages d’Art, Paris, 1981, Vol II, Edited by Anciens de l’Ecole Nationale des Ponts et
Chaussées (ENPC).
[46] Thonnard F. and Janss J.: Comportement en fatigue des dalles orthotropes avec raidisseurs
trapézoïdaux. CRIF – Section Construction Métallique, Report MT 161, August 1985.
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142
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dynamic loads on bridges. Synthesis Report: Phase 2. Commission of the European
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Task 6.1
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143
European Commission
EUR 23595 — A
pplication of duplex stainless steel for welded bridge construction in an
aggressive environment
G. Zilli, E. Maiorana, J. Peultier, A. Fanica, O. Hechler, T. Rauert, R. Maquoi
Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities
2008 — 143 pp. — 21 × 29.7 cm
Research Fund for Coal and Steel series
ISBN 978-92-79-09948-9
ISSN 1018-5593
Price (excluding VAT) in Luxembourg: EUR 20

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2. Comparison of initially planned activities and work accomplished............................................ 13

3. Description of activities and discussion ...................................................................................... 15

5. Exploitation and impact of the research results........................................................................ 136

List of figures ........................................................................................................................................ 137

WP1 Tune of test cases

Task 2.1 Material selection/supply - In coastal environment classifiable as C5, INDUSTEEL

WP3 Static mechanical and corrosion properties

WP4 Fatigue and corrosion fatigue

WP5 Numerical computation

Task 5.1 Contribution to the tests

Task 5.2 Parametric study

WP6 Life Cycle Cost Analysis and suggestion for Eurocodes

Task 6.2 Suggestion for Eurocodes

WP7 Management & Reporting

1. OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

2. COMPARISON OF INITIALLY PLANNED ACTIVITIES AND WORK

Task 2.2 Welding processes and consumable selection

Task 3.1 Base mechanical properties

Task 3.2 Buckling

Task 4.2 Tests on mid-scale specimens

Task 5.2 Parametric study

WP1 TUNE OF TEST CASES

Comparison of initially planned activities and work accomplished

TASK 1.1 BRIDGE TYPES IDENTIFICATION

Span from 30 to 150 m

Span from 70 to 200 m

Span from 70 to 300

Span from 100 to 300 m

Span of more than 500 m

Table 1-2– Overview of railway bridge typologies.

d.f.t. = dry film thickness

Choice of the bridge: the Verrand viaduct

Figure 1-5: Lateral view, plan and sections

Figure 1-6: Assemblage of the panels in yard

TASK 1.2 CRITICAL DETAILS IDENTIFICATION

Figure 1-8: Diaphragms

Table 1-6: Selected critical welded details

A.3 Transversal stiffeners

Threaded studs for

Table 1-7: Distribution of testing activities among the Project partners.

CSM Fatigue mid-scale (Task 4.2)

OMBA Fatigue A6 and B2 (Task 4.1)

Base mechanical properties (tensile test, Charpy V,

RWTH Fatigue A1, A2, A3 and A5 (Task 4.1)

Fatigue A4 and B1 and Shear buckling tests (Task 4.1

Mf = bf · tf · fyf · (hw + tf) [kN m]

Geometrical ranges investigated:

Carbon steel plate girders 96 tw [mm] 1 – 10 4

Austenitic 1.4301 plate girders 15 hw [mm] 250 – 1300 150 – 800

Duplex 1.4462 plate girders 4 aspect ratio a/hw 0,5 – 15 1 - 3,25

Table 1-8: Summary of experimental data collected