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Index

Users of the CD-ROM version of this book are urged to read its instructions aircraft
and take advantage of its search function, a powerful indexing tool that can, backscatter imaging of aluminum skin, 390
with a single command, provide access to all occurrences of a given word backscatter imaging of corrosion, 396-397
throughout the entire book. The following printed index is necessarily more brazed honeycomb structures, 547, 547-548, 549
selective. corrosion detection using reversed beam scanning, 416-418, 417
Page references in italic type indicate illustrations. Page references followed dynamic neutron radioscopy of engines, 446
by table indicate material in tables. fatigue cracking of fuselage, 3
Readers are encouraged to consult this volume’s glossary: glossary entries flight test inspection, 545-547, 547
are not entered in the index. helicopter composite rotor/propeller blades, 548-549
panel neutron radiography, 439
radioscopic imaging, 254
A residual stress measurement, 429
A 4907. See Korean Standards Association wing crack detection using reversed beam scanning, 415-416, 416
A 4921. See Korean Standards Association See also jet engine turbine blades
ablative thrust chamber radiography, 552-555 air image, 293
absorbed dose, 119 airport security screening, 588, 588-590, 589
absorbers, 49, 131 ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable) dose, 120, 133
absorption alarming rate meters, 98-99
alpha particles, 45 alarm signals, 127
beta particles, 45 alloy castings, 459. See also castings
and film radiography, 152-153 alloy identification, 590
neutrons, 45-47 by energy dispersive spectrometry, 431
and photoelectric effect, 48-49 alpha case, 558
X-rays, 57-58 alpha particles
absorption analysis, 427 absorption by matter, 45
absorption edge densitometry, 573 discovery, 38
absorption edges, 49, 611 emission, 43
selected elements, 612-651table Altarpiece of the Mystic Lamb (Van Eyck), radiographic evaluation, 600
accelerator neutron sources, 53, 442-443 aluminum
safety aspects, 134 adhesive bonded composite structures, 557
See also linear accelerators attenuation coefficients, 383, 619table
acceptance criteria, 14 aviation component radiography, 544
castings, 465-466 backscatter imaging of aircraft skin, 390
nuclear fuel rods, 530 backscatter tomography of sheets, rivets and pellets, 392-393, 393
power and process piping, 516 casting density versus radiographic sources, 460table
welds, 489-490 cold shuts in castings, 463
See also reference standards contrast sensitivity phantom, 333
acid stop bath, 234 digital radiography of tube welds, 297
acoustic emission testing, 10, 10-11 dimensional measurement phantoms, 338
acoustic methods, 11 exfoliate corrosion, 396
Acropolis, gamma radiography, 595 false radiographic indications in welds, 507-509, 508
acrylic, hounsfield value, 314table gas cavities in welds, 496
actinium series, 52 honeycomb panel neutron radiography, 439
activation foils, 104-105 hounsfield value, 314table
activator, in film development, 234 image analysis of casting, 358
adhesive bonded composite structures, 557, 559, 559-560 inclusions in castings, 463
adhesives, X-ray absorption, 552, 553 incomplete penetration in welds, 496
aerospace applications, 543-544 inspection with thulium-170, 78
advanced material techniques, 559-565 lack of fusion in welds, 497
aviation component radiography, 544-549 lead foil screens for, 159
inspection with thulium-170, 78 maximum filter thickness, 157
simulation tools, 564 microfocus radioscopy of aircraft honeycomb, 408
space flight component radiography, 550-558 porosity in castings, 461, 462
Aerospace Material Specification (AMS). See SAE International radiation gaging, 576
afterglow, 293 radiographic equivalence factors, 153table
agreement states, 114, 117-118 radiological detection and identification, 590
air scattered radiation, 153
hounsfield value, 314table shrinkage in castings, 462
mass attenuation coefficient, 611 step wedge image analysis, 364-365
air bells, 205 tungsten inclusions in welds, 480
X-ray and thermal neutron attenuation, 440table
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aluminum bronze, casting density versus radiographic sources, 460table asphalt radiography, 591
ambient dose equivalent, 32, 119 ASTM International (formerly American Society for Testing and Materials).
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) ASTM C 638, 16table
ANSI/API Recommended Practice 1104, 516 ASTM E 94, 16table, 488, 589
ANSI/ASME B31.1, 17table ASTM E 142, 485, 589
ANSI/ASME B31.3, 17table ASTM E 155, 16table
ANSI/ASNT CP-189, 15, 17table ASTM E 170, 16table
ANSI N43.9-1991, 17table ASTM E 186, 16table
ANSI PH2.8-1975, 17table ASTM E 192, 16table
ANSI film standards bibliography, 251 ASTM E 242, 16table
ANSI Type I exposure devices, 79, 80, 80-83 ASTM E 272, 16table
ANSI Type II exposure devices, 83, 83-84, 84 ASTM E 280, 16table
American Petroleum Institute (API) ASTM E 310, 16table, 468
API 510, 17table ASTM E 390, 16table, 464
API 570, 17table ASTM E 431, 16table
API 650, 17table, 489, 528 ASTM E 446, 16table
API 653, 529 ASTM E 505, 16table
API 1104, 17table, 489, 516, 516 ASTM E 592, 16table
American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT) ASTM E 666, 16table
ASNT Central Certification Program (ACCP), 15 ASTM E 689, 16table
ASNT Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A, 15, 17table, 18 ASTM E 746, 16table
history of, 26-27 ASTM E 747, 16table, 174, 175, 516, 518
Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety Personnel (IRRSP) ASTM E 748, 16table
program, 117-118 ASTM E 802, 16table
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). See ASTM International ASTM E 803, 16table, 441
American Society of Mechanical Engineers. See ASME Boiler and Pressure ASTM E 975, 16table
Vessel Code ASTM E 999, 16table
American Welding Society (AWS) ASTM E 1000, 16table
AWS D1.1, 17table, 479, 481, 489 ASTM E 1025, 16table, 173, 175, 485, 516, 516, 517, 518
AWS D14.3/D14.3M, 489 ASTM E 1030, 16table
amorphous selenium detectors ASTM E 1032, 16table, 589
for digital radiography, 284, 287, 290-291, 298, 298 ASTM E 1114, 16table
discontinuity centers, 293 ASTM E 1161, 16table
for microfocus radiography, 404 ASTM E 1165, 16table
properties, 286table ASTM E 1254, 16table, 178
amorphous silicon detectors ASTM E 1255, 16table
calibration, 356 ASTM E 1320, 16table
for digital radiography, 284, 287, 290, 294, 296, 296-298, 297 ASTM E 1390, 16table
for microfocus radiography, 404, 407 ASTM E 1411, 16table
properties, 286table ASTM E 1441, 16table
for radioscopy, 279 ASTM E 1453, 16table
AMS (Aerospace Material Specification). See SAE International ASTM E 1475, 16table
annihilation, 45 ASTM E 1496, 16table
and pair production, 50 ASTM E 1570, 16table
anode grounded circuit, 65 ASTM E 1647, 16table
anodes, 57 ASTM E 1648, 16table
X-ray tubes, 61, 61-62, 63, 63 ASTM E 1672, 16table
ANSI. See American National Standards Institute ASTM E 1734, 16table
antimony, attenuation coefficients, 640table ASTM E 1735, 16table
antiparticles, 39 ASTM E 1742, 16table, 486, 489
API. See American Petroleum Institute ASTM E 1814, 16table
Apollo booster engine, 556 ASTM E 1815, 16table, 228
archaeology applications, 596 ASTM E 1894, 16table
archival storage of film, 178, 243 ASTM E 1931, 16table
arc strikes ASTM E 1936, 16table
castings, 464 ASTM E 1955, 16table
welds, 481, 499, 499 ASTM E 2002, 16table
arc welding ASTM E 2033, 16table
flash radiography, 412-413 ASTM E 2104, 486, 489
radioscopy, 502, 502-506, 503, 504 ASTM E 2116, 16table
area detectors, image digitization, 350 ASTM F 629, 16table
area monitoring, 123, 125, 127 ASTM F 947, 16table
area viewers, 191 ASTM F 1035, 16table
argon, attenuation coefficients, 621table Committee E-7 on Nondestructive Testing, 27
artifacts. See radiographic artifacts image quality indicators (penetrameters). See image quality indicators
artillery shells, 21 international standards, 15, 16table
backscatter imaging, 380, 395 ISO versus ASTM film classifications, 228table
scanning microdensitometry of fuses, 197 standards for metal castings, 460
art radiography, 598-601 test standards, 15, 16table
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, 17table atomic attenuation coefficient
butt joints, 483 defined, 50, 610
castings acceptance criteria, 466 selected elements, 612-651table
and image quality indicators (penetrameters), 174 atomic mass unit, 31
lap joints, 484 atomic number, 39
lead foil screens, 487 atomic structure, 38-41, 57
nuclear pressure vessels, 527 atomic weight (relative atomic mass), 610-611
power and process piping, 517, 518 attenuation, 44-45, 48-51
pressure vessels, 526 gaging, 570-571
tanks, 529 and image analysis, 347
weld acceptance criteria, 489 See also absorption; scattering
ASNT. See American Society for Nondestructive Testing

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attenuation coefficients bone

defined, 50-51, 610-611 hounsfield value, 314table
gamma attenuation with and without scatter, 51 radiography, 596
neutrons, 440table, 447table boron
selected elements, 612-651table attenuation coefficients, 557
audit, of radiation safety procedures, 115-117 capture cross section, 47table
automatic defect recognition, 406-407 boron fiber composites
image analysis, 371-374 attenuation in adhesive bonded, 557
automotive applications backscatter imaging, 390
assembly line radioscopy, 278 boron trifluoride neutron detector tubes, 104, 122, 123
digital radiography, 300 bouwers-schmidt lenses, 271
radioscopic security inspection of truck, 589, 590 Boy with Still Life (Baum), radiographic evaluation, 600, 601, 601
spark plug microfocus radioscopy, 407 branching, 43
tire radiation gaging, 577 brass
wheel radioscopy, 279 inspection with cobalt-60, 75
aviation component radiography, 544-549. See also aircraft radiographic equivalence factors, 152, 153table
AWS. See American Welding Society brass filters, 156
brazed honeycomb structures, 547, 547-548, 549
brazing, automatic defect recognition, 406
B bremsstrahlung, 44, 56-57
background scatter, 348 bridge radiography, 591, 592, 596
backscattered radiation, 154, 154 bridge wire igniter, 447
backscatter imaging, 28 bridge wire squid, 438
applications, 395-399 broad beam shielding, 133
multiaperture collimator, 388 bronze
principles, 379-387 casting density versus radiographic sources, 460table
for radiation gaging, 392, 573 tensile property relation to radiographic indications, 465table
reconstruction and image processing techniques, 392-394 brumlein line generators, 411
sensitivity, 393-394 building materials, density of selected commercial, 133table
techniques, 388-391 building radiography, 593
backscatter tomography, 392 historic buildings, 594-596
badge plants, 133 burnthrough, interpretation in welds, 211, 211
badges butt joints, 475, 475-476
body, 103 exposure setup, 483-484
film, 108, 121-122 in-process radioscopy of arc-welded, 502, 506
bad pixels, 357
baggage scanners, 588-590
ball grid arrays C
image analysis, 356-357, 357, 361, 362 cable radiography, 537
solder joints, 579 cadmium
barium, attenuation coefficients, 643table attenuation coefficients, 638table
barium clay diaphragms, 155 capture cross section, 47table
barium fluorobromide, europium activated, 287, 294 neutron absorption by, 47
barrels, digital radiography of contents, 300 X-ray and thermal neutron attenuation, 440table
barriers, 127 cadmium tungstate, properties, 260table
baseball bat radiography, 587 calcium, attenuation coefficients, 622table
battery flashlight computed tomography, 327 calcium fluoride, europium-activated
battery powered densitometer, 194 properties, 260table
beam focusing, X-ray tubes, 60-61 for radiation gaging, 575
beam hardening calcium tungstate
and computed tomography, 336 properties, 257table
and image analysis, 349, 360, 365, 392-393 relative light yield, 257table
becquerel (Bq), 31, 42, 119 spectral emission, 258
Belle (ship), radiography of artifacts, 596-597 calibration
beryllium densitometers, 194-195
attenuation coefficients, 613table low level transforms, 356-359
grid diaphragms for radiography of, 157 radiation detection instruments, 126
neutron attenuation coefficients, 447table californium-252, 104
beta disintegration, 46 for neutron radiography, 443-445, 444
beta particles spontaneous fission, 44
absorption by matter, 45 californium-252 exposure devices, 134
discovery, 38 Caligula statue radiography, 598, 599, 599
emission, 43-44 Canadian General Standards Board
maximum range versus energy, 131 CAN/CGSB-48.3-92, 17table
See also electrons CAN/CGSB-48.5-95, 17table
betatron generator, 69 CAN/CGSB-48.9712-95, 17table
betatrons, 68, 68-69 CAN/CGSB-48-GP-2M, 17table
for nuclear vessel radiography, 526 capacitor microfocus radiography, 407
bismuth germanate, 100table, 260table Cape Hatteras Lighthouse, radiographic testing of gallery, 595, 595
bitmapped graphics, 276table Capitol building, radiographic testing of walls, 595
blob analysis, 362, 372 capping, 319
blowholes carbon
interpretation in castings, 214, 214 attenuation coefficients, 614table
interpretation in welds, 501 hounsfield value, 314table
body badges, 103 carbon-to-carbon composites, computed tomography, 335
body scan tomography. See laminography cargo transport, digital radiography application, 300
bohr atom, 38, 39-41, 40
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. See ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
boilers, 514
effect of discontinuities, 3
boiling water reactor radiography, 526, 526-527

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castings, 453-454 cobalt-60, 52, 74table, 74-75

aerospace components, 556, 558 attenuation with fuel rods, 533
computed tomography of turbine blades, 326 bibliography, 86-87
flash radiography, 412, 412-413 disintegration, 75
image analysis of aluminum, 358 exposure devices, 82, 82-83
interpretation of discontinuities, 213-217 gamma ray source, 128table
interpretation report, 201 gamma ray transmission through lead and concrete, 131
radiographic indications, 461-464 gamma spectra, 75
radiographic techniques for, 455-460 half value thickness, 51table
radiographic testing and process scheduling, 465-466, 467-468 for nuclear vessel radiography, 526
radiographic testing problems, 467-468 source for castings, 455table
repair welds, 464, 465 temporary field site versus permanent facility, 116
cast iron, 459 codes, 187-188, 489. See also ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code; reference
Cape Hatteras Lighthouse, 595 standards
casting density versus radiographic sources, 460table coherent scattering. See elastic scattering
cathode grounded circuit, 65 cold cracks, interpretation in welds, 212
cathode rays, 21 cold neutrons, attenuation by selected elements, 447
cathodes, 57 cold shuts, 463, 463
X-ray tubes, 60 interpretation in castings, 216-217
cavity shrinkage, 461-462 collimation
cellulose radiography, 586 in computed tomography, 305
CEN 584, 17table and image analysis, 351
center grounded circuit, 65 in megavolt radiography, 158
centimeter-gram-second (CGS) units, 29 neutrons, 440
certification. See personnel qualification and certification in radioscopy, 262, 271
cesium, attenuation coefficients, 642table color conditioning, 240
cesium-137, 53, 74table, 75-76 color lookup tables, 354, 354-356, 355, 359
attenuation by fuel rods, 533 coloumb per kilogram (C*kg-1; replaces roentgen), 31-32, 119
bibliography, 86 compact disk (CD) data storage, 275
disintegration, 76 comparator, with etched glass reticle, 192
gamma ray source, 128table comparator block, 521, 521-522
gamma ray transmission through lead and concrete, 131 composites
gamma spectra, 75 adhesive bonded, 557
half value thickness, 51table aviation component radiography, 547, 547-548
source for castings, 455table backscatter imaging, 390, 397-398
cesium iodide scintillators, 266 computed tomography, 335
in digital radiography, 289, 297 inspection with thulium-170, 78
discontinuity centers, 293 See also honeycomb structures
properties, 257table, 260table compound units, 32, 120
spectral emission, 258 compton scattering, 49, 347
channel electron multipliers, 266-267 attenuation coefficient, 610
characteristic curve, 167, 167-169, 222, 224, 223-227, 242-243 defined, 49, 380-382, 382
gamma, 232, 233, 243 for radiation gaging, 571-572
intensifying salt screen exposed, 243 for radiological material detection, 590
of films exposed with lead foil screens, 169 computed tomography, 28, 303-305
typical industrial film, 224, 225 aerospace components, 561-562, 562
characteristic X-rays, 44, 57 applications, 323-327
charge coupled devices, 269 back projection filtering, 314
for digital radiography, 294, 298, 298-300 body scan method, 304
for film digitization systems, 180-181 capabilities, 323table
intensified, 271, 279 with collimated fan beam and linear detector array, 305
properties, 286table contrast, 316-317, 332-334
for radioscopy, 269-271 contrast discrimination curves, 334
sensitivity compared to vidicons, 270 data acquisition and reconstruction, 312
chemical industry applications. See utility, petroleum and chemical industry effective aperture, 308
applications fuel rods, 533-536
chemical spot testing, 11 imaging process, 346, 347, 349
chemical streaks, 204, 204 and material density, 334-335
chill inserts, 463 mechanical handling, 320
chloride contamination detection, in roads, 591-592 principles of, 310-315
chlorine, capture cross section, 47table probability distribution for feature detection, 332
chromium, attenuation coefficients, 625table for radiation gaging, 573
chromium-51, gamma ray source, 128table reference standards, 328-338
cigarette radiation gaging, 573, 577, 586 resolution, 316-317
cinefluorography, rocket engines, 554, 554-555 shape inspectability versus conventional radiography, 325table
civil structure radiography, 591, 592-593 source-object-detector configurations and effective beam widths, 316
clustered porosity system design, 318-322, 321, 321table
interpretation in welds, 498 system generations, 319
welds, 478 system size versus cost, 322
coarse scattered porosity, in steel welds, 498 system size versus sensitivity to detail, 322
coatings tradeoffs in detectors, 351
backscatter imaging, 381 See also laminography; phantoms
thickness gaging, 571, 573, 576 concavity, in welds, 211, 212, 212
cobalt concrete
attenuation coefficients, 628table backscatter imaging, 398-399
capture cross section, 47table gamma ray transmission through, 131
and infrastructure radiography, 591, 591-592
shielding equivalents, 132table
X-ray transmission under broad beam conditions, 133
concrete shooting booth, 130
cone beam computed tomography, 320

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Conference for Radiation Control Program Directors, 118 delamination

confined space, 19 ablative thrust chambers, 555
consultants, 13 surface mounted components, 582
consumer goods radiography, 584-587 welds, 478, 480
contrast detail dose curves, 328 delayed cracks, interpretation in welds, 212
contrast discrimination curves, 329 delay streaks, 205
contrast sensitivity, 346, 348 dendritic shrinkage, 461, 462
computed tomography, 317, 332-334 dense inclusions, 208, 215, 215
control strips, 242 densitometers, 165, 194-198
convexity (excessive penetration), in welds, 210-211 density
convolution function, in computed tomography, 313-314 backscatter based estimation, 385, 398
Coolidge Award, 27 castings, versus radiographic sources, 460table
copper and computed tomography, 334-335
attenuation coefficients, 630table limitations of radiographic testing, 12
dimensional analysis of pipe, 367-370, 367-370 optical, of film, 141, 164-165, 190-198
inspection with cobalt-60, 75 selected building materials, 133table
radiographic equivalence factors, 153table See also radiation gaging
radiological detection and identification, 590 density phantoms, 335, 336
segregation in castings, 217 dental work, microfocus radioscopy, 408
copper diaphragms, 155 Department of Transportation (United States)
copper filters, 156 concrete radiography research, 591
core shift, 463 pipeline radiography research, 517
interpretation in castings, 217, 217 radioactive material transportation regulations, 118
corner joints, 476, 477 depleted uranium shields, 132
exposure setup, 484, 484-485 for ANSI Type I exposure devices, 81
radiographic procedure, 495 for ANSI Type II exposure devices, 83
corrosion depth profiling, 390-391, 392
backscatter imaging of aircraft, 396-397 computed tomography, 311
backscatter imaging of pipelines, 397 detectors. See radiation detectors
in power and process piping, 519-523 deuterium, 42
reversed geometry scanning beam radiography of aircraft, 416-418, 417 Deutsche Industrie Norm (DIN) standards, 17table
cosmic radiography, 595-596 for castings radiography, 458
cosmic rays, 39, 52 DIN 6814, 17table
cost benefit analysis, 13 DIN 6832-2, 17table
crack detection, 2, 5table, 6table DIN 25430, 17table
aircraft wings, using reversed beam scanning, 415-416, 416 DIN 54109, EN 462 P1 (DIN) and ASTM E 747, 174, 175, 183
aviation components, 544 DIN 54115, 17table
backscatter imaging, 387 DIN EN 444, 17table
first uses of radiography, 26 DIN EN 12681, 17table
interpretation in castings, 216, 216 DIN EN 14096, 17table
interpretation in welds, 212 image quality indicators (penetrameters), 174, 175, 458
nuclear fuel rods, 530, 534 for radioscopy, 277
steel welds, 491-495, 492 See also image quality indicators, wire type
visibility and image quality indicators (penetrameters), 175-176 Deutsche Institut für Normung. See Deutsche Industrie Norm (DIN) standards
See also castings; discontinuities; welds developer, 163, 241-242
cracks faults from, 233table
types in castings, 463 MQ and PQ, 232
types in welds, 480 and spotting artifacts, 204, 205
crater cracks, 480 development. See film development
interpretation in welds, 212 diaphragms, for reduction of scattering, 155
crimp marks, 177, 202, 202 grid type, 157-158
crookes tube, 21, 23 diffused p-n junction detector, 106-107, 107
cross sections, 46-47, 50 digital audio tape (DAT) data storage, 275
selected elements, 47table, 612-651table digital fluoroscopy, aerospace structures, 562
See also individual elements digital images, 349-351
crown (static mark), 240, 240 colorizing, 354
cruise missile computed tomography, 326, 327 practical considerations, 351-352
crystals transform techniques, 356-366, 357table
latent image site, 221 visual enhancement, 353-356
residual stresses, 428-429 See also computed tomography
X-ray diffraction, 427-428, 428 digital laminography. See laminography
cupping, 319 digital radiographic imaging, 283-284
curie (Ci), 31, 42, 119 detectors for, 284-288, 296-300, 351
current mode detectors, 574, 575 image contrast and signal statistics, 289-295
cyclotrons, 53, 443 imaging process, 346, 347, 349
substitute for flash radiography, 410
digital transmission densitometer, 194
D digital video disk (DVD) data storage, 275, 276
dam radiography, 593, 596 dimensional measurements
darkroom technique, 237 image analysis, 366-370
debris formation and relocation, in nuclear fuel rods, 533-535 phantoms for, 336-338, 337
decay constant, 42 DIN standards. See Deutsche Industrie Norm
deexcitation, 100 directional dose equivalent, 32, 119
defects. See discontinuities direct reading dosimeters, 94
defect standard, 441 dirt, radiographic artifacts caused by, 203, 205
definition, 170, 171 discontinuities
heat treatment effects, 465
types in castings, 461-464
types in welds, 478-481

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discontinuity detection, 2, 26, 5table, 6table epithermal neutron radiography, 447

depth detection using stereo radiography, 419-426 epithermal neutrons, 104table
and imaging method selection, 14 equivalent dose, 32
interpretation for castings, 213-217 equivalent sensitivity of image quality indicator (penetrameter), 174-175
interpretation for welds, 207-212 erosion, of power and process piping, 519-523
limiting factors in detection, 12 European wire image quality indicators (penetrameters), 174, 175
in pipelines, 517 europium, capture cross section, 47table
and radiographic sensitivity, 458-459 examinations, for certification, 18
reliability, 19-20 excessive penetration (convexity), in welds, 210-211, 211
visibility and image quality indicators (penetrameters), 175-176 excitation, 45
See also automatic defect recognition; castings; crack detection; welds exfoliate corrosion, 396
disintegration, 42 explosives
disintegration rate, 119 aerospace, 557
disposal, radioactive materials, 118 backscatter imaging, 381
distillation column radiography, 523 flash radiography, 410
dose. See radiation dose neutron radiography, 438, 447
dosimeters, 121-122, 123 exposure, 119, 243
direct reading, 94 for castings, 459
energy dependence of response, 94 in film radiography, 139-151, 221-222, 231
performance specifications, 95table exposure charts, 165-167
DOT. See Department of Transportation (United States) exposure control, 127-129
double beam microdensitometry, 196 exposure devices
dross, 461 with crankout and tube guide, 81
interpretation in castings, 214-215 guide tube collimators for, 82
drugs. See pharmaceuticals isotope radiation sources, 77, 80, 80-84
drying, of film, 230, 244 safety considerations, 116-117
dual energy techniques, 28 with source exchanger, 83
dynamic neutron radioscopy, 446 exposure factor, 149-150, 166
dynodes, 101
dysprosium, capture cross section, 47table
F
fabric radiation gaging, 577
E false indications, 202
eddy current testing, 8, 8-9 aluminum alloy welds, 507-509, 508
edge joints, 477, 477 See also radiographic artifacts
exposure setup, 485 faraday (unit of charge), 38
edge spread function fast neutron radiography, 447
computed tomography, 329, 331, 332 fast neutrons, 46, 104table
and image quality indicators (penetrameters), 277 shielding, 134
effective apertures, 308 fatigue corrosion, 396
elastic scattering feature space, 356
defined, 380 females, radiation exposure, 120
neutrons, 46 fermi distribution, 43
electromagnetic radiation, 48-51 fiber glass
electromagnetic spectrum, 48 attenuation in adhesive bonded composites, 557
electron beam welding, flash radiography, 412-413 radiation gaging, 577
electron capture, 44 fiber optic scintillators, 290, 291, 298, 299
electronic components fiber optic tapers, 299
image analysis, 359, 360 field emission, 410
laminography, 306 FIFO (first-in, first out) system, of film storage, 240
radioscopy, 578-583, 584 filamentary shrinkage, 461, 462
surface mounted, 582 fillet welds, 476
tantalum capacitor microfocus radiography, 407 on corner joints, 484
electronic dosimeters, 122 exposure setup, 485
electronic quenching, in geiger-müller counters, 97 film badges, 121-122, 122
electronic radiation sources, 55-58 film, radiographic
generator construction, 59-66 artifacts, 202
for high voltage radiography, 63, 63-66, 66 base, 231
for megavolt radiography, 67-70 contrast, 170, 171
standards, 14 emulsion, 231
electronic radioscopy, 28 graininess, 171-172, 227
electron linear accelerators, 69, 69-70, 70 handling, 177
electrons film development
atomic structure, 38 artifacts associated with, 204-205
capture, 44 chemistry, 230-236, 231-234
and latent image formation, 108 darkroom technique, 237
production from incident photon, 50 equipment and practice, 238-240
radiation detection instruments, 123 latent image, 108-109, 219-229, 230
radiation protection measurement, 121-122 processing technique, 241-246
See also beta particles silver recovery, 247-249
electronvolt, 31 film digitization systems
electrostatic generators, 67, 67-68, 68 charge coupled device, 180-181
elemental analysis, by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, 429-431 laser, 181
elementary particles, 38-41
EN 12679, 17table
encapsulated isotope sources, 79, 79-80
enclosed installations, 127-128
energy conservation, 56
energy dispersive spectrometry, 427, 429, 429
instrumentation for, 431
energy levels, 40-41

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film radiography gamma ray attenuation gaging, 570, 570-571

absorption and scattering, 152-158 gamma radiography
automatic processing, 233-234, 236, 245-246 audit procedures, 116-117
characteristic curve, 167, 167-169, 169, 222, 224-226 backscatter imaging, 398
equivalent exposure ratios, 168table bibliography, 85-88
exposure, 139-151, 221-222, 222, 231 of buildings and structures, 594, 595, 597
exposure charts, 165, 165-167, 166 exposure charts, 167
film choice for castings, 458-459 infrastructure applications, 591
film choice for welds, 482-483 jet engine inspection, 552, 553
film classification, 228table and pulsed fast neutron analysis, 590
film digitization, 180-182 See also isotope radiation sources
film handling and storage, 177-179, 240, 488 gamma rays, 38
image quality and detail visibility, 170-176 attenuation, 48-51
industrial X-ray films, 163-169 attenuation with and without scatter, 51
screens for, 154-155, 159-162 dissipation in matter, 152
sensitivity, 151 dosage, 455-456
source strength, distance and time relations, 147-149 as electromagnetic radiation, 48
transmittance, opacity and density relationships, 162table emission, 44, 142
X-ray spectral sensitivity curve, 228 exposure control installations, 127-128
film scratches exposure factor, 150
after processing, 206 and ionization, 91
before processing, 202 radiation damage from, 293-294
film shipping, 177 radiation detection instruments, 123, 124, 125
film speed, 226, 243-244 radiation protection measurement, 121-122
relative values, 226table radiographic equivalence factors, 153table
shifts in curve position with salt screens, 243 transmission through concrete, 131
filmless radiography. See radioscopy transmission through lead, 131
filters, 155-157 gamma ray sources
effect on X-ray intensity, 156 bibliography, 86-88
final edge joints, 477 for castings, 455-456
fine scattered porosity, in steel welds, 498 output, 128table, 129
finger marks, 177, 204 shielding equivalents, 132table
fingerprints, 204 skyshine from, 131
fire-on-position data acquisition, 320 for welds, 482
fission fragments, 53 gas discharge tubes, 410
fission track counting systems, 122 gas filled detectors, for radiation gaging, 574
fixation, 230, 235 gas ionization detectors, 91-99
fixer, 234-235, 244 gaskets, neutron radiography, 438
flashlight computed tomography, 327 gas void porosity
flash radiography, 28, 409-413 castings, 454, 461, 462
flash X-ray diffraction, 413 interpretation in castings, 214, 214, 468
flash X-ray tubes, 410-411, 411 interpretation in welds, 496
flaws. See discontinuities welds, 478
Flemish art, radiographic evaluation, 600 geiger-müller counters, 97, 125
flickered imaged technique, 423-424, 424 described, 96-99
flight test aircraft inspection, 545-547 energy response curves, 98
fluid flow radiography, 524, 524-525 quenching in, 97
fluorescence scattering, 381, 384 for radiation gaging, 574
fluorescent screens, 161-162, 162, 164 resolving time, 96
artifacts associated with dirt, 203, 205 Gemini space vehicle, 552, 553
and graininess, 227 geometric enlargement, 146, 147
for radioscopic imaging, 254, 256-259, 279 geometric unsharpness, 60, 145-146, 146
fluoroscopy, 254-255 welds, 477
fluoroscope, 23, 24 germanium, attenuation coefficients, 632table
See also radioscopy germanium detectors
flying spot scanning, 389, 389-390 gamma ray efficiency, 107
focus cup, X-ray tubes, 60 for radiation gaging, 575-576
fog, 203, 225 sodium iodide (thalium-activated) compared, 101
and darkroom technique, 237, 238 surface barrier, 106
and development, 233 ghost defects, 507, 508
food radiography, 585, 585 glass, high density, 290
digital, 300 properties, 260table
fossil radiography, 596 glass dosimeters, 122
fourier transforms glass X-ray tube, 59
in backscatter imaging, 388, 392 gold
in computed tomography, 310, 314, 329, 332 attenuation coefficients, 648table
and image analysis, 348 capture cross section, 47table
and modulation transfer function, 292 gold-198
frame averaging, in imaging systems, 352 gamma ray source, 128table
freeman chain code algorithms, 356, 356, 363 gamma ray transmission through lead and concrete, 131
fuel injector image analysis, 355 golf ball radiography, 587
fuel rods/elements. See nuclear fuel go/no-go gage, 175. See also image quality indicators
future usefulness, and nondestructive testing, 2 government licensing, 114, 118
gadolinium, capture cross section, 47table government regulations, 117-118, 514
gadolinium oxysulfide, 266, 290 graetz circuit, 64, 64
relative light yield, 257table graphite composites
spectral emission, 258 attenuation in adhesive bonded, 557
gaging. See radiation gaging epoxy woven stiffener computed tomography, 326
gain decrease, 293-294 gray (Gy; replaces rad), 32, 119
gamma (of characteristic curve), 232, 243 gray wedge, 195-196
gamma versus temperature curve, 233 greinacker circuit, 64, 64-65

Index 681
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grid diaphragms, 157-158 image transform techniques, 356-366

groove welds, 475, 475-476, 477 inadequate penetration. See incomplete penetration
radiographic procedure, 495 inclusions
castings, 463, 463, 468
interpretation in castings, 214-215
H interpretation in welds, 207-208, 219
H and D (Hurter and Driffield) curve. See characteristic curve welds, 478-479
half life, 42-43 incomplete fusion
half value layer (thickness), 131, 132table, 264table castings, 464
common materials, 51table welds, 479-480
defined, 51 incomplete penetration
hard disk data storage, 275 castings, 464
hardener, in film development, 234 interpretation in welds, 208-209, 209, 496, 497, 501
Hatteras Lighthouse, radiographic testing of gallery, 595, 595 welds, 479
helicopter composite rotor/propeller blades, 548-549 indium, capture cross section, 47table
herring bone porosity, 478 industrial radiography. See specific applications, materials and techniques
Higashi Honganji Temple, cosmic radiography, 596, 596 inelastic scattering, 46
high intensity illuminators, 190-192, 191 infrared testing, 11, 11
high low defect, 211, 212, 212 infrastructure radiography, 591-593
high voltage radiography, 67 inherent geometry, 338
pulsed sources for flash radiography, 411 in-house programs, 13
radiation sources for, 63, 63-66, 66 in-motion radiography, 28
See also megavolt radiography aerospace components, 559, 559-560, 560
highway radiography, 591 aviation components, 545, 545-549
histogram equalization, 417 in-process nondestructive inspection, 502
historic building radiography, 594-596 integrated circuits. See printed circuits
historic ship radiography, 596-597 integrating instruments, 93, 123
hole image quality indicators (penetrameters), 172-174 intensified charge coupled device cameras, 271, 279
hollow bead porosity, 207, 208 intensified silicon intensifier targets, 272
holmium, capture cross section, 47table interactive image enhancement, 353-354, 359
holography, 11 Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO), radioactive
honeycomb structures material transportation requirements, 118
aerospace components, 557, 559, 559-560 interlacing, 275
aviation components, 544, 547, 547-548, 549 intermediate neutrons, 104table
backscatter imaging, 390 International Air Transport Association, radioactive material transportation
microfocus radioscopy, 408 requirements, 118
neutron radiography of aluminum, 439 International Atomic Energy Agency, radioactive material transportation
hot cells, 79, 84, 442, 443 requirements, 118
hot cracks, 480 International Committee for Weights and Measures, 31
interpretation in welds, 212 International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 18-19
hot line X-ray fixture, 537 ISO 2504, 17table
hot stick, 537-538, 538 ISO 3999, 17table
hot tears, 216, 216, 463, 468, 480 ISO 7004, 17table
hounsfield values, 314table ISO 9712, 17table, 19
Hunley (Civil War submarine), radiography of artifacts, 597, 597 ISO 9915, 17table
Hurter and Driffield (H and D) curve. See characteristic curve ISO 11699, 17table, 228
hydride detection, 557 ISO versus ASTM film classifications, 228table
hydrogen, attenuation coefficients, 557, 612table Technical Committee 135, 19
hydrogen cracking, 480 interpretation. See radiographic interpretation
hyperons, 39 inverse square law, for radiation attenuation, 23, 44-45
hypo retention, 234, 235-236 and radiographic exposure, 146-147, 147
investment castings, 558
iodine, attenuation coefficients, 641table
I ionization, 91, 91
by alpha particles, 45
icicles, 211
by electromagnetic radiation, 49
illuminators, 190-192, 191
ionization chambers, 91, 121, 125
image analysis, 345-346
current amplifier for, 93
automated testing techniques, 371-374
described, 91-93
digital images and processing schemes, 346-352
energy and directional response, 92
techniques and radiographic tests, 353-370
externally located on survey instruments, 93
image intensifier tubes, 254, 265, 265-266, 271-273
for radiation gaging, 574
for aviation component radiography, 548
ionizing radiation, 56, 90
spectral matching, 267-268
effect on scintillators, 100
image isocons, 272-273, 273, 274table, 279
effect on semiconductors, 106
image processing
ion pair, 91
backscatter imaging, 392-394
iridium, capture cross section, 47table
qualitative assessment of electronics, 582-583
iridium-192, 41table, 74, 76-77
image quality indicators and penetrameters, 486-487
bibliography, 87
ASTM E 747, 516, 518
decay curves, 456
for castings, 458
disintegration, 76
film radiography, 172-176
exposure devices, 80, 81
and image analysis, 353
gamma ray exposure chart, 166
for microfocus radioscopy, 408
gamma ray source, 128table, 455table
for neutron radiography, 441
gamma ray transmission through lead and concrete, 131
for computed tomography, 328-338, 329table, 330, 333, 335, 337
gamma spectra, 75, 77
plaque type, 172, 174, 458, 485, 486
half value thickness, 51table
for power and process piping, 516, 517, 518, 518, 519
for pipeline radiography, 515
for radioscopy, 277
production, 52
sensitivity and discontinuity visibility, 175, 486table
for weld radiography, 485-487, 486
wire type, 173-175, 174, 277, 458, 458table, 486, 486,

682 Radiographic Testing

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iron lead
attenuation coefficients, 383, 627table attenuation coefficients, 383, 649table
casting density versus radiographic sources, 460table filters, 156, 158
hounsfield value, 314table gamma ray transmission through, 131
inspection with cobalt-60, 75 masks and diaphragms, 155
X-ray and thermal neutron attenuation, 440table for overprinting to identify radiographs, 488
See also stainless steel; steel radiographic equivalence factors, 152, 153table
ISO. See International Organization for Standardization radiographic quality, 155
isocon cameras, 272-273, 273, 274table, 279 shielding equivalents, 132table
isotope radiation sources, 73-74 X-ray and thermal neutron attenuation, 440table
encapsulation, 79-80 lead foil screens, 154-155, 159-161
exposure devices, 77, 80, 80-84 artifacts associated with dirt, 203
leak testing of sealed, 126 characteristic curves of films exposed with, 167, 169
selection of isotopes, 74-78 and film graininess, 172, 227
semiannual audits, 116-117 kilovoltage effect on intensification properties, 160
source handling equipment, 79-84 for radioscopy, 259-260
source tube for pipe radiography, 528 uniformity of electrons emitted, 161
standards, 14 for weld radiography, 487
temporary field site versus permanent facilities, 116 lead resolution tester, 405
leak testing, 10
of isotope sealed sources, 126
J lenard tube, 23
Japanese Standards Association (JSA) Lester Honor Lecture, 27
JSA K 7091, 17table Liberty Bell, radiographic testing prior to moving, 597, 598
JSA K 7521, 17table licensing, 114, 118
JSA Z 4560 light bulb radiography, 587
jet engines lighthouse radiography, 595, 595
flash radiography, 413 light leaks, 203, 203-204
inspection, 552, 552, 553 light pole radiography, 593, 593
jet engine turbine blades lightroom, 237
computed tomography, 305, 323, 326, 561-562, 562 limited angle tomography, 320
flash radiography, 413 linacs, 69
microfocus radiography, 406, 560-561, 561 linatrons, 53
neutron radiography, 438, 556-557 linear accelerators
joints, 475-477 for flash radiography, 411-412
Joseph Conrad, radiographic testing of hull, 596 for megavolt radiography, 69-70
JSA. See Japanese Standards Association for nuclear vessel radiography, 70, 526, 526-528
for radioscopy, 264
linear attenuation coefficient
K defined, 50, 610
selected elements, 612-651table
K 7091. See Japanese Standards Association
linear detector arrays
K 7521. See Japanese Standards Association
for computed tomography, 305
K absorption edge, 49, 611
for digital radiography, 286table, 288, 290, 294, 300
fluorescent screens, 259
image digitization, 349
selected elements, 612-651table
for nuclear fuel tomography, 536
K capture, 44
linear diode arrays
kinefluorography, 554, 554-555
for airport bagging screening, 589
kissing, 205
for consumer goods radiography, 584
knowledge-of-position systems, 320
linear porosity
Korean Standards Association (KSA)
interpretation in welds, 207, 498
KSA A 4907, 17table
welds, 478
KSA A 4921, 17table
line focusing, X-ray tubes, 60, 60
KSA M 3910, 17table
line pair gages, 329
KSA. See Korean Standards Association
line pair resolution phantom, 330, 330
line spread function
L computed tomography, 328, 329-332, 331
and image analysis, 368
L absorption edge, 49 liquid level gages, 524-525
lack of fusion, 496, 497, 503 liquid penetrant testing, 8, 8, 27
aluminum alloy welds, 507, 509 castings, 465
interpretation in welds, 209, 210 liquid propellant rocket motors, 555-556
lag, 293 lithium, capture cross section, 47table
lamellar tearing, 478, 480 lithium drifted detectors, 107, 107
laminography, 28, 305 lithium-6 fluoride dosimeters, 122
corrosion detection in aircraft with reversed geometry scanning, 417-418 properties, 102-103
described, 304, 306-309 lithium iodide scintillators, 100table
effective aperture, 308 for neutron detection, 104
generalized mathematical solution, 307 locks, 127
scanned beam system, 306 longitudinal cracks, in welds, 212, 213, 213
for tank radiography, 529 lookup tables, 354, 354-356, 355, 359
See also digital radiographic imaging low level transforms, 356
lanthanum bromide, relative light yield, 257table luminescent dosimetry, 102-103, 122
lanthanum hypobromite, spectral emission, 258
lap joints, 476-477, 477
exposure setup, 484
laser film digitization systems, 181
lateral migration radiography, 395-396

Index 683
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M multiscale, multiresolution transforms, 356, 363-364, 364

mummy radiography, 594
M 3910. See Korean Standards Association munitions. See explosives; ordnance
magnesium
attenuation coefficients, 618table
casting density versus radiographic sources, 460table N
radiographic equivalence factors, 153table
narrow beam shielding, 133
shrinkage in castings, 462
National Building Code of Canada, 489
magnetic particle testing, 8, 27
National Institute of Standards and Technology, 125
castings, 465
natural radioactivity, 52
magnifiers, 192, 193
navy bronze, casting density versus radiographic sources, 460table
manganese, attenuation coefficients, 626table
NCRP 61, 17table
manganese bronze, casting density versus radiographic sources, 460table
neutrinos, 39
manganese-nickel-aluminum bronze, tensile property relation to radiographic
neutron absorbers, 47
indications, 465table
neutron activation, 52
marble statue radiography, 598, 599
neutron capture, 46, 52
marx-surge generators, 411
neutron detectors, 104-105
masks and diaphragms, 155
neutron gaging, 448, 573
and interpretation, 192
neutron induced autoradiography, 448
mass attenuation coefficient
neutron interferometry, 448
defined, 50, 610-611
neutron radiography
selected elements, 612-651table
aerospace components, 556-557
matrix effects, in spectrometry, 430
applications, 437-439
measure, units of, 29-32
dynamic radioscopy, 446
medical radiography
epithermal, 447
computed tomography, 305
fast, 447
first use of radiography, 21, 24
for fluid flow measurements, 524
interpretation reproducibility, 186
for high and low density materials, 12
market size, 28
imaging, 264, 440-441
megavolt radiography
radiation safety, 134-135
electronic radiation sources, 67-70
special techniques, 446-448
film storage, 178
static radiography with thermal neutrons, 440-445
microfocus radioscopy, 406
subthermal, 446
scattering in, 158
training and experience recommended, 18table
See also high voltage radiography
neutrons
Mehl Honor Lecture, 26, 27
atomic structure, 39
mercury, capture cross section, 47table
capture, 46, 52
mesons, 39
classification, 104table
metal ceramic X-ray tube, 59
interactions, 45-47
metal detector wands, 587
radiation detection instruments, 126
microchannel plates, 266-267, 267
radiation protection measurement, 122
in intensified charge coupled devices, 271
neutron sensitive screens, 259
microfilm, 178-179
neutron sources, 53, 441-443
microfocus radiography, 28, 404, 404-408
radiographic isotope creation, 74-78
aerospace components, 560-561, 561
safety aspects, 134
of electronics, 578-583
neutron tomography, 447-448, 530, 534-536, 535
microfocus X-ray tubes, 62
aerospace components, 562-563
microshrinkage. See shrinkage
newvicon, 272, 273
microshrinks. See shrinkage
characteristics, 274table
MIL-STD. See military specifications
nickel
military specifications
attenuation coefficients, 629table
MIL-B-21250A, 465table
digital radiography of bucket blades, 300
MIL-S-15083, 465table
radiographic equivalence factors, 153table
MIL-STD-453, 486, 489
nickel silver, casting density versus radiographic sources, 460table
mine detection, backscatter imaging for, 395-396
niobium, attenuation coefficients, 635table
mine rock anchor bolts, scanning microdensitometry, 198
nitrogen, attenuation coefficients, 615table
mismatch, interpretation in welds, 211, 212
nondestructive testing
misruns, 463
applications, 4
interpretation in castings, 217, 217
defined, 2
mobile neutron radiography system, 444
methods classification, 4-6
mobile radiation sources, 14
methods overview, 7-12
moderators, 46
objectives, 5table, 6table
modular radiation enclosure, 130
purposes, 2-4
modulation transfer function
specifying tests, 186-187
computed tomography, 328, 329-332, 331, 332table
test objects, 5-6
and imaging, 277, 277-279, 290, 292, 292-293, 348-349
value of, 7
and laser film digitization systems, 181
Nondestructive Testing Handbook series, 27
moiré imaging, 11
nonmetallics, 207
moisture measurement, 572, 573
nonrelevant indications, 202
molybdenum, attenuation coefficients, 636table
no umbra device, 441
monitors, 354
NRC. See Nuclear Regulatory Commission
for radioscopy, 275
nuclear cross sections. See cross sections
morphological transforms, 356, 360-363
nuclear fission, 46
motion blur, in radioscopy, 262
nuclear fuel, 530-536
motorcycle neutron radiography, 440
cesium-137 recovery from, 76
mottling, 454, 463-464
digital radiography, 300
and film radiography, 158
flash radiography, 413
quantum, 227, 262, 289
neutron radiography, 441
screen mottle, 162, 171-172
scanning microdensitometry, 197
moving detector depth scanning, 388-389, 389
thickness measuring system for microspheres, 530, 531
MQ developers, 232
nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 311

684 Radiographic Testing

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nuclear neutron absorption, 46 personnel monitoring instruments

nuclear power plants dose rate versus effective energy, 98
inservice inspection with linear accelerator, 70, 526-528 geiger-müller counters, 98-99
piping radiography, 517, 518 ionization chambers, 93-94
pressure vessel radiography, 526 personnel qualification and certification, 13, 15, 18-19, 186
nuclear radiographic service centers, 442 ANSI/ASNT CP-189, 17table
nuclear reactor neutron sources, 441-442 ASNT Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A, 17table, 18table
radiographic isotope creation, 74-78 ISO 9712, 17table
safety aspects, 134 for radiation safety, 19, 117-118
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), 114 See also training
permissible doses, 120 petroleum industry applications. See utility, petroleum and chemical industry
reporting of leaking isotope sources, 126 applications
safety personnel certification, 117-118 phantoms, 310, 335-338
waste disposal licensing, 118 categories and measurement technique, 329table
nuclear transmutation, 46 for contrast sensitivity, 333
nuclear waste for dimensional measurement, 336-338, 337
computed tomography, 536 and image analysis, 351
disposal licensing, 118 line pair resolution, 330
nucleonic gaging, 570, 576-577 for material density, 335, 336
for medical computed tomography, 328
nuclear waste drum, 536
O pharmaceuticals
object scatter, 348 backscatter imaging, 381
observed contrast, in radioscopy, 261-262 radiation gaging, 577
Occupational Safety and Health Standards, 17table, 19 radiographic testing, 586-587
onion radiography, 585 phosphors, 256, 257table
open installation, 128 for digital radiography, 284, 286, 290-291, 291
optical coupling in neutron detection, 104
digital radiography, 299 for personnel dosimetry, 122
radioscopy, 269, 271 spectral emission, 267
optical density, 141, 164-165, 190-198 typical glow curve, 102
optically stimulated luminescence dosimetry, 103 photocathodes, 101, 574
optical testing methods, 11 response spectrum in image intensifiers, 267
optotype, 189 photocurrent signal, 270
ordnance photoelectric effect, 347
aerospace, 557 attenuation coefficient, 610
backscatter imaging, 388, 395-396 defined, 48-49
microfocus radioscopy, 406 photographic density, 141, 164-165
O-rings density versus exposure, 226
neutron radiography, 438, 557 and exposure, 226
neutron tomography of aerospace, 562, 563 paper radiographs, 195
overlap, interpretation in welds, 210 quality control, 242-243
oxidation, repair welds in castings, 464 photoluminescent glass dosimeters, 122
oxtail, 63 photomultiplier tubes, 100-101, 101
oxygen, attenuation coefficients, 616table with laser film digitization systems, 181
The Oyster Eater (Ensor), radiographic evaluation, 600 in thermoluminescent dosimeters, 103
photon attenuation coefficients. See attenuation coefficients
photons, 48-50, 56-57
P characteristics, 48table
pair production from incident, 50
packaging radiography, 587
photoelectric interaction of incident with orbital electron, 49
packaging tape, attenuation gaging, 572
Pietà statue radiography, 598, 599, 599
paintings, radiographic testing, 598-601
pigtail, 79, 79, 80, 81, 83
pair production, 347
pillowing, 396-397
attenuation coefficient, 610
pi marks, 205, 205
defined, 49, 50
pinhole cameras, for backscatter imaging, 388
paper
pipeline radiography, 515-517
moisture content gaging, 572
backscatter imaging of corrosion, 397
radiation gaging, 576-577
radioscopic imaging, 254
paper radiographs
residual stress measurement, 429
density, 195
pipe radiography
viewing, 192-193
automated defect recognition in welds, 372, 372-374, 373
parallax, and stereo radiography, 419-423, 420
dimensional analysis of copper, 367-370, 367-371
partial volume effect, 317
nuclear power plants, 527-528, 528
particle physics
power and process piping, 517-525
electromagnetic radiation, 48-51
piping (weld porosity type), 478
elementary particles, 38-41
interpretation, 478
radioactive material production, 52-63
pixel pitch, 292
radioactive material properties, 42-47
plaque penetrameters. See image quality indicators
passenger jet flight test radiography, 545-546, 547
plastics, radiation gaging, 577
pellet implosion studies, flash radiography application, 413
plastic scintillators, 100
penetrameters. See image quality indicators
for neutron detection, 104
penetrating radiation, 22, 23, 48
plated through-hole (PTH) solder joints, 579
penstock radiography, 592, 592
platinum, attenuation coefficients, 647table
perception, 189-190
plumbicon, 272, 273
periodic table, 40, 41
plutonium, attenuation coefficients, 651table
permissible doses, 120
pocket ionization chambers, 93-94, 94
persistence curves, 257-258
pocket knife, digital laminography, 308, 309
personal dose equivalent, 32
point clouds, 363, 369
personnel dosimetry, 121-122
point spread function, 348-349
clip-on devices, 122
computed tomography, 328, 329
personnel monitoring, 127

Index 685
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polonium, 38 radiation safety, 19

porosity, 2 doses, 119-120
castings, 454, 461, 464 exposure control, 127-129
interpretation in castings, 213-214, 214 exposure levels, 119-120
interpretation in welds, 207, 207-208, 495, 496, 498, 499 management, 114-118
repair welds in castings, 464 neutron radiography, 134-135
welds, 478 protection measurements, 121-126
Portrait of Gaspard Gevartius (Rubens), radiographic evaluation, 600 shielding, 130-133
positron emission tomography (PET), 311 standards and practices, 17table
positrons, 39 See also dosimeters; personnel certification; radiation dose
production from incident photon, 50 radiation safety officer, 114-117
potassium-40, 52 and changes to protective enclosures, 130
power line radiography, 537-538 radiation sources, 14, 55-88
power piping radiography, 517-525 for flash radiography, 411
PQ developers, 232 for metal castings, 455-456, 467
predetermined liquid level gage, 525 output, 129
pressure marks, 203, 203, 205, 205 for radioscopy, 263-264
pressure vessel radiography, 526-528, 527 for welds, 482
pressurized water reactor radiography, 526-527 See also electronic radiation sources; isotope radiation sources
primary X-ray photons, 347 radiation surveys, 123, 125, 127
printed circuits and shielding wall thickness, 123, 125, 127
laminography, 306 survey meter, 121
microfocus radiography, 405 radiation, units of measure for, 29-32, 42, 119-120
radioscopy, 578-583 radiation weighting factors, 119table
process piping radiography, 517-525 radioactive decay, 43, 43-44
projection microfocus radioscopy, 264, 404-408 radioactive materials
proportional counters, 94-95 production, 52-63
for neutron detection, 104 properties, 42-47
for radiation gaging, 574 transportation and disposal, 118
proportional region, 574 radioactive neutron sources, safety aspects, 134
protective enclosures, 130-131 radio frequency quadrupole accelerators, 443
protective installation, 127 radiographer certification, 15, 18-19, 117-118
protons, 38-39 radiographic artifacts
pulsed fast neutron analysis, 590 aluminum alloy welds, 507-509, 508
pulsed high voltage sources, for flash radiography, 411 computed tomography, 336
Pyramid of Khafre, cosmic radiography, 596 in digital radiography, 295
pyrotechnic devices radioscopic, 206
aerospace, 557 types of, 202-206
neutron radiography, 438, 446, 447 viewing accessories for interpreting, 192
radiographic contrast
defined, 170, 243
Q and film development, 223-225, 226-227
qualification. See personnel qualification and certification and film exposure, 150-151
quality control, 188 and kilovoltage, 151
of film processing, 242-244 radiographic equivalence factors, 152-153, 153table
quality factor, 119-120 radiographic interpretation, 14, 185-188
quantum mottle, 227, 262, 289 castings, 213-217, 468
quantum noise, 360 densitometers for, 194-198
quantum theory, 48 reporting, 198-201
quartz fiber pocket dosimeter, 94 reproducibility, 186
viewing equipment, 190-193
vision acuity and perception, 189-193
R welds, 207-212
See also radiographic artifacts
rad (radiation absorbed dose), 32, 119
radiographic parallax, 420
radiation absorption. See absorption
radiographic sensitivity
radiation attenuation. See attenuation
defined, 170
radiation conversion material, 287
and discontinuity detection, 458-459
radiation damage, 293-294
and film exposure, 151
thresholds, 265table
radiographic shadows, 143, 143-144, 144
radiation detectors, 122-123
radiographic shooting sketches, 199
calibration, 126
castings, 457
choice, 123-125, 350table
radiographic testing
See also radiation gaging; radiation measurement; radiation safety; and
advances in, 28
specific detectors
advantages and disadvantages, 12, 454
radiation dose
audit procedures, 115-117
definitions, 32, 119-120
essential steps of, 186
dosage rate, 32, 74-75, 120, 128-129, 455-456
history, 21-28
dose equivalent, 32, 119
imaging and viewing, 14, 189-193
See also personnel certification; radiation safety
management, 12-20
radiation gaging, 28, 570-573
personnel qualification and certification, 15, 18-19, 18table
application case histories, 576-577
reliability, 19-20
backscatter imaging application, 392, 573
representative setup, 7
detector types, 573-576. See also radiation detectors;
test procedures, 13-15, 16-17table
See also radiation detectors; radiation measurement; radiation safety
radiographs
radiation measurement, 89-90, 122-126. See also radiation detectors; radiation
identification, 177
gaging; radiation safety
setup for making with X-rays, 140
subtleties, 364-366
radioscopic artifacts, 206
radioscopic imaging system, 255
radioscopic weld penetration control, 505, 505-506

686 Radiographic Testing

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radioscopy, 14, 253-255 S

arc welding, in-process, 502, 502-506, 503, 504
cameras for, 269-274 SAE International (formerly Society of Automotive Engineers) standards, 489
consumer goods, 584-587 SAE AMS-STD-2175, 466, 470
of electronics, 578-583, 584 SAE AMS 2635C, 17table
image quality, 261-264 SAE ARP 1611A, 17table
image systems, 265-268 SAE AS 7114/4, 17table
light conversion, 254, 256, 256-260 SAE AS 1613A, 17table
optical coupling, 269, 271 safety
of pipeline weld quality, 517 film development, 244-245
projection microfocus, 404-408 increased public demand for, and nondestructive testing, 4
recording equipment, 275-276 See also radiation safety
sources for, 263-264 safety factor, 3
systems, 277-279 salting, 353, 374
viewing and recording, 275-276 samarium, capture cross section, 47table
See also digital radiographic imaging; fluoroscopy sand castings, 459
radium, 38 sand inclusions, 461
bibliography, 88 interpretation in castings, 214
gamma ray source, 128table Saturn rocket motor radiography, 550
gamma ray transmission through lead and concrete, 131 scanned beam laminography system, 306
radium-226, 52, 74 scanning microdensitometry, 195-198
radon, publications on 88 example graphs, 197
railroad car security inspection, 590 scattering
Randall’s Mill (Higgens), radiographic evaluation, 600-601, 601 and film radiography, 153-158, 154
rate instruments, 123 and image analysis, 347-349
rayleigh scattering. See elastic scattering material, scattering as function of, 382-384
reader’s sheet, 199 and megavolt radiography, 158
real time radiography. See radioscopy and radioscopic imaging, 262
rebar, gamma radiography of steel, 591 reduction, 154-158, 155
recertification, 18 and resolved diameter, 386
reciprocity law, 148, 149 single and multiple, 382, 384-387, 385
failure of, 228-229, 229 types of, 45-47, 49, 380-382
recombination region, 574 See also backscatter imaging; compton scattering; elastic scattering
reconstruction scatter-to-primary ratios, 348
in backscatter imaging, 392-394 scintillation, 100, 100, 574
in computed tomography, 312, 312-314 scintillation detectors, 125
reference standards, 187-188 described, 100-101
for automated defect recognition, 374 image digitization, 349-351
for casting radiography, 460, 468 for neutron detection, 104
for computed tomography, 328-338 for radiation gaging, 574-575
for radiographic testing, 14-15, 16-17table scintillator plates, 260
for weld radiography, 489-490 scintillators, 100table
See also image quality indicators; phantoms; specific standards and beam hardening, 349
regulations, 12, 514 degradation, 366
relative atomic mass (atomic weight), 610-611 properties, 260table
relative biological effect, 119 scramming, 127
relative film speed, 244 scrap film, 248
relativistic neutrons, 104table scratches, 202, 206
reliability, of radiographic testing results, 19-20 screen effect, X-ray tubes, 60-61, 61
rem (roentgen equivalent man), 32, 119 screen gamma, 259
replenishers, 233, 242 screen marks, 203
residual hypo, 234 screen mottle, 162
residual stress, X-ray diffraction measurement, 428-429 SDRAM (synchronous dynamic random access memory) chips, 355
resistor spark plugs, microfocus radioscopy, 407 seals
resonance fluorescence scattering, 381 neutron radiography, 557
resonance peaks, 47 radiography of tamper evident, 584
resonant transformer X-ray machines (resotrons), 67, 67 security applications, 28
restricted areas, 120 digital radiography, 300
reticulation, 244 radioscopic detection of contraband (circa 1910), 23
reversed geometry scanning beam technique, 288, 414, 414-418 X-ray screening for airport security, 588, 588-590, 589
aerospace components, 563-564 seeds, radiographic testing, 585-586
aircraft wing crack detection, 415-416, 416 segregation, interpretation in castings, 217
for digital radiography, 286table, 294 selenium
reverse engineering, by computed tomography, 324 attenuation coefficients, 633table
rhenium, capture cross section, 47table selenium-75, properties, 78
rhodium, capture cross section, 47table selenium-75, publications on, 87-88
robotics self-quenching gas, in geiger-müller counters, 97
assembly line radioscopy of automotive parts, 278, 279 semiconductor detectors
use in radioscopic imaging, 254, 255, 264 described, 106-107
rocket engines and motors for radiation gaging, 575
computed tomography, 323 See also amorphous selenium detectors; amorphous silicon detectors;
liquid propellant, 555-556 germanium detectors; silicon detectors
small ablative thrust chambers, 552-555 sensitometric curve, 167
solid propellant, 550-552 sensitometric density, 141, 164-165
rod anode, X-ray tubes, 63, 63 sensitometry, 230, 242-243
roentgen (R), 31-32, 119, 120 service companies, 12-13, 439
roentgen rays, 22 shearography, 11
root cracks, interpretation in welds, 212, 214, 214 shielding, 130-133
rotating anode X-ray tubes, 61, 432 neutron radiography, 134-135
rutherford scattering, for radiation gaging, 573 shields, 127

Index 687
3RT_Index(675_692) 10/3/02 1:38 PM Page 688

shifts, 463 specific ionization, 91

interpretation in castings, 217 spectrometer mode detectors, 574, 575-576
ship radiography, 596-597 spectroscopy, 11
shooting sketches, 199, 457 speed of light, 31
shrinkage sponge shrinkage, 216, 461, 462, 462
castings, 461-462 spontaneous fission, 44
interpretation in castings, 215-216, 468 spontaneous fission neutron sources, safety aspects, 134
microshrinkage, 215, 461, 462, 462 sports equipment radiography, 587
shrinks. See shrinkage spotting, 204, 204-205
shrinkwrap codes, 356, 356, 363 spot viewers, 191
sievert (Sv; replaces rem), 32, 119, 120 stainless steel
sight developing, 245 casting density versus radiographic sources, 460table
signal-to-noise ratio density gaging, 572
computed tomography, 333-334 fuel rod radiography, 531
for digital radiography, 294 mottling, 463
and image analysis, 346 nuclear vessel radiography, 527
silicon, attenuation coefficients, 620table pipe weld discontinuities, 499-501
silicon bronze, casting density versus radiographic sources, 460table tungsten inclusions in welds, 480
silicon detectors See also steel
gamma ray efficiency, 107 standards. See reference standards
for radiation gaging, 575-576 starter solution, 233
surface barrier, 106 state licensing, 114
See also amorphous silicon detectors state regulations, 117-118, 514
silicon intensifier targets, 272, 273 static marks, 161, 203, 239, 240, 240
characteristics, 274table statistics
silver digital radiographic imaging, 289, 289-295
attenuation coefficients, 637table radioscopy, 268
capture cross section, 47table Statue of Liberty, gamma radiography, 594
recovery in film development, 247-249 steam generator radiography, 528
sludge, 249 steel
silver bromide, 163, 221, 221, 227, 231 aviation component radiography, 544
developed grain, 223 backscatter imaging, 387, 395
silver flake, 249 casting density versus radiographic sources, 460table
silver halide film, 231 crack detectability in welds, 491-495
industrial X-ray films, 163 energy dispersive spectrometry of sheet, 431
latent image formation, 108-109, 220, 220-222 exposure of part containing two thicknesses, 171
See also film development fluorescent screens for, 161-162
silver sulfide, 220, 234, 244 fuel injector image analysis, 355
simulation, aerospace applications, 564 gamma radiography of rebar in concrete, 591
single-pixel noise, 360 incomplete penetration in welds, 497
SI units, 29-32 in-motion radiography of aviation components, 545
skyshine, 130, 130-131 inspection with cobalt-60, 75
slag inclusions inspection with iridium-192, 76-77
castings, 464 inspection with thulium-170, 78
interpretation in castings, 214, 215 lack of fusion in welds, 497
interpretation in welds, 207-208, 208, 499 lead foil screens for, 159
welds, 478-479 line resolution phantom, 330
slit collimated linear detector arrays, 350 maximum filter thickness, 157
slit imaging, for backscatter imaging, 388-389 nuclear fuel rods in steel can, 534-535
slow neutrons, 46, 104table optical density obtained through 13 to 16 mm, 225table
smudge (static mark), 240, 240 pipe weld radiography, 517
SNARK, 311 porosity in castings, 462
Society of Automotive Engineers. See SAE International porosity in welds, 498
sodium, attenuation coefficients, 617table radiation gaging, 576, 577
sodium iodide scintillators, 100table radiographic equivalence factors, 152, 153table
for digital radiography, 288 radiological detection and identification, 590
germanium detectors compared, 101 scattered radiation, 153
properties, 260table slag inclusions in welds, 499
for radiation gaging, 575, 576 tensile property relation to radiographic indications, 465table
soil, and infrastructure radiography, 591 tungsten inclusions in welds, 480
solder joints X-ray exposure chart, 165
automated process test systems, 578-580, 579 X-ray potential and general thickness limit, 482
automatic defect recognition, 406 See also stainless steel
solid propellant rocket motors, 550-552, 551 steel diaphragms, 155
solid state detectors. See semiconductor detectors step wedge, 364-365, 365, 366
sonde length, 398 stereo radiography, 419-426, 421
source. See radiation sources display designs, 425
source shutdown mechanisms, 127 flaw geometries permitting calculation of average flaw displacement, 423
space charge, 57 flickered imaged technique, 423-424, 424
space flight component radiography, 550-558 storage phosphors, 287-288, 294
spallation, 46 properties, 286table
spark plugs, microfocus radioscopy, 407 strain gaging, 11
spark testing, 11 streak artifacts, 348
spatially invariant transforms, 356, 359, 359-360 stress corrosion, 396
spatial resolution, 346, 348-349 stress riser, 209, 210, 478, 479, 480
digital radiography, 292-293 strip film viewers, 191
specific activity, 455 subject contrast, 170-171
specifications, 14-15, 187-188 in radioscopy, 261
castings, 457 subthermal neutron radiography, 446
welds, 489-490 superalloys, 460
See also reference standards surface barrier detectors, 106-107, 107

688 Radiographic Testing

3RT_Index(675_692) 10/3/02 1:38 PM Page 689

T castings, 464
interpretation in welds, 208, 209, 209
tamper evident seal radiography, 584 nuclear fuel rods, 530-531
tangential radiography, 519-523, 520, 522 welds, 480
ablative thrust chambers, 552, 553 tungsten screens, 259
tank radiography, 528-529 turbine blades. See jet engine turbine blades
tantalum two-gain coefficient technique, 367
attenuation coefficients, 645table
capacitor microfocus radiography, 407
casting density versus radiographic sources, 460table U
inspection with cobalt-60, 75
ultrasonic testing, 9, 9-10
tantalum-182, gamma ray source, 128table
unattended installation, 128
tantalum screens, 259
unconsumed insert, 500, 500-501
tape automated boned (TAB) solder joints, 580
underbead cracks, 478, 480
tapping, 11
interpretation in welds, 212
television cameras, 254, 255, 269
undercut
common adjustments for, 274table
castings, 464
output versus light input, 273
interpretation in welds, 210
television monitors, 275, 354
piping welds, 520
tenth value layer, 131, 132table
welds, 481, 507
textile radiation gaging, 577
undercut (scattered radiation effect), 153-154
thermal neutrons, 46, 104table
underfill, interpretation in welds, 209, 210
attenuation by selected elements, 440table, 447
unfused chaplets, 463
shielding, 134-135
interpretation in castings, 216-217, 217
static radiography with, 440-445
unfused inserts, 463
thermal testing, 11
interpretation in castings, 216
thermionic emission, 57
unified atomic mass unit, 31
thermoluminescence, 102
units of measure, 29-32, 42, 119-120
thermoluminescent dosimeters, 122
unsharp mask transforms, 360
described, 102-103
unsharpness
thermoluminescent dosimetry, 102
effect on discontinuity detection, 258
thermometers, in film development, 241
geometric, 145-146
thin film transistors, 287
and object-film-source orientation, 145
thiosulfate, 234
radioscopy, 258-259
thorium series, 52
welds, 477
threat recognition software, in airport security, 589-590
uranium, 38
thresholding transforms, 356, 358, 359
absorption and scattering curves, 49
for automated defect recognition, 372
attenuation coefficients, 650table
thulium-170, 77-78
inspection with cobalt-60, 75
attenuation coefficients, 644table
radiographic equivalence factors, 153table
bibliography, 88
uranium-235, 52
disintegration, 77
uranium-238, 52
source for castings, 455table
resonance peaks, 47
tin, attenuation coefficients, 639table
spontaneous fission, 44
tin bronze, casting density versus radiographic sources, 460table
uranium series, 52
titanium
utility, petroleum and chemical industry applications, 513-514
aerospace castings, 558
nuclear fuel radiography, 530-536
attenuation coefficients, 623table
pipeline radiography, 515-517
casting density versus radiographic sources, 460table
power and process piping radiography, 517-525
compton scattering intensity, 383, 384
power line radiography, 537-538
in image intensifier tubes, 266
pressure vessel radiography, 526-528
radiographic equivalence factors, 153table
tank radiography, 528-529
tungsten inclusions in welds, 480
T joints, 476
exposure setup, 484, 485 V
radiographic procedure, 495
toe cracks, interpretation in welds, 212 vacuum discharges, 410
tomato radiography, 585 valves
tomograms, 305 neutron radiography, 438
tomography. See computed tomography; laminography; neutron tomography neutron radiography of aerospace, 563
tomosynthesis, 304, 306-309. See also laminography vanadium
toothpaste radiography, 586 attenuation coefficients, 624table
trace analysis, by wavelength dispersive spectrometry, 430 compton scattering intensity, 383, 384
track etch neutron detectors, 105 van de graaff generators, 53, 67, 67-68, 442-443, 443
training, 18-19 veiling glare, 356
security theat recognition, 589 vessel radiography, 526-528
See also personnel qualification and certification vibrating reed electrometers, 93, 93
transmission images vibration analysis, 11
components, 346-349 video cameras, 254, 255
digitizing, 349-351 video capture card, 276
subtleties, 364-366 video cassette recorder (VCR) data storage, 275
transmission X-ray system, 578 vidicons, 272, 272, 273
transportation, radioactive materials, 118 for aviation component radiography, 548
transverse cracks, interpretation in welds, 212, 213, 213 characteristics, 274table
tree (static mark), 240, 240 sensitivity compared to charge coupled devices, 270
trend removal, 371, 372 viewing conditions, 190-192
tritium, 42 viewing room, 237
tube gamma, 273 View of Delft (Vermeer), radiographic evaluation, 600
tubes welds, 372, 372-374, 373 vignetting, 271
tungsten, attenuation coefficients, 646table villard circuit, 64, 64
tungsten inclusions The Virgin and Child Enthroned with Saints (Rubens), radiographic evaluation,
600

Index 689
3RT_Index(675_692) 10/3/02 1:38 PM Page 690

vision acuity, 189-190 X-rays

vision acuity tests, 189 absorption, 57-58
visual parallax, 420 attenuation, 48-51, 440table
visual testing, 7, 7-8 discovery, 22-23
volume computed tomography, 320, 327 dissipation in matter, 152
V/STOL propeller blade radiography, 548 effect of metal filters on intensity, 156, 156table, 157
as electromagnetic radiation, 48
and electron capture, 44
W emission, 141-142
wagon tracks, 479 exposure control installations, 127-128
walnut seed radiography, 586 exposure factor, 150
washing, film, 230, 244 forward intensity from optimum target, 129
water and ionization, 91
in film development, 232, 235-236, 241 radiation damage from, 293-294
hounsfield value, 314table radiation detection instruments, 12, 124, 125
and spotting artifacts, 204, 205, 205 radiation protection measurement, 121-122
X-ray and thermal neutron attenuation, 440table radiographic equivalence factors, 153table
wavelength dispersive spectrometry, 427, 429, 429 Roentgen demonstrates, 23
detection lower limits, 430 spectral sensitivity, 227-228
instrumentation for, 431 wavelength versus intensity, 141, 142
weld drop-through, 499-500, 500 X-ray sensitive cameras, 273
welds, 473-474 X-ray sources
arc weld in-process radioscopy, 502, 502-506, 503, 504 advances in, 28
automated defect recognition, 372, 372-374, 373 for castings, 456, 457table
crack detectability in steel, 491-495 output, 129table
design, 475-477 shielding equivalents, 132table
digital laminography, 308, 309 for welds, 482
digital radiography of aluminum tubes, 297 See also electronic radiation sources; isotope radiation sources
discontinuities in, 478-481 X-ray spectrum, 56
discontinuity depth detection using stereo radiography, 419 X-ray tomography. See computed tomography
discontinuity radiography, 491-501 X-ray tubes
exposure setup for various types, 483-485 construction, 59, 59-63
false indications in aluminum alloys, 507-509, 508 electron beam distribution, 62
flash radiography, 412-413 flash, 410-411, 411
image analysis, 362 high voltage, 63-66
in-motion radiography of aviation tanks, 545, 546, 546table invention, 24-25, 25
inspection of bridge, 592 projected focal spot, 187, 188
interpretation of discontinuities, 207-212 rotating anode, 61, 432
interpretation report, 200 X-ray distribution , 62
light poles, 593
liquid propellant rockets, 556
material and thickness, 477 Z
image quality indicators (penetrameters), 485-487 Z 4560. See Japanese Standards Association
penetration control by in-process radioscopy, 505, 505-506 zinc
in pipelines, 515-517 attenuation coefficients, 631table
in pipes, 499-502 casting density versus radiographic sources, 460table
radiographic techniques, 482-488 radiographic equivalence factors, 153table
repair welds in castings, 464, 465 zinc cadmium sulfide, 265
residual stress measurement, 429 properties, 257table
Saturn rocket motor, 550, 551 relative light yield, 257table
scanning microdensitometry, 197 spectral emission, 258
weld spatter, 464 zinc sulfide, silver-activated, 100table
whole body irradiation, 120 zirconium
wire mesh, 277 attenuation coefficients, 634table
wire image quality indicators (penetrameters), 172-174 radiographic equivalence factors, 153table
for castings radiography, 458 zooming (in microfocus radiography), 405-406
sensitivity, 486table aerospace structures, 560
for weld radiography, 485, 486
See also image quality indicators (penetrameters)
working distance, 129
working time, 129
wormhole porosity
interpretation in castings, 214
interpretation in welds, 207

X
X-ray crawler device, 515
X-ray diffraction, 25, 28, 384
and crystal structure, 427-428, 428
flash, 413
mottling caused by, 158
for residual stress measurement, 428-429
X-ray exposure charts, 165, 165-167, 166
X-ray fluorescence gaging, 571
X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, 427
elemental analysis by, 429-431
X-ray lithography, 28
X-ray photon, 57
X-ray powder diffractometry, 429
X-ray radiography. See radiographic testing

690 Radiographic Testing

3RT_Index(675_692) 10/3/02 1:38 PM Page 691
Figure Sources
Chapter 1. Introduction to Radiographic Testing
Figure 11 — Warner-Lambert Company, Morris Plains, NJ.
Chapter 3. Electronic Radiation Sources
Figure 22 — Varian Associates, Palo Alo, CA.
Chapter 4. Isotopes for Gamma Radiography
Figures 7c, 9a, 11, 13b, 14, 16 — Source Production and Equipment
Company, Saint Rose, LA.
Figures 10, 12, 13a — AEA Technology PLC, Arlington Heights, IL.
Chapter 5. Radiation Measurement
Figure 4 — Victoreen, Solon, OH.
Chapter 6. Radiation Safety
Figures 1, 3, 5 — Thermo Eberline, Santa Fe, NM.
Figure 2 — Landauer, Incorporated, Glenwood, IL.
Figures 4a, 4e — Industrial Nuclear Company, San Leandro, CA.
Figures 4b, 4c, 4d — NDS Products, Pasadena, TX.
Figure 6b — InnospeXion APS, Hvalsoe, Denmark.
Chapter 7. Principles of Film Radiography
Figures 1-24 — Eastman Kodak, Rochester, NY.
Chapter 8. Radiographic Interpretation
Figure 3 — National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD.
Figure 6 — Edmund Scientific, Tonawanda, NY.
Figure 7 — Macbeth Division of Kollmorgen Company, Newburgh, NY.
Figure 8 — X-Rite, Incorporated, Grandville, MI.
Figure 14-23 — Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester, NY.
Figure 24, 25, 28, 32, 36, 37 — Southwest Research Institute, San
Antonio, TX.
Figure 26, 27, 29-31, 33-35 — Electric Power Research Institute,
Charlotte, NC.
Chapter 10. Radioscopy
Figures 1, 16 — Agfa Pantak Seifert GmbH, Ahrensburg, Germany.
Figure 14 — From R. Halmshaw. Reprinted with permission.
Figure 15 — Yxlon International, Hamburg, Germany.
Chapter 11. Digital Radiographic Imaging
Figures 2 — Eastman Kodak, Rochestern NY.
Figure 14, 15 — V.J. Technologies, Bohemia, NY.
Chapter 12. Computed Tomography
Figure 5 — C.V. Mosby Company, Saint Louis, MO.
Figures 6, 7 — R. Schulte.
Chapter 14. Backscatter Imaging
Figure 10 — American Science and Engineering, Billerica, MA.
Chapter 16. Neutron Radiographic Testing
Figure 4 — Risø National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark.
Figure 5 — Aerotest Operations, San Ramon, CA.
Figure 6 — General Electric Company, Schenectady, NY.
Figure 9 — Kaman Sciences, Utica, NY.
Figure 11 — IRT Corporation, San Diego, CA.
Figure 12 — Rolls Royce Limited.
Chapter 17. Radiographic Testing of Metal Castings
Figure 2 — American Society for Testing and Materials, West
Conshohocken, PA.
Chapter 18. Welding Applications of Radiographic
Testing
Figures 29, 30b, 32 — Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA.
Chapter 19. Applications of Radiographic Testing in
Utility, Petroleum and Chemical Industries
Figures 2-3 — After the American Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC.
Figures 4-7 — After the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New
York, NY.
Figure 16 — After Tru-Tec Services, La Porte, TX.
Chapter 20. Aerospace Applications of Radiographic
Testing
Figures 1-4, 6-8, 14-18, 20 — Boeing Company, Long Beach, CA.
Figure 5 — Martin Marietta, Denver, CO.
Figures 9-10, 13, 20-23, 25, 27-28, 39-40 — Rocketdyne, Canoga Park, CA.
Figures 11-12 — Boeing Company, Philadelphia, PA.
Figure 19 — Eastern Airlines, Miami, FL.
Figure 24 — Picker International, Cleveland, OH.
Figure 26 — Northrop Grumman, Los Angeles, CA.
Figure 29-31 — Boeing Company, Saint Louis, MO.
Figure 32 — FeinFocus USA, Stamford, CT.
Figure 33, 36 — General Electric, Cincinnati, OH.
Figures 34-35 — United States Air Force; Aerojet Strategic Propulsion,
Sacramento, CA.
Figure 37 — White Sands Testing Station, NM.
Figure 38 — University of California Davis, McClellan Nuclear Radiation
Center, CA.
Figure 39 — National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, DC.
Chapter 21. Other Applications of Radiographic
Testing
Figures 9a, 11b, 13 — Rad-Icon, Santa Clara, CA.
Figures 9b — V.J. Technologies, Bohemia, NY.
Figure 19 — Intermountain Testing Company (Carl E. Fox), Englewood, CO.
Figures 20 — Virginia Department of Transportation, Richmond, VA.
Figure 23a — Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress,
Washington, DC.
Radiographic Testing 691
3RT_Index(675_692) 10/28/02 1:44 PM Page 692

Movie Sources

Chapter 4 Chapter 20
Movie. Isotopic source — United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Movie. Automated inspection of rocket motor — Agfa, Mortsel, Belgium
Washington, DC
Movie. Collimators — United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission,
Washington, DC Chapter 21
Movie. Inspection of printed circuit boards — Agilent Technologies,
Loveland, CO
Chapter 6 Movie. Radiographic inspection of light bulb — Rad-Icon Imaging
Movie. Radiation injury — United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Corporation, Santa Clara, CA
Washington, DC Movie. Cargo scanning — ARACOR, Sunnyvale, CA
Movie. Survey meters — United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Movie. Image acquisition and evaluation — ARACOR, Sunnyvale, CA
Washington, DC Movie. Images at 3 MV and 6 MV — ARACOR, Sunnyvale, CA
Movie. Check equipment — United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Movie. Contraband in water tank — ARACOR, Sunnyvale, CA
Washington, DC
Movie. Personnel monitoring devices — United States Nuclear Regulatory
Commission, Washington, DC
Movie. Warning tape and signs — United States Nuclear Regulatory
Commission, Washington, DC

Chapter 7
Movie. Conventional radiography gives shadow image — The Boeing
Company, Seattle, WA

Chapter 10
Movie. Automated wheel inspection — Agfa, Mortsel, Belgium

Chapter 12
Movie. Second generation (rotate and translate) — The Boeing Company,
Seattle, WA
Movie. Third generation (rotate only) — The Boeing Company, Seattle, WA
Movie. Electronic device on turntable — Lockheed Missiles and Space
Company, Sunnyvale, CA
Movie. Images of electronic device — Lockheed Missiles and Space Company,
Sunnyvale, CA
Movie. Tomographic data image of electronic device — Lockheed Missiles and
Space Company, Sunnyvale, CA
Movie. Image slices of electronic device, top to bottom — Lockheed Missiles
and Space Company, Sunnyvale, CA
Movie. Slices show delaminations in composite fastener hole — The Boeing
Company, Seattle, WA
Movie. Transverse image of delaminations in fastener hole — The Boeing
Company, Seattle, WA

Chapter 13
Movie. Exfoliation corrosion, thin to thick — Lockheed Missiles and Space
Company, Sunnyvale, CA
Movie. General corrosion, thin to thick — Lockheed Missiles and Space
Company, Sunnyvale, CA
Movie. Cracks around fasteners — Lockheed Missiles and Space Company,
Sunnyvale, CA
Movie. Cracks around fasteners, in layers from top — Lockheed Missiles and
Space Company, Sunnyvale, CA

Chapter 14
Movie. Backscatter scan of undamaged area — Lawrence R. Lawson,
Bradford, PA
Movie. Moving source and sensor into place — Lawrence R. Lawson,
Bradford, PA
Movie. Pillowing and corrosion — Lawrence R. Lawson, Bradford, PA

Radiographic Testing