Geography Textbook

oxford
big ideas australian curriculum
geography
7
mark easton
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oxford
geography
7 mark easton
1
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© Mark Easton, 2013
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First published 2013
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National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication data
Easton, Mark.
Oxford big ideas geography 7. Australian curriculum / Mark Easton.
ISBN 9780195521931 (pbk.)
Includes index.
For secondary school age.
Geography -- Textbooks.
910
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contents
Using Oxford Big Ideas Geography iv
Australian Curriculum: Geography 7 – Scope and sequence vi
geography
The geographer’s toolkit 2
GT.1 Concepts for geographical understanding 4
Place 4
Space 5
Environment 6
Interconnection 7
Sustainability 8
Scale 9
Change 10
GT.2 Geographical inquiry and skills 12
Observing, questioning and planning 12
Collecting, recording, evaluating and representing 15
Interpreting, analysing and concluding 28
Communicating 30
Reflecting and responding 33
GT.3 Fieldwork in geography 34
unit 1 Water in the world 39

Chapter 1 Water as a resource 40
1.1 How is water an environmental resource? 42
1.2 How does water connect and affect places? 52
1.3 How much water do we have? 62
Chapter 2 Valuing and managing water 72

2.1 In what ways do we value and manage water? 74
2.2 How can we overcome water scarcity? 86
2.3 How do we respond to floods? 98
unit 2 Place and liveability 113

Chapter 3 Living in Australia 114
3.1 Where do Australians live and why? 116
3.2 Why are some places more liveable than others? 124
3.3 How do people connect to different places? 136
Chapter 4 Liveable cities 148

4.1 What makes a city liveable? 150
4.2 Where are the world’s most and least liveable cities? 164
4.3 How can we make cities more liveable? 178
Glossary 190
Index 193
Acknowledgements 196
Using Oxford Big Ideas Geography
Oxford Big Ideas Geography is a brand-new series developed and written to meet the requirements of
the Australian Curriculum: Geography across Years 7–10. Based on the big ideas framework, it follows an
inquiry-based approach that encourages students to develop deep, transferable skills and understanding
in Geography.
Stunning full-colour photography

Big questions generates discussion and interest
g
Each chapter of Oxford Big Ideas Geography is Living in

Australia
structured around key inquiry questions from the Both Indigenous Australia
ns and early
European settlers to
Australia made
Australian Curriculum: Geography – supporting decisions about where

the available resourc
to live based on
es needed to survive
– water, food and shelter.
The factors that
teachers and students as they implement an influence the liveabil

are more varied and
ity of places today
include access to
services, environmental
quality and safety.
inquiry-based approach to Geography. Connections to family,

also influence where
can also change over
friends and places
we live. Where we live
time due to a range
of factors, such as work
3
and property
prices. In retirement,
many people opt for
a sea change or tree
change to enjoy a
more relaxed lifestyle.
chapter
c
3.1 3.2
Source 3.1 An aerial
photograph looking south towards
Bondi Beach and surroundin
g suburbs in Sydney
Where do Australians
1 What features shown
in Source 3.1 tell you
people live in the suburb
live and why?
that many
any
hy? Why are some places
than others?
more liveable
3..3
3 3
How do people conne
of Bondi Beach?
2 Why do you think ct to
Bondi Beach?
people choose to live
in 1 As a class, list the
different types of places
different places?
Australia, such as mining people live in
towns, coastal towns 1 What common interests
2 If you could live anywhere and so on. might members of the
in Australia, where would community in Bondi
Make a class list of it be? Beach have?
your favourite places 2 How might the lifesavers
and discuss the reasons to live in Australia at Bondi Beach be
114 oxford big ideas
for wanting to live there. a community of their considered
geography history own?
7: australian curriculum
culum
Water as a chapter 3 living in

australia 115
resource we use to satisfy a

A resource is anything
1
es we use from
need or a want. Resourc
called environmental
the natural world are
Engaging learning
All life on Earth depends on
resources.
resourc es to survive. The
chapter
environm ental
Sun that provides energy
water we drink, the food,
grow crops for our
and warmth, soil to
the oxygen we
and forests that produce
ental resources.
breathe are all environm
ion has grown, we
As the world’s populat
e on these
have placed great pressur
ental resources
resources. Many environm
Each chapter of the student book combines a range (including oil, fresh water
under so much pressur
in.
and forests) are
e that their future
Source 1.1 Hindus
in India believe that bathing in the holy
waters of the Ganges
River gives them spiritual
blessings.
is increasingly uncerta
of engaging source materials – maps, photographs, 1.3

timelines, data tables, satellite imagery, graphs and 1.1 1.2
How does water conne
ct and
How much water do
1 Water covers about
we have?
70 per cent of the Earth’s
surface.
to drink and
nmental a shortage of water
How is water an enviro affect places?
Why, then, do we have
illustrations – all with supporting questions and resource?

1 Which environme
ntal resources do we
need to survive?
in the photograph using

the
1 How do you think
India?
2 List three ways that
the Ganges River connects
water from the Ganges

places in
River might
to wash in?
2 Where are the wettest
and driest places in
Australia?
2 How are the people chapter 1 water as

a resource 41
activities. Ganges River as a resource? be used.
7: australian curriculum
geography history
40 oxford big ideas
The learning sequence in each chapter is clearly

Types of environmental d to power
Wind is used
resources: ndmills and
ships and windmills
to produce electricity. set out under key inquiry questions. Students are
1.1
Renewable resources
?
How iss water an environmental resource
Non-renewable resourrces The e Sun provides the
p
S prov energy
e en ource.
sour
is a resour h
thout
ce. Witho
en gravity
Even gr
s
Continuous resources plants
forr p i
l t and animals
an forms the basis
to y, seeds from trees and plants
gravity,
gravi
the g round and
ground
nts
encouraged to activate their prior knowledge and

mental resources:
grow and would d never fall to the
g we eat. It also There would also
Environm
off everythinng plants. T
grow into plants.
The amount of oxygen in n our ates w
evaporates er, settin
ater,
water, h
ng the
th vive
he them survive.
ra to help
be no rain survive
atmosphere stays about the e n
on.
on
otion.
make predictions at the start of each new topic.

w r cycle
water cle in motion.
Plants, animals and human beings sta
st antlyy
antly
same because it is const
an over viiew
are renewable resources. Humans, nts
nt
ants,
lants,
of plant
recycled through plan
plants,
pla are a renewable e resource
r
however, are unique in that our use ce s
Fore
Forests
Forest
Fores
off
eat. Most o
the animals and ooceans
oceans.
oce der serious th
that is unde hreat.
the Earth’s resources is disrupting er has
e world’s
the natural forest cover
d’s n
Earth’s natural systems.
par s of the wor
me part
In ssome ld,
orld, cleared or logged.
been cleare
ge t d from
is generated
ns have developed ways of life ee
electricity
Over thousands of years, human Plants are renewable resources w
heat with
within eE
the Earth. T his iss
This
onmental resources found on is vital for
that depend on almost all envirr Fresh water
w
because they produce seeds in geothermal ene
nown as geothermal
known nergy.
ener
e
Earth. Water from rainfall, min nerals from rocks, and food from order to reproduce themselves. a life forms on Earth,
all
including plants,
the forests and oceans have allo owed us to build homes, farms, in
animals and humans.
world. We have found and used
cities and highways all over thee
in almost every cornee r of the Earth. Oil is drilled from Soil is formed when rocks break
resources e
he
er is drilled from far below barren down. We use soil to grow the
beneath polar ice caps and wate crops we eat. The animal ma
mal w
a s we
we have found plants that can t f Australia’s
deserts. Deep in the rainforests so
lso
farm for food also ely on the
o re
rely th
n worked out how to generate grass they eaeat.
cure illnesses and we have even e gr
soil for the gra
ing in our rivers.
electricity from the waters flowi
Types of environmental resources

nvironmental
Geographers divide all of the en
y pes:
resources on Earth into three ty
tSFOFXBCMFSFTPVSDFT
2.2 How can we overcome water scarcity?
WORLD: FRESHWATER AVAILABILITY PER PERSON PER YEAR,
2007
ARCTIC OCEAN
Managing water scarcity

Arctic Circle
tOPOSFOFXBCMFSFTPVSDFT
tDPOUJOVPVTSFTPVSDFT Ocean waves are resources
The first type – renewable for surfers and holiday-
resources – will replenish makers. They can also be Check your learning 1.1 EUROPE
ASIA
NORTH
AMERIC A
f we used to generate electricity Water is most difficult to manage when there is not
themselves naturally over time i and may be a valuable natural
groundwater in underground aquifers. Clean water from
he trees enough to go around. Water becomes scarce when the ATLANTIC
do not use them too quickly. Th rresource in the future. a well stops people catching any water-borne diseases.
f a renewable demand for clean water exceeds the available supply. It is 5 OCEAN
in a forest are a good example of
Tropic of Cancer
1 Providing clean and drinkable water for communities
them downn for wood, but one of the biggest issues facing Africa, the second driest PACIFIC OCEAN
resource. We can cut across Africa is a high priority for many of its EFWFMPQJOH AFRIC A
just need to manage inhabited continent in the world after Australia. Whereas
they will grow back in time. Wee countries and international relief agencies, such as
them carefully. In countries such h as Australia, fresh water all Australians have access to clean water, millions of World Vision and AusAID.
Equator
2
ce but it needs to be carefully Africans face water shortages. Of the 800 million people ATLANTIC
is considered a renewable resourr OCEAN
LEGEND SOUTH
managed to ensure that enough h is available for everybody. who live in Africa, more than 300 million live in water- INDIAN OCEAN Freshwater availability
AMERIC A
(cubic metres per person per year)
5IFTFDPOEUZQFoOPOSFOFX XBCMFSFTPVSDFToBSFPOMZ scarce areas.

3
Tropic of Capricorn
Over 70 000
available in limited (finite) amoounts. If we overuse them, they The main reasons for water scarcity in Africa are: AUSTRALIA 15 000 to 70 000
6
such as coal, oil, diamonds and
6000 to 15 000
will one day run out. Minerals
VSBOJVNBSFHP PEFYBNQMFTPG OPOSFOFXBCMF
The third type – continuouss resources
SFTPVSDFT
– are available in
o matter how much or how
Oil is the world’s most commonmonl n used
only
o
o make
m
Source 1.2
t a large and fast-growing
t poor water quality

4 population
t large areas with low and variable rainfall
0 1500 3000 km
2500 to 6000
1700 to 2500 (vulnerable)
1000 to 1700 (stressed)
0 to 1000 (scarce)
Stunning full-colour source
unlimited (infinite) amounts. N source of energy. It is also used to t lack of water infrastructure, such as pipelines. No data available
often we use them, they will ne

Sun and wind are both exampll
e ver run out. Energy from the
es of continuous resources.
many important goods, such as plasti
petrol and fertiliser for farms.
tiic
stiticss
cs,
Water scarcity contributes to the deaths of many
African children. Local water sources may contain
harmful bacteria that cause diseases, such as typhoid
chapter 1 Source 2.23
Source 2.24 A woman fills a water container from a well in the

desert in Niger. In most African societies, women are the collectors
Source: Oxford University Press materials inspire a sense of
history 7: australian curriculum Check your learning 2.6
wonder about the world and
42 oxford big ideas geography and dysentery. These diseases are spread by drinking and and managers of the fami milyy water supply. African women can spend
mi
washing in contaminated water. up to 60 per cent of the
their
ir dayy co
collecting water, especially where
water sources are e ffar
ar from the
th village
village. Remember and understand
Source 2.22 T This
his woma
wom in Za
woman Zambiabia
a is collectin
collecting
ollecting
ecting
ect
ctin water
Delivering safe water dried-up
dried-u
dried
ried
ied-up
up riv
ri er bed half
ha a kilometre
kilometr
kilomet
metr
etre
re from he
re her hou
house
se. She
err fro
he
from a
e use
uses
ses
ess a
1 What is water scarcity?
The most common solution to water scarcity in African

villages is digging a well. A water well is created by
digging or boring into the ground in order to reach
saucep
sauce
ssaucepan
aucepan
a epan to fill the
or shoulder
sh
hooulder back
tth
he large conta
ack to o her
containe
container,
h home.
ontainer which
ome
o me
m e
ch she wilill carry
arryy on
o h her
err hea
head
ead
2
3
Why is water scarcity such a problem in Africa?
What problems does water scarcity cause, especially
for women and young children?
encourage even the most
Apply and analyse
Source 2.21 A young girl in Guinea-Bissau enjoys clean water
from
a new well that has been sponsored by the World Vision aid agency.
4 Look carefully at Source 2.23.
a Describe the area of Africa that suffers most from
reluctant learners to engage
water scarcity.
b Australia is the driest inhabited continent on Earth.
Does it have a water scarcity problem? Why or
why not?
in geographical inquiry.
c Compare freshwater availability in Australia and New
Zealand. Which country has access to more fresh
water? Why do you think this might be the case?
Evaluate and create

5 Create a poster or PowerPoint presentation highlighting
the problems of water scarcity in Africa and how it
affects people’s lives.
86 oxford big ideas geography history 7: australian curriculum
chapter 2 valuing and managing water 87
iv
naires
tests, construct question
for a draw sketches, conduct data to create
locations and activities then need to use this
Source GT.50 Examples
of fieldwork and surveys. You will also need to
for analysis. You may
Deep understanding
range of topics graphs and maps g Indigenous
Sample fieldwork of the public, includin
Possible location consider members places in
GT.3 Fieldwork
activity and feelings about
people and their beliefs
Topic
field trip to a
class is planning a
Local river or stream
Water sampling the landscape. If your or beach, you will
Water in our ent, such as a forest
natural environm environment by
in geography
environment
Taking geographical do not damage the
Water treatment plant, need to ensure you litter.
Water as a resource photographs or animals or by dropping
desalination plant or trampling on plants
dam
and concluding
Edge of a large city
Observing and Stage 3: Analysing
Growing cities describing look for
have collected and
Analyse the data you your
Urban renewal project
Land use mapping will help you to answer
patterns or clues that
What is fieldwork? Changing cities
Geography syllabus content is covered in Fieldwork is any geograph

outside the classroom
ical study that takes
or, as geographers
of geographical informat
place
say, ‘in the field’.
ion
Coastal landscapes
Landscape hazards
Local beach
Local beach
Sketching a cross-
section
Field sketching
ire
key inquiry question
Stage 4: Communicati
ng
.
you have found to

an audience in
The ‘field’ is the source at a number of scales Shopping centre
Using a questionna
Communicate what annotated
full and sequenced for depth of learning. (primary data). It

can be conducted
– in your school grounds,
in another state or
within your local community,
even in another country.
Fieldwork
the world
Global links
Communities
Local area, including
houses and shops
Street surveying
Asking questions
the form of a report,
visual display (AVD).
a presentation or an
and responding
is an essential part
of geography because
‘laborato ry’. Food security
Farming area
Stage 5: Reflecting
is the geograph er’s Comparing and reflect on ways
outside the classroom ities for first-hand Endangered
Zoo
environments fieldwork findings
provides opportun Think about your decide on
Working in the field environments and tion process. Finally,
natural and built
environments. to improve your investiga
investigation of both
animals
if this is appropriate.
develop skills a course of action,
an opportunity to
Fieldwork provides g. ork
ucting successful fieldw
recordin
g, measuring and
Gumtree
associated with observin can be collected and Cond A fieldwork example:
Focus on skills Different forms of
and human environm

geographical data
then analysed to find
relationships between
ents. The results of
investigation are presented

fieldwork report.
and commun
the natural
a fieldwork
icated in a
or problems
Fieldwork is a type
of geographical inquiry,
you take part in fieldwork
stages that are outlined
1 Observing, question
ing and planning
g, evaluating and
so whenever
you will need to follow
in this toolkit, namely:
the
representing
College litter invest
In the following example
Gumtree College (7G)
igation
, a Year 7 geograph
decided to conduct
in their school – litter.
y class at
fieldwork to
As a class, they
identifying issues 2 Collecting, recordin explore a problem nd the issue and
Fieldwork also involves of inquiry to understa
The process of geographical inquiry, including all key and finding possible
the real world and
sustainable and fair
solutions. It is a way
make a contribution
ways to manage the
to engage with
to developing more
Earth’s resources.
or conflict.
3 Analysing and
4 Communicating
5 Reflecting and
concluding
responding.
as this gives you a
focus for your
followed a process
try to resolve it.
Stage 1: Observing,
questioning and
at a key feature, issue The first stage is vital
Fieldwork often looks t about planning
concepts and skills is clearly outlined in a stand-alone For example, many
tourists visit Uluru
the intention of climbing
ignore the wishes
of the traditional
each year with
‘The Rock.’ In doing
so, they
owners of the land,
They also put
fieldwork. It also allows
whether your fieldwork
you to make a judgmen
investigation has
1: Observing, questio
been successful.
ning and
During a brainstor
question
m session, a range
s were raised by 7G.
of investigation
These included:
popular foods sold
in the school
(See Source GT.49). Stage t What are the most
the Anangu people
reference section – The geographer’s toolkit. This

e people
at risk. About thirty-fiv planning canteen?
themselves and others problem in the city?
and countles s others and compile a have the worst litter
have died while climbing
Uluru at an issue or location t Does our school in the yard?
hy students must pass a sign Begin by looking would like to have enough bins
have been injured
or rescued. Geograp tourist that climbs Uluru questions that you t Does our school
people continue Source GT.49 Every respect for the traditional set of related inquiry need and how it was decided that
the first
try to find out why climb the rock out of information you will During discussion
visiting Uluru may activity on asking them not to answer. Plan what also decided
section has been purpose-written to support the to climb it, and study
people and the natural
the impacts of this
environment.
owners, the Anangu.
you will collect it.
Stage 2: Collecting,
recording, evaluating
question wasn’t really
about litter. It was
that the second question

answer in one fieldwork
was too broad and complex to
inquiry. The class
was the best one for
agreed that
the class
ork understand and representing
Different types of fieldw will help you to better the third question
Australian Curriculum: Geography. It can be used flexibly Most topics you learn
during fieldwork.
about in class can
The types of fieldwork
your topic and the
also be studied
you conduct will
places you visit,
but all these activities
your world. Source
GT.50 provides example
locations and activities
s of fieldwork
for a range of topics.
Plan your fieldwork
and data that you
so that you can collect
will need. For example
the evidence
, take photos,
to investigate.
the geographer’s
toolkit 35
differ according to
– as an introductory skills unit or a reference section that 34 oxford big ideas

geography 7: australian
curriculum
can be revisited throughout the year.

Every key concept and skill required by
students to take part in geographical
Where water comes from The water cycle
inquiries is introduced clearly and
Water is one of our most
resources. Without it,
precious environmental
nothing can survive.
It is an
Orographic rainfall
Condensation is water
air that cools down and
drops of water. When
vapour in the
changes to tiny When wet air is forced
supported by question and activity blocks.
essential, renewable resource these drops gather to rise into the
that occurs naturally Air is forced to rise due cooler parts of the atmosphere
to the height of landmasses together, we see them , the
Earth. It can exist as on mountains. As the air cools, , such as as clouds. tiny water drops in clouds
a solid (such as ice in condensation forms, producing A cloud is a large collection join together
liquid (such as water a glacier),r a As the air begins to fall rain. of water drops and become heavier. They
in a river) or a gas (such from the high land, it warms or ice crystals. The drops then fall as
as steam). dry regions. up, creating are so small and precipitation (rain, snow,
Fresh water is an available light that they can float hail) onto the
resource when in liquid in the air. land or into the ocean,
and a potential resource form rivers and lakes.
as a gas or a solid. Liquid Air forced to Dry air falls resulting in
is constantly being recycled water riise cools and a low chance of rain
through the atmospher
rivers and oceans in e, clouds formm
a natural system known
water cycle (see Source as the
1.4).
In the water cycle, water
from the oceans and
is heated and evaporated lakes
by the Sun. The evaporated
water vapour, which
is like steam, then rises Some of the
reaches the cooler parts until it Rain falls
Ra The Sun heats the water
of the atmosphere. Cold precipitation that falls
air in oceans, lakes and
cannot hold as much Mountains on land returns to
moisture as warm air, rivers and turns it into
water vapour turns back so the a the rivers, lakes and
into liquid water in a gas called water vapour.
process Frontal rainfall oceans as runoff.
known as condensat The water vapour
ion. These drops of water
form into clouds, which then Two air masses meet and rises into the air. This
may be carried on to the cooler air mass wedges
Check your learning question and activity blocks

land by the warmer air mass. This itself under process is known as
winds and forced to forces the warm air to
rise. The colder air can causing condensation rise and cool, evaporation.
hold the condensed droplets no longer and rain along a distinct
line.
and they fall as rain.
rainwater finds its way The
back to the world’s lakes Cold air sinks
oceans through rivers and Warm air risses and
and streams and the
begins again.
As you can see in Source
masses are forced to rise.
process
1.4, rain falls when wet

There are three reasons
air
cools formiing clouds
and conden nsation
When water on the ground
the soil (infiltration), plants
soaks into
then take
appear at regular intervals throughout each chapter,
masses rise. Each of these that air it in through their roots.
rainfall at different places
will produce different
on the Earth’s surface.
types of
Rain ffalls
Source 1.4 The stages
of the water
Check your learning 1.2

cycle allowing students to consolidate and extend their
keyconcept: interconnection
The water cycle

Convectional rainfall
Temperatures during the
rise rapidly
p y and condense
day warm the ground
ondens at high
gh altitude.
al
causing warm air to
This produces
p uc heavyy rain
1
Remember and understa
What is the water cycle?
nd in our world but it can also
rivers change the landscape.
help us understand how
understanding. These are graded according to
The water cycle links together and thunderstorms. an How do you think the rivers
2 What causes water to
Bloom’s Taxonomy – catering for a range of abilities

large areas of the natural fall as rain? shown in Source 1.4 have
environment (see Source changed this landscape?
1.4). The world’s oceans, Warrm air expands 3 List these words in the
mountains, rivers and correct order within the What type of rainfall do
7
atmosphere are all important and
d rises Clouds form and cycle: precipitation, condensati water you receive most often
parts on and evaporation. Now place where you live? Why in the
of this cycle. The water heavy rain falls will the answer differ for
cycle links together the write a definition for each
and human environmen natural in your own words. students who live in other
parts of Australia?
and learning styles.

ts because water is so
all human activities. The central to Apply and analyse 8 Salt water in oceans
cannot be used to drink
presence of water is key or water
settling new farms and when crops. Is salt water an
cities. For more information What is the difference
4 available or potential resource?
key concept of interconnec on the between frontal rainfall
tion, refer to section GT.1 orographic rainfall? How and Evaluate and create
‘The geographer’s toolkit’. of are they similar?
Why do you think the wettest
5
place in Australia is near 9 Imagine that you are a
Tully on the eastern slopes water droplet in a cloud.
Source 1.3 Different
types of rainfall of the Great Dividing Range your journey through the Describe
in Queensland? You might water cycle in language
like to find Tully in an atlas a young child would find that
help with your answer. to interesting. Here is a start:
‘Floating along with billions
44 6 The water cycle of my closest friends,
oxford big ideas geography helps us to understand I thought nothing would
history 7: australian curriculum how water moves ever change …’
chapter 1 water as a
resource 45
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Source 4.43
australian curriculum
aphy history 7:
ideas geogr
oxford big
chapter to a new and 176
being investigated.
interesting case study or
geographical issue.
Integrated teaching and learning support

obook assess provides an interactive electronic Professional support is offered in both print and digital
version of the student book in an easy-to-read format. formats. Teaching strategies, lesson ideas, planning tips,
It features multimedia links, interactive learning assessment advice and answers to all activities support
objects, note-taking, highlighting and bookmarking the implementation of the Australian Curriculum and cater
tools and question blocks. obook is compatible with for ongoing professional development.
laptops, iPads, tablets and IWBs, and also offers page
view (in flipbook format) that can be used offline. obook assess allows teachers to manage their classes
assess provides 24/7 online assessment designed to by assigning work, tracking progress and planning
support student progression and understanding. assessment.
Using Oxford Big Ideas Geography v

Australian Curriculum: Geography 7—
Scope and sequence
Level description and key inquiry questions
Level description There are two units of study in Year 7: Water in the world and Place and liveability
Water in the world focuses on water as an example of a renewable environmental resource. This
unit examines the many uses of water, the ways it is perceived and valued, its different forms
as a resource, the ways it connects places as it moves through the environment, its varying
availability in time and across space, and its scarcity. Water in the world develops students’
understanding of the concept of environment, including the ideas that the environment is the
product of a variety of processes, that it supports and enriches human and other life, that people
value the environment in different ways and that the environment has its specific hazards. Water
is investigated using studies drawn from Australia, countries of the Asia region, and countries
from West Asia and/or North Africa.
Place and liveability focuses on the concept of place through an investigation of liveability. This
unit examines factors that influence liveability and how it is perceived, the idea that places
provide us with the services and facilities needed to support and enhance our lives, and that
spaces are planned and managed by people. It develops students’ ability to evaluate the
liveability of their own place and to investigate whether it can be improved through planning. The
liveability of places is investigated using studies drawn from Australia and Europe.
Key inquiry • How does people’s reliance on places and environments influence their perception of them?
• What effect does the uneven distribution of resources and services have on the lives of
questions people?
• What approaches can be used to improve the availability of resources and access to
services?
Geographical knowledge and understanding

Unit 1 – Water in • The classification of environmental resources and the forms that water takes as a resource
• The ways that flows of water connect places as they move through the environment and the
the world way this affects places
• The quantity and variability of Australia’s water resources compared with those in other
continents
• The nature of water scarcity and ways of overcoming it, including studies drawn from
Australia and West Asia and/or North Africa
• The economic, cultural, spiritual and aesthetic value of water for people, including Aboriginal
and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and peoples of the Asia region
• The causes, impacts and responses to an atmospheric or hydrological hazard
Unit 2 – Place and • The factors that influence the decisions people make about where to live and their
perceptions of the liveability of places
liveablity • The influence of accessibility to services and facilities on the liveability of places
• The influence of environmental quality on the liveability of places
• The influence of social connectedness, community identity and perceptions of crime and
safety on the liveability of places
• The strategies used to enhance the liveability of places, especially for young people, including
examples from Australia and Europe
vi
Geographical inquiry and skills
Observing, questioning • Develop geographically significant questions and plan an inquiry, using appropriate
geographical methodologies and concepts
and planning
Collecting, recording, • Collect, select and record relevant geographical data and information, using ethical protocols,
from appropriate primary and secondary sources
evaluating and • Evaluate sources for their reliability and usefulness and represent data in a range of
representing appropriate forms – for example – climate graphs, compound column graphs, population
pyramids, tables, field sketches and annotated diagrams, with and without the use of digital
and spatial technologies
• Represent the spatial distribution of different types of geographical phenomena by
constructing appropriate maps at different scales that conform to cartographic conventions,
using spatial technologies as appropriate
Interpreting, analysing • Analyse geographical data and other information using qualitative and quantitative methods,
and digital and spatial technologies as appropriate, to identify and propose explanations for
and concluding spatial distributions, patterns and trends, and infer relationships
• Apply geographical concepts to draw conclusions based on the analysis of the data and
information collected
Communicating • Present findings, arguments and ideas in a range of communication forms selected to suit a
particular audience and purpose, using geographical terminology and digital technologies as
appropriate
Reflecting and • Reflect on their learning to propose individual and collective action in response to a
contemporary geographical challenge, taking account of environmental, economic and social
responding considerations, and predict the expected outcomes of their proposal
Year 7 achievement standard

By the end of Year 7, students describe geographical processes that influence the characteristics of places and how places are
perceived and valued differently. They explain interconnections between people, places and environments and describe how they
change places and environments. They propose simple explanations for spatial distributions and patterns among phenomena.
They describe alternative strategies to a geographical challenge and propose a response, taking into account environmental,
economic and social factors.
Students identify geographically significant questions to frame an inquiry. They locate relevant information from primary and
secondary sources to answer inquiry questions. They represent data and the location and distribution of geographical phenomena
in a range of graphic forms, including large-scale and small-scale maps that conform to cartographic conventions. They analyse
geographical data and other information to propose simple explanations for spatial patterns, trends and relationships and draw
conclusions. Students present findings and arguments using relevant geographical terminology and graphic representations in a
range of communication forms. They propose action in response to a geographical challenge taking account of environmental,
economic and social considerations and describe the expected effects of their proposal.
Australian Curriculum: Geography 7— Scope and sequence vii

oxford
geography
7
Water in the world
Place and liveability
The
geographer’s
toolkit
Geography is the study of the world around us.
Studying geography helps us understand how the
Earth works. This includes natural processes (such as
volcanoes, floods and the weather) as well as human
activities (such as mining, tourism and building cities).
Geographers use a range of key concepts and key
skills to study the world. Each of these concepts and
skills is a tool that you can use to better understand
your world. As you master each of these concepts and
skills you will gradually fill your toolkit with a range
of useful geographical tools.
Geographers are curious. They look at the Earth’s
features and always want to know more about
them. For example, when they look at Jim Jim Falls
(Barrkmalam) in Kakadu National Park, Northern
Territory, shown in Source GT.1, they wonder about
many aspects of this natural feature. They want to
know about:
• its size
• its location
• the types of rock in the area
• the types of plants and animals in the area
• its significance to Indigenous Australians
GT.1
Concepts for geographical
• the way it is used by people
• the way it is changing.
understanding
This curiosity and wonder gives geographers a special
view of the world. You can share that view. Welcome
to the wonderful world of geography!
2 oxford big ideas geography 7: australian curriculum

Source GT.1 A view of Jim Jim Falls in Kakadu National Park in the Northern Territory.
This is known to the Aboriginal people of the region as Barrkmalam.
GT.2
Geographical inquiry and skills
GT.3
Fieldwork in geography
the geographer’s toolkit 3

GT.1 Concepts for
geographical understanding
Geographers use seven concepts to help investigate and understand the world. At times
you will use several of these at once, while at other times you may focus on just one.
As you learn to use each of the key ideas you will begin to think like a geographer. The
seven key concepts in geography are:
• place • space • environment • interconnection

• sustainability • scale • change.
Place
Places are parts of the Earth’s surface that are
identified and given meaning by people. Your home
and your school are important places for you because
they are the places where you live and spend most of
your time. A place can be as small as your bedroom or
as large as the entire planet!
Places play an important role in the lives of every
person on Earth. Places can be natural (that is, shaped
by the environment and largely unchanged by
humans) or built (that is, constructed by humans).
Source GT.2 An aerial view of Manhattan Island, New York City –
The life of every person and animal on Earth is an example of a built environment.
influenced by place. Places determine our relationships
with one another. Our closest relationships are
likely to be with people in the same place. The Geographers use the concept of place when
environmental and social qualities of a place all conducting any geographical inquiry. For example, a
influence the way we live. Climate, landscapes, geographer visiting New York City in the United States
types of plants and resources, transport networks, (Source GT.2) would use the concept of place to help
entertainment venues and workplaces all have a major understand why people originally settled there, how
impact on the way we live. the city was built and how it has changed over time.
For Indigenous Australians, place also has a deeper They would also use place to investigate the
spiritual meaning. Their sense of identity comes from important role the city plays in the lives of New
their relationship with place. Aboriginal people have Yorkers, Americans and people all over the world.
lived in the Kakadu region of Northern Territory for Just as place influences people, people also
over 50 000 years. The region contains approximately influence place. The ways in which we live, and
5000 rock art sites, some of which are over 20 000 the actions we take, change the places in which we
years old. They represent the longest historical records live. Geographers investigate the outcomes of these
of any group in the world. This was one of the reasons changes. For example, by investigating the way in
Kakadu National Park was World Heritage listed. which human actions have altered the Brazilian
Aboriginal people refer to their place as ‘Country’ and Rainforest, geographers can learn how to better
believe that they have a responsibility to look after it. manage and care for our natural resources.

Space
To most people space means the
empty universe but to a geographer it
has a different meaning. Geographers
investigate the way that things are
arranged on the Earth’s surface. They
look for patterns and try to explain
them. The concept of space helps them
to do this. It has three main elements:
• location – where things are located
on the Earth’s surface
• spatial distribution – the shapes
and patterns in which things are
arranged on the Earth’s surface
• organisation – how and why things
are arranged and managed on the
Earth’s surface by people.
The concept of space can also be used
to investigate some other important
aspects of the world around us.
Geographers investigate the way that
people use and change the space in
which they live. They recognise that Source GT.3 An aerial photograph showing the path of the hot ash
and rock that flowed to the sea from Mount Unzen, an active volcano
different groups of people use space in different on the island of Kyushu in Japan. Part of the city of Shimabara (shown
ways and that this changes over time. They also in the foreground) has been buried by the eruption.
investigate the ways that improvements in transport
and communication have made links between places
can be divided into spaces. For example, a small place,
quicker and easier and the ways that this is changing
such as your school, has different spaces. Each of
the world.
these spaces has its own purpose. There are spaces for
The city of Shimabara in the south of Japan (Source
learning (such as classrooms and computer rooms),
GT.3) illustrates the concept of space well. The city has
playing (such as playgrounds and play equipment),
been built on a flat coastal area at the foot of an active
eating (such as the cafeteria or canteen) and running
volcano, Mount Unzen. Houses, schools and office
the school (such as staffrooms and administration
buildings in Shimabara are linked by roads leading
buildings).
to nearby farms closer to Mount Unzen. The volcano
Larger places (such as your suburb, town or city) are
clearly presents a danger to people living in the town.
also organised into different spaces. There are spaces
As Source GT.3 shows, the flow of superheated ash and
for housing (such as homes for families), businesses
rock from the volcano has buried part of the city as
(such as shops and offices), industry (such as factories
it makes its way to the sea. At fi rst glance it may not
and warehouses), entertainment (such as concert
be clear why anyone would risk living this close to a
halls and theatres) and sport and recreation (such as
volcano, but closer analysis of the area reveals that
stadiums, parks and gardens).
the fertile volcanic soil in the area makes it ideal for
growing crops. Our understanding of the location, patterns and
planning of spaces helps geographers to make sense of
The concepts of place and space can be difficult to
our world.
separate, but it will help if you remember that places

Environment
The world in which we live is made up of many the harshest environment on the planet, is considered
different environments. Some environments are a natural environment despite humans having altered
natural (or physical) such as deserts, grasslands, some areas of it. These changes have included the
mountains, coral reefs, forests, oceans and ice caps. In building of a number of permanent research bases
order for an environment to be considered natural, its and the carrying out of various scientific studies both
soils, rocks, climate, plants and animals must remain on land and sea. The McMurdo research base, for
largely untouched by humans. Today, there are very example, operated by the United States (Source GT.4),
few truly natural environments left on Earth. has three airfields, a harbour and more than 100
Other environments have been so altered by buildings. In addition to these built structures, other
humans that very few natural features remain. human influences have affected this environment. The
These environments are known as built (or human) warming of the planet has contributed to the increased
environments and include large cities, towns, suburbs melting of ice shelves and pollution of our oceans has
and vast areas of farmland. Human environments not had an impact on sea and land animals in Antarctica.
only affect the natural features (such as soil, plants The study of different environments helps
and animals) they also affect the climate. A large city, geographers to better understand and appreciate
such as New York, has its own microclimate. It will natural processes, such as how weather works, how
often be a few degrees hotter than the surrounding mountains are formed and how rainforests and coral
areas because concrete in the buildings traps the Sun’s reefs grow. The concept helps geographers to analyse
heat. Skyscrapers also catch and funnel the wind, the changes humans make to natural environments
increasing its speed. and better appreciate their impact so that they can be
Most environments on Earth are now a combination managed more wisely.
of natural and human features. For example, Antarctica,
Source GT.4 A scientist

looking out over McMurdo
Station at Observation
Hill in Antarctica. The line
between the natural and
built environment is clearly
illustrated in this photograph.

Source GT.5 Bangladesh is one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change because of a number of
interconnected processes that are causing sea levels to rise. It is estimated that 15 million of the poorest people
living in Bangladesh, like those living in this slum, will be affected by a 1-metre rise in sea levels.
Interconnection
No place or thing on Earth exists in isolation. All single system to keep you alive and healthy. In much
environments on Earth and every living and non- the same way, the Earth’s living systems (such as
living thing found within them are connected. These climate, plants, animals, oceans, soils, atmosphere and
connections can be on a local level or a global level. energy) all function together and are interconnected.
Geographers use the concept of interconnection to Even a slight rise in the Earth’s temperature, for
better understand the complex links between natural example, will have an effect on the oceans (such as
and human processes that shape our Earth. Places and damaging coral reefs and affecting the populations of
people can be linked in many different ways that can fish and other sea creatures), the land (such as failure
be categorised as: of crops and drought) and the polar ice caps (such as
• natural processes, such as the water cycle and food increasing sea levels and forcing millions of people
chain to relocate their homes). Source GT.5 shows a slum in
• human activities, such as the movement of people, Bangladesh, the most densely populated country in
the production and trade of goods and the flow of the world. Bangladesh is slightly larger than England
investment and money linked within and between in size, but is home to 150 million people; this is three
different countries. times the population of England. Its coastal zone has a
very low elevation above sea level, making it one of the
It helps to think of the Earth as a single living
countries most vulnerable to climate change through
organism, much like your body. Your brain, heart,
rising sea levels.
lungs, stomach, arms and legs all work together as a

Source GT.6 A Minke whale and her one-year-old calf are being dragged on board the Japanese factory ship Nisshin Maru.
Anti-whaling activists argue that the number of whales hunted by the Japanese each year is unsustainable.
Sustainability
The concept of sustainability relates to the ongoing • Local – Recycling of paper and plastics by
capacity of Earth to maintain all life. This means individuals, schools and households reduces the
developing ways to ensure that all resources on Earth amount of trees that need to be cut down and oil
are used and managed responsibly so they can be that needs to be drilled to produce plastic bottles
maintained for future generations. and bags.
Sustainable patterns of living meet the needs of • National – In Australia the government has begun
the current generation without compromising the to encourage sustainable use of energy through
ability of future generations to meet their own needs. the establishment of wind farms and hydroelectric
Many of the world’s resources (such as oil, coal and power plants and measures to promote the use of
natural gas) are non-renewable. This means that if we solar panels.
continue to use them they will one day run out. Other • International – Efforts to protect endangered
resources (such as wind, forests, solar and water) are whale species around the world have attracted
renewable. This means that they replace themselves media attention and focused public opinion on
naturally, or can be replaced to meet the needs of maintaining breeding grounds free of large whaling
society. Sustainability encourages us to think more vessels (Source GT.6).
closely about these different types of resources – the Sustainability is an important concept for geographers.
ways in which they are formed and the speed at which They use it to investigate how natural and human
they are being used. It also encourages us to look more systems work, and understand how resources can be
closely at renewable options and take greater care managed in such a way that they will be sustained
of the Earth. Actions to improve sustainability can into the future.
operate at a number of levels:

Scale
The concept of scale is used to guide geographical • national – such as an inquiry into the yearly tourist
inquiries. Geographers study things that take place numbers visiting national parks in Australia (such
on many different spatial levels – meaning from small as Kakadu National Park and Christmas Island
areas (such as a local park) to very large areas (such as National Park), including the impact these visitors
the use of oil and coal all over the world). They use the have on our National Parks, the way in which these
concept of scale to look for explanations and outcomes parks are managed, and on what levels Indigenous
at these different levels. A geographic inquiry of the people are involved
ways in which people use parks, for example, may be • international – such as an inquiry into animal
carried out at a range of scales (from smallest to largest): poaching in national parks and wild game reserves
• local – such as an inquiry into the daily visitors to a in different countries across Africa (such as South
neighbourhood skate park, the types of facilities there Africa, Kenya, Tanzania and Madagascar)
and whether these facilities meet the needs of visitors • global – such as an inquiry into the use of
• regional – such as an inquiry into the types of all marine parks around the world and their
visitors staying at campsites and tourist parks in the effectiveness in protecting different species of
Grampians region of Victoria marine animals.
Source GT.7 Geographical inquiries can be carried out on a number of different spatial levels: local (e.g. at a nearby skate park);
regional (e.g. at a campsite in the Grampians region of Victoria); national (e.g. at national parks across Australia); international (e.g. in
different countries across Africa) and global (e.g. at marine parks all over the planet).

Change
The Earth is constantly changing. Some changes occur
very rapidly and are easy to see, while others take place
over millions of years and are almost undetectable to
us. The concept of change is important in geography
because it helps us to understand what is happening
around us and see the world as a dynamic place. Over
millions of years, the Earth has been shaped and
changed by natural forces, such as climate, earthquakes,
volcanoes, running water and storms to name just a few.
In more recent times, humans have shaped and changed
the Earth to suit their own needs, but events such as
volcanic eruptions and tsunamis are a reminder that
powerful natural forces continue to alter the face of the
Earth, regardless of what humans do.
Changes take place on many different levels,
from personal and local right through to national
and global. Small local changes that happen quickly,
such as a tree falling over on your street or a creek
flooding, are often easy to observe and explain. Larger
regional or national changes, such as an earthquake
or tsunami, can happen quickly and their effects can
be widespread and have devastating impacts on places
and people (see Source GT.8). Changes that take place
on a global scale can take much longer to occur.
Global warming, for example, is a long-term change
that happens slowly. Global warming has widespread
effects that are not easily explained.
Observing and understanding changes that are
natural and/or are made by humans and have occurred
over time is an important part of any geographical
inquiry. Geographers need to look at different types
of changes, why they have occurred, over what time
period they have occurred and what further changes
may take place as a result. Sometimes changes can
be positive, such as the conservation of plants and
animals in national parks, while other changes can
have negative consequences, such as the deforestation
of native rainforests in Indonesia. Geographers play an
important role in ensuring that change is managed in
a sustainable way.

Check your learning GT.1
Remember and understand
1 Examine the photo of Jim Jim Falls (Source GT.1). Is this a natural or built
environment? Give reasons for your answer.
2 New York City (shown in Source GT.2) is one of the world’s largest cities.
List five ways in which this built environment would affect how people live
and work.
3 Look carefully at Source GT.3. Why have people settled in this location?
Describe the pattern formed by the houses in the township.
Apply and analyse

4 Here are some examples of changes that may be occurring on Earth at any
given time:
• an extra bathroom is being built onto your house
• a new freeway is being built through the city
• the Earth’s climate is warming
• an earthquake is destroying a town in Turkey
• a rainforest is being cleared by loggers in Indonesia.
a Rank these changes from the slowest to the most rapid.
b Which of these changes are caused by human activities and which are
caused by natural processes?
c Identify the scale at which each of the above changes takes place; that
is local, regional, national, international or global.
5 Using Source GT.5, explain the chain of events that would lead to flooding
in this slum area of Bangladesh. Describe how and why slum dwellers
would be more affected by this event than the wealthy.
6 List three ways in which your school or household is addressing the concept
of sustainability. Which of these do you believe is most successful? Why?
7 Examine Source GT.6. Work with a partner to conduct research on
the importance of the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary in conserving
endangered whale species.
8 Study Source GT.8. Identify the major changes to the Japanese coastal
suburb as a result of the tsunami. How might an understanding of the
concept of change be useful in guiding the rebuilding or relocation of
the suburb?
9 Your class is undertaking research on the Great Barrier Reef. Develop one
Source GT.8 The
changes that took
question for each of the seven geographical concepts discussed in the text.
place in a Japanese
coastal suburb of
Evaluate and create
Rikuzentakata as a 10 Create a diagram, such as a flow chart, to show the interconnection
result of a tsunami between the natural and built environment at Antarctica’s McMurdo Station
in March 2011 were
devastating and very (Source GT.4). Include information on such aspects as climate, landforms,
rapid. The top image wildlife and human settlement (especially waste management and change
shows the area before to the natural environment).
the tsunami and the
bottom image shows 11 Choose one of the key concepts that has been discussed. Design a poster
the same area after it for your geography classroom to help you and your classmates remember
had struck. this concept and use it in geography.

GT.2 Geographical inquiry
and skills
Geography has been described as the ‘why of where’.
Observing, questioning and planning Collecting, recording,
Geographers examine the world and try to explain what
evaluating and
they see. Like a detective at the scene of a crime they representing
follow a line of inquiry – they ask questions, collect
Analysing and
evidence, analyse the evidence to find an answer,
concluding
communicate their findings, reflect on what they have
found out and, finally, decide on a course of action.
To follow a line of inquiry, geographers need a range
of skills. By studying geography you will gradually
master each of these skills. Some of them you will find
easy to master; others may take a little longer. As you
develop each new skill you will have gained another
important tool for explaining the natural processes and
human activities that shape our amazing planet.
Each of the skills you will learn over the course of
this year is explained in this section. It might help you
to think of each of these skills as individual tools in your
Communicating
toolkit. For some geographical inquiries you may only Reflecting and responding
need to use one tool; for others, you may need to use
many. Source GT.9 The skills needed by every geographer. Think of each
of these skills as a tool in your geographer’s toolkit.
Observing, questioning and
If you look out the window of your classroom you will
planning
become aware of your surroundings. Is it a sunny day? Is
it windy? Can you see any buildings or trees? Are there
Observe the world and its geographical any clouds?
characteristics Even though you may look out this window on most
Developing an awareness and understanding of our days and take what you see for granted, these simple
world begins by observing the processes that are taking questions can easily become the basis of a number of
place in it. Geographers look at people, land, air, water, different geographical inquiries. If the sun is shining,
plants and animals and the connections between you might like to begin an inquiry into the hours of
them to understand what is happening. They also sunlight and the pattern of temperatures in your area. If
seek to investigate where, why and how natural and it is windy, you might like to begin an inquiry into what
built environments are formed and changed. These direction the wind is coming from, how strong it is and
observations often include identifying any problems or why. If you can see lots of trees or buildings, you might
issues that need to be investigated and resolved. like to begin an inquiry into what type of environment
you are in and the different forces that have shaped it.
Seeing the world through a geographer’s eyes Once you have observed what is around you, the next
All good geographical inquiries begin by observing stage is to develop some geographical questions to focus
something in the natural or built world around you. your inquiry.

Develop geographical questions about the human and skilldrill
environmental processes shaping places
Geographers ask lots of questions. Geographical questions can be as Developing
simple as ‘What is it?’ and ‘Where is it?’ or more complex, such as ‘What
is the connection between these two things?’ and ‘How and why have geographical questions
things changed over time?’
Study Source GT.10. This visitor to Uluru
As a geographer, no longer will you look at something in your is asking some important geographical
world, such as Uluru, and only think of it as an interesting place to questions. You can learn to do this too
visit. Instead, you will begin to ask questions about how it was formed by starting your questions with the words
and came to look the way it does. You will also start to ask questions ‘what’, ‘where’, ‘how’, ‘why’, ‘what impact’
about the area in which it is located, its vegetation, how it is used and or ‘what should’ when thinking about a
managed and its significance for Indigenous Australians. particular feature or place.
Your questions should deal with ideas
such as:
• Where is it?
• How many are there?
What is Uluru? • How big is it?
How did Uluru get here? • What pattern or shape is it?
How is Uluru changing? • Why is it like this? Is it like this because
Who looks after Uluru? something else is at this location?
How many people visit Uluru each year? • How does it interact with other things
Are there any other similar rocks nearby? in this place?
Is it a good thing that so many tourists • Who interacts with it?
visit Uluru? • Is it changing? If so, why is it changing
and what will it look like in the future?
• How should people best manage this
change?
The very best questions open up an
exciting area for you to explore. For
example, the visitor might ask a simple
question, such as ‘How big is Uluru?’
This is a question with a relatively simple
answer. A better geographical question
for the visitor to ask would be ‘Why is
Uluru so big?’ This question opens up a
whole new area for her to explore.
Apply the skill

1 Why would it be better to ask ‘Why is
Uluru so big?’ than ‘How big is Uluru?’
2 Where could you look to find answers
to the question ‘Why is Uluru so big?’
3 Examine the photograph of Jim Jim
Falls at the beginning of this chapter.
Work with a partner to develop
geographic questions about this
Source GT.10 Developing geographical questions is an important part of a landscape.
geographical inquiry

Plan and implement a simple geographical inquiry
Once you have asked a range of more general questions about a geographical feature or
issue, it is time to select one question that will become the focus of your inquiry. When
you have chosen this, it is useful to decide what data is needed to answer the question
and how to collect the data.
Planning a geographical inquiry about Uluru

Having chosen to investigate the key inquiry question ‘Is it a good thing that so many
tourists visit Uluru?’, you need to decide what data is needed to answer the question
and how to collect the data.
Source GT.11 A guide for planning the direction of a geographical inquiry into Uluru
Key inquiry question Data needed Possible sources of data
Is it a good thing that • Information on the importance • Conduct fieldwork into visitor numbers
so many tourists visit and significance of Uluru to the • Create surveys and questionnaires for visitors to complete
Uluru? Anangu, who are the Indigenous
• Contact Parks Australia and Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park for information
people in the area
on how the park is managed
• Information on the management
• Download resources from the Parks Australia website; for example,
and maintenance of the park
podcasts, maps, visitor guides, geological reports, audio tours and images

1 Good geographers are like detectives. Why is this? b What two additional issues may be linked to this
2 On your way to school you notice that bulldozers are geographical inquiry into the construction of a new
clearing an area of bushland. shopping centre? One issue should relate to the
a How could this observation form the basis of a
natural environment and one should relate to the built
geographical inquiry? environment.
b Write five different types of questions to assist you in your Evaluate and create
geographical inquiry into the clearing of this bushland.
4 Develop five questions that may assist a geographer in
Apply and analyse conducting an inquiry into the proposed development of
3 There is a proposal to build a new shopping centre. a new shopping centre within their local area. Create a
planning table similar to that used in the text for the inquiry
a Describe how a geographer would be able to find out
into Uluru (Source GT.11).
what local people thought about the proposal.
Source GT.12 Kata Tjuta in the Northern Territory

Collecting, recording, evaluating Distinguish between quantitative and
qualitative data
and representing
Primary and secondary data provide either quantitative
Collect, record and evaluate primary and data or qualitative data. Quantitative data includes
anything that can be recorded as numbers (for example,
secondary data
Uluru is 3.6 kilometres long and 1.9 kilometres wide
Good planning and preparation will ensure that your and has a circumference of 9.4 kilometres). Qualitative
geographical inquiry will run smoothly, be relevant and data, on the other hand, includes anything that can be
give you the answers you are looking for: recorded in words (for example, Uluru, one of Australia’s
• collect and record the information you think you will best-known natural landmarks, is very large).
need to answer your key inquiry question
Source GT.14 Examples of quantitative and qualitative data
• evaluate this information and data to determine that
it is accurate and relevant Some examples of quantitative data Some examples of
• represent your findings in an interesting and qualitative data
appropriate way (such as tables, graphs, maps and • Climate and temperature statistics • Opinions
sketches). • Tourist numbers • Points of view
Geographers find answers to their questions in many • Population figures (including birth and • Personal stories
death rates) • Likes and dislikes
places. They may collect information themselves by
• Types and amounts of food grown • Feelings
interviewing people, taking photographs, making
• Plant and animal species and wildlife in
sketches out in the field or conducting surveys and certain areas
questionnaires. This kind of information will generally • Forest clearance rates
only be relevant to a particular inquiry and is called • Numbers of people killed in natural
primary data. disasters
Often a geographer collects information that supports • Numbers of volcanic eruptions and
earthquakes
his or her inquiry but has not been specifically collected
or designed by the geographer for the inquiry. This type
of information is called secondary data. Good geographical inquiries will always be based on a
combination of primary and secondary data that is both
Source GT.13 Examples of primary and secondary data quantitative and qualitative. Even though qualitative
data is an important part of any geographical inquiry,
Some examples of Some examples of
primary data secondary data quantitative data is considered to be more valuable
because it is less open to personal interpretations and
• Hand-drawn maps and field • Information from textbooks,
sketches atlases, maps, graphs, can be more accurately represented in graphs and charts.
• Photographs and images reports and websites Before you move to the next stage of your inquiry, it is
taken for the inquiry that were not created
important to check that you have recorded all your data
specifically for the inquiry
• Questionnaires and surveys without errors and that it is balanced and fair. Your data
designed and created for • Data that was collected by
the inquiry a government department should not reflect your personal opinions, emotions or
(such as census data), attitudes; instead it should present the facts in a clear and
• Graphs created from data
the media, companies
(such as number of visitors,
and other organisations
concise way.
number of cars counted,
and was not collected
and temperature and wind
specifically for the inquiry
statistics) gathered by the
geographer for the inquiry

Create maps and other graphic
representations
Geographers often present the
information they gather during their
inquiries in a number of different ways.
They often make maps, create graphs
and tables or even draw diagrams to
help them look for patterns in the data
they have gathered. These tools also
help people who were not involved in
the inquiry (such as the general public,
the government or people in the media)
understand the work that has been done.
Creating maps
One of the most useful tools that
geographers use to process information
is a map. A map is a simplified plan of Source GT.15 An aerial photograph of Sydney Harbour and the city
an area. Maps are drawn in the plan
SYDNEY: HARBOUR AND CBD
view (directly from above) because this
M IL
B
L E GBalls
E NHead
UN
ensures the scale will be the same across
RA GL AN
D
RA
ION
SO
RO AD
STR
K URR A
Bay EET H
N
IG
FI
LAVEN
Parkland DER ST H
CREMORNE
the entire area. If maps were drawn from
EL
REE ST
Manns T RE Neutral A
POINT
B
ET
LAVENDER
D
Point Waverton Bay
RO
Significant site BAY
HIG
Berrys
an angle, some parts of the mapped area
RO
AD
Peninsula Shell
A
Motorway or Bay Sawmillers EL A M Careening
D
HW
Yurulbin Reserve Lavender NG Cove
A
freeway Reserve AV Cove
would look distorted and so it would not
AY
Point Bay EN Kurraba
Major road
Balls McMAHONS MILSONS
U
E Point Cremorne
be an accurate representation of the area. Other roadHead POINT POINTKIRRIBIL KIRRIBILLI Reserve
LI
When properly used, maps can reveal a Railway; Station Milsons
AY
AV
Blues Point Point
EN
SYDNE Y HARBO UR TUNN EL

UE
W
Ballast
Mall/major
GH
Ballast Point
great deal about our planet and the ways walkway
Pt Park Goat PORT JACKSON
Island DAWES HI Kirribilli
Mort Bay Walsh POINT
in which we use it.
LD
Point
Park Mort Bay Bay Fort Denison
FIE
Millers D Bennelong S y d ney

BALMAIN Point A
THE
AD
RO Point
EAST N
ROCKS Ha r b o ur 0 400 800 m
BR
HICK S O
GE
ST RE ET
DARLI NG
OR
MILLERS Observatory Sydney Mrs Macquarie’s

GE S T
POINT Point
HICKS ON
Park Cove
Circular
KENT STREET
Quay Garden
Farm Potts Island
R
Darling
TO
Cove
Ba ool n
ay Point
i
oo
B Harbour oo oma
ROA D
White
s
ST RE ET
IBU
ST
ne
ST
BRI DG E
Bay
Bay Pyrmont
D
Jo
TR
CA HIL
PH ILI P
YORK STREET
Ba
m
s
RIE ST
n
Point Park
y
DIS
sto
STR EET
Royal Botanic
ont
Glebe
e
oll
Th
D
hn
CLARENCE
MA CQ UA
Island Gardens
OA
Pyrm
Wo
L
PITT
EX
Jo
FR
KEN T STR
PR
ST
ES Elizabeth
AR
SUSSEX STR
CBD
W ES TE RN
POTTS
WH
HA
Bay
STREET
The
SW
WE
TH ST
POINT
RR
AG H
STE
ER
GEORGE
CO W P
IS
RN Domain
AY
PYRMONT
EET
D
CA STL ERE
IS
EET
Blackwattle T R I B U Cockle ELIZABETH

ELI ZA BE
ST
MARK ET ST Hyde
TO Bay
WOOLLOOMOOLOO BAY
RE
Bay R Park
ET
Source GT.16 A map of Sydney Harbour and the city (as shown in GT.15)
Source: Oxford University Press

Simple maps
Geographers use different types of maps to show a whole range of different natural and
built features – and the connections between them. This year you will be learning how
to create a number of different types of maps and interpreting the information that
they provide. These maps include:
Physical maps Political maps

Physical maps show the locations and names of Political maps show the locations and names of built
natural features of the Earth. These may include features of the Earth. These may include country
deserts, mountains, rivers, plains, oceans, reefs, borders, state and territory borders, cities and towns.
volcanoes and lakes.
PHYSICAL MAP OF AUSTRALIA SHOWING OCEANS AND POLITICAL MAP OF AUSTRALIA SHOWING STATE AND
MAJOR MOUNTAIN RANGES, RIVERS, LAKES AND DESERTS TERRITORY BORDERS, CITIES AND TOWNS
Melville Cape York EAST TIMOR ARAF URA Torres Strait PA P UA
Bali Sumba
Sumb
mbba
ba Timor Island INDONESIA S EA
Rotiti
Rot Bathurst
Bath urst
ur st N E W GU IN E A
TIMOR
T IMOR Island
Isl
sland
an Cape Arnhem T IMO R
Arnhem Princess Darwin
SE A
Land
Groote Eylandt Charlotte
G PACIFIC S EA Gulf PACIFIC
INDIAN Caapp LLondonderry
Cap
Cape
Ca ondond
oon
ndonder
errr y
er Gulf of Cape Bay R EA O C E A N INDIAN of
Carpentaria
T Carpentaria OCEAN
OCEAN Lake Argyle BAR
York
OCEAN
KL
BA
Cape Leveque Kimberley Y Peninsula CO RAL Cairns CO R A L SE A

TA
RR
B LE SEA
GR
Hinchinbrook
LA
IE
Tanami ND Island Broome No r t h e r n

R
Townsville
EA
Desert
RE
Whitsunday
T
Great Sandy Island Mount Isa

Port Hedland
EF
Te rri t o r y Mackay
D
D e se r t Qu e e nsl a nd
IV
North Lake Mackay

West Tropic of Capricorn Karratha
ID
Cape HA MACDONNELL RANGES

ME Mt Meharry 1249 m Alice Springs Emerald
Rockhampton
IN
RSL Lake Amadeus n

EY
RA Simpson of Capricor Gladstone
G
NG
E
Gibson Desert Uluru 868 m D e s e r t Fraser Island Tropic We st e r n Bundaberg
RA
Lake Yamma Yamma

Shark MUSGRAVE RANGES Sturt Stony Maryborough
Gympie Sunshine
NG
Bay Desert
Coast
Gre at Vi ct o r i a Kati Thanda (Lake Eyre) A u st r a l i a South Toowoomba Brisbane
E
Lake Austin Warwick Gold Coast

S
GE
D ese r t Cape Byron

Lake er Lismore
Lake Torrens Riv Geraldton
FLINDERS RAN
Lake
GE
NULLARBOR PLAIN Frome ing A u st r a l i a Armidale

Barlee Lake Gairdner rl Tamworth
N
Da Kalgoorlie–Boulder Broken Hill Port Macquarie

RA
Port Augusta New S o uth

Eyre Mu Whyalla Port Pirie Dubbo
Great Australian Peninsula
NG
rra Perth Great Australian Wa le s Newcastle

Bight y Rockingham Port Lincoln Bathurst
I
Mandurah Bight Mildura Sydney

ID
Cape Naturaliste V
DI
Lake
Busselton Bunbury Wagga Wagga ACT Wollongong
Point River
Cape Leeuwin Hood Kangaroo Alexandrina T Mt Kosciuszko 2228 m Adelaide
GR
EA Albany
Bendigo AlburyCanberra
LEGEND
Island
PACIFIC Ballarat V i ct o ri a
Height of the
Cape Howe LEGEND Mount Gambier Melbourne
PACIFIC
Depth of the Cape Otway OCEAN Country border
Geelong
land (metres) sea (metres)
King Island Bass Strait
Furneaux Group Bass Strait OCEAN
Cape Grim State/territory border
Mt Ossa Burnie Devonport
Tasmania State/territory name Launceston
Lake Pedder 1617 m TA S M A N Ta sma ni a
TA SM A N
20
10
50
25
10
0
De
0 pr
20
20
40
60
Country capital city Hobart SEA

00
00
0
0
0
0
00
00
00
South West Cape S E A

es
State/territory capital city

si
on
Mt Kosciuszko Other city/town 0 400 800 km

2228 m Mountain 0 400 800 km
Source GT.17 Source: Oxford Atlas Source GT.18 Source: Oxford Atlas
Dot distribution maps DOT DISTRIBUTION MAP OF AUSTRALIA SHOWING

POPULATION
Dot distribution maps use dots (or shapes) to
represent (and sometimes compare) a range of INDIAN Darwin PACIFIC
different features. The dots show the location of OCEAN OCEAN
the chosen feature. The size and colour of the dots
No r t h e r n
on the map can show different characteristics of Te rr ito r y
Townsville
that feature. For example, in GT.19, small towns Qu ee nsl a nd

ricorn
Tropic of Cap
are shown as small green dots and big cities are Wes ter n
shown as big red squares. Other dot distribution A u st r a l i a Sunshine
Coast
South Brisbane
maps show the location of a single feature, such A u st r a l i a
Gold
Coast
New S o u t h
as litter (see Source GT.51). Dot distribution maps Wa l e s
Perth Newcastle
Central Coast
help to show patterns and links between features – Sydney
Wollongong
Canberra
geographers refer to this as spatial distribution. LEGEND
Adelaide AC T
Number of people in
urban area Geelong V i cto r i a
Melbourne
Over 1 000 000
500 000 to 1 000 000
100 000 to 500 000 Ta s m a n i a
10 000 to 100 000 Hobart
1000 to 10 000 0 400 800 km
Source GT.19 Source: Oxford University Press

Flow maps Overlay maps
Flow maps show movement from one place to Overlay maps show how features on the Earth’s
another. Arrows of different thicknesses or colours are surface may be related to each other. To create
used to show where different things (such as people an overlay map you first need to produce a base
or goods) are moving to and from, and compare the map showing one feature (such as the location of
numbers involved in the movement. Australian rainforests) and then place a piece of
tracing paper or plastic sheet over this base map
FLOW MAP SHOWING THE FLOW OF TOURISTS WORLDWIDE showing the other feature you are investigating (such
ARCTIC OCEAN as areas with a moist tropical
a climate).
E U RO PE N O RT H
ASIA AMERICA
AT L A N T I C
PAC I F I C O C EA N
A F R IC A
OCEAN
SOUTH
AT L A NT I C
AMERICA
INDIAN
OC E A N
OCEAN AUSTRALIA
LEGEND
Tourist flows (millions of people)
Over 10 5 to 10 3 to 5 Under 3 0 2500 5000 km
Choropleth maps
Choropleth maps use different shades of the same
colour to give a quick impression of the pattern
formed by the data being shown. Darker shades show
the highest values or the greatest amounts, while
lighter shades show the lowest values or the least
amounts.
CHOROPLETH MAP SHOWING INTERNATIONAL TOURIST

ARRIVALS WORLDWIDE
ARCTIC OCEAN
E U RO PE N O RT H
ASIA AMERICA
AT L A N T I C
PAC I F I C O C E A N
O C EA N
A F R IC A
LEGEND
INDIAN International tourist SOUTH
arrivals (millions) AMERICA
AT L A NT I C OCEAN
Over 40.0
OCEAN AUSTRALIA
30.0 to 39.9
20.0 to 29.9
10.0 to 19.9
5.0 to 9.9
1.0 to 4.9
Under 1.0
0 2500 5000 km
No data available
Source GT.21 Source: Oxford Atlas Source GT.22 An overlay map showing the location of
Australian rainforests on a base map (top) and areas with a
moist tropical climate on an overlay (bottom)

More complex maps
Over the course of the year you will also be working with a number of other, more
complex maps. You won’t necessarily be creating these maps yourself, but you will be
learning how to make sense of the information they provide. These maps include:
Topographic maps Weather maps

Topographic maps show the shape of the land Weather maps show
(such as the shapes formed by valleys, hills and conditions in the
ridges) by using contour lines. Numbers on some atmosphere, such as air
of the contour lines show the height of the land pressure, wind speed
above sea level. The closer together the contour and wind direction.
lines are, the steeper the land. Symbols and colours They also show the size
are also used on topographic maps to show other and location of warm
natural features (such as forests, rivers and lakes) and cold fronts. Weather
Source GT.24 Weather maps
and built features (such as towns, roads and mines). maps are also known as feature in the nightly news on
The contour synoptic charts. They television
patterns of TOPOGRAPHIC MAP SHOWING A ROUND are most commonly seen
HILL, A VALLEY AND A RIDGE
three common on the nightly news.
LEGEND
features Contour line
(contour interval 100 metres)
are shown River
OCEAN
below the Thematic maps
topographic 100
Thematic maps show a particular theme or topic; for

map in Source 200
example, the distribution of resources (such as coal
GT.23. 300
and gas), the different types of forests around the
300
world, access to safe drinking water, or the types of
400
40
500
crops and animals farmed in Australia.
0
ridge
600
round hill
500
700
THEMATIC MAP OF AUSTRALIA SHOWING TYPES OF

vall
ey
ANIMALS AND CROPS GROWN
500
I ND I A N PACI F I C
400 600
0 100 200 m O C EA N O CE A N
500
Northern
Te rr i to r y
A ROUND HILL A VALLEY A RIDGE Q u ee ns l an d
pricorn
Tropic of Ca
We ste r n
A u st r al i a
South
A u st r al i a
N ew S outh
Wal es
5
1 0
1 00 ACT
20 50 0
250 300
0 30 20
25 0
0 LEGEND
25
0 150 V i ctoria
20 Beef cattle Fruit
0
100
150 200
15 Dairy cattle Vegetables

0
50 Sheep Grapes Tas m an ia
10
0
Wheat Sugar cane

50
0 400 800 km
Source GT.23 Source: Oxford University Press Source GT.25 Source: Oxford University Press

Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are a way of GIS combine satellite images, graphs and databases
creating, viewing, organising and analysing geographical to allow you to identify patterns and trends so that you
information with the use of a software application. GIS is can gain a better understanding of the world around
an exciting new development in the world of geography you. They allow you to turn different layers of data on
because it allows geographers to access and share an and off in order to isolate exactly what you are looking
incredible amount of data and look at the world in new for. You can even create and share your own maps, look
ways. GIS are made up of three elements: at 3-D models of areas and record video simulations,
• digital base maps known as flyovers.
• data that is layered over the base map (such as a GIS is already a part of many people’s everyday life.
chart, overlay or table) Governments, companies and individuals all around
• a software application or platform that links these the world use GIS. There are a number of GIS platforms
elements together and allows the user to interact available today, but one of the most commonly used
with all of this information. and free GIS is Google Earth.
Essential features of maps
BOLTSS
Regardless of the type of maps you are creating or Source GT.26 shows a map of Australia that is held
interpreting, all will share some common features. There together with BOLTSS.
are six features that ensure every map is drawn in a clear,
concise and accurate way. To help you remember these AUSTRALIA: INDIGENOUS LAND AND SITES, 2006
features, remember you can use a mnemonic (memory Murray Island
Injinoo
aid) that consists of the first letter of each of the features. Darwin Ubirr Malanganger Mapoon
PA C I F I C
Nawamoyn Nawalabila
Malakunanja
Together, these six letters make up the word BOLTSS: Kakadu
Barunga
Aurukun OCEAN
Hopevale
Laura
INDIAN Elim Aboriginal Mission
Wujal Wujal
Jinmium Mona Mona Mission
Kimberleys Ngarrabullgan
Yarrabah
OCEAN Cairns
B Border – an outline or box drawn around the map Beagle Bay Wave Hill Doomadgee Hull River
Broome Northern Palm Island
Noonkanbah
Territory Battle Mountain
Marie Yamba Aboriginal Mission
Flying Foam Massacre

Burrup Peninsula Coniston Queensland
O Orientation – an indication of direction, usually shown Gallery Hill

Hermannsburg Alice Springs
with a north arrow or compass rose Tropic of

Capricor
n
Western
Cleland Hills
Uluru
Titjikala Woorabinda
Carnarvon Ranges
Kenniff Cave
Carnarvon District
Pukatja
Australia Pipalyatjara Amata Umuwa Taroom Aboriginal Mission
Indulkana Cherbourg
Kaltjiti
Mimili
Wilga Mia Brisbane
L Legend – an explanation of the symbols, colours and South

Australia
Kati Thanda (Lake Eyre)
Cuddie Springs
patterns used on the map (also known as a key) Eneabba
Maralinga
Riv
er
Cobar
Waterloo Creek
Myall Creek
ng
Koonalda Cave Panaramitee New South

li
Moore River
ar
Wellington Valley Mission

D
Willandra Lakes
Eagles Reach
Perth Wales Hawkesbury
T Title – a heading that describes the map and what it is showing Murray Riv Lake Mungo
Point Pearce e Sydney
Pinjarra Moorundie r
Adelaide La Perouse
Kow Swamp ACT
Mount Pilot Canberra
Devils Lair Raukkan Commerangunja Mission
Ebenezer Mission Framlingham
LEGEND The Grampians Victoria
Mount William
Melbourne Coranderrk
Indigenous land Significant sites
Convincing Ground
S Scale – a way of indicating what distances on the map

0 250 500 750 km
Freehold
Leasehold
Archaeological
Art
Former government station or
Massacre Lake Condah
Wybalenna
represent in the real world. Scale can be shown in Reserve
National park
mission
Historical and cultural interest
Cape Grim
Marrawah
Preminghana
Massacre
Area less than 100 Tasmania
three different ways: as a written scale, a line scale or a square kilometres Settlement and former reserve
Kutikina Cave Hobart
Oyster Cove
ratio. Source GT.29 shows the three ways scale can be

Source: Oxford Atlas
represented on a map.
Source GT.26 A map of Australia showing all the features of BOLTSS
S Source – where the information used to create the map
came from. If these details are not known, simply write
‘Source: unknown’. If you have created the map from your
own data, simply write ‘Source: own map’ or ‘Source:
[add your name]’.

Direction This means that 1 centimetre on the scale model is
Direction must always be shown on maps because it equal to 35 centimetres on the real car. If 1 centimetre
enables the user to work out the location of features represents 35 centimetres, then 10 centimetres (the total
shown. Direction is shown on maps by the use of length of the model) represents a total length of 350
compass points. A compass is an instrument with a centimetres (or 3.5 metres) on the real car.
magnetised needle that will always point to the Earth’s
Scale on maps
magnetic field near the north pole (known as magnetic
Maps are scaled representations of real areas. These
north). The face of a compass shows a circle made up of
representations have been designed to fit on a piece of
360 degrees (see Source GT.27).
paper or on a computer screen. Maps look the same as
The four main directions on a compass are north,
the real areas they are representing, just reduced to a size
south, east and west. These are known as cardinal
you can work with. Scale on maps allows you to work out
points. Most maps are oriented to north. Once north has
the distances in the real world.
been established, you can find the other points of the
Look at the map of Tasmania (Source GT.29). In the
compass.
bottom left-hand corner it shows the three types of scale
Using compass points is an accurate way of giving
that can be used on maps and how they work:
directions because the compass always points to
• Written scale – A written scale tells you how much
magnetic north no matter which direction you are
a distance on the map represents on the ground.
facing.
The written scale on Source GT.29 is ‘1 centimetre
Compass bearings provide an even more precise way
on the map measures 30 kilometres on the ground’.
to give directions. A bearing is an angle that is measured
Using this information we can easily work out that
clockwise from magnetic north. The bearing of magnetic
5 centimetres on the map would be equal to 150
north can be either 0 degrees or 360 degrees, the bearing
kilometres on the ground, and so on.
of south is 180 degrees, the bearing of east is 90 degrees
• Line scale – A line scale is a numbered line that acts
and the bearing of west is 270 degrees. These bearings are
like a ruler. You can use it to measure distances on the
also shown in GT.27.
map. The Source GT.29 line scale shows 1 centimetre
north 0˚/360˚ is equal to 30 kilometres.
north-west 315˚ • Ratio scale – A ratio scale shows scale in numbers.
north-east 45˚
The ratio scale for Source GT.29 is 1:3 000 000, so
1 unit (that is, 1 centimetre) on the map represents
3 000 000 centimetres on the ground. Of course,
west 270˚ east 90˚ 3 000 000 centimetres is equal to 30 kilometres.
south-west
south-east
225˚
135˚
south 180˚
4 c e ntim e tre s
Source GT.27 A compass face showing cardinal

points and compass bearings
Scale
We use scale to shrink or increase real world
features so they will fit into a space. Model
1 0 c e ntime tre s
cars are scaled down in size and proportion
from real cars.
The model shown in GT.28 looks like the Source GT.28 This model car is thirty-five times smaller than the
real car, only smaller. It is a 1:35 scale model. real car. This is expressed as 1:35.

skilldrill
Using line scale to measure TASMANIA

distances LEGEND
Chappell Islands Strzelecki NP
Scale is a handy tool to help you study Major town Cape Barren Island
Hunter Island Three Hummock Island
the world around you from inside your Main road
Mountain Clarke Island
Ban
classroom. Look at Source GT.29. You Cape Grim Robbins Island
National park
ks
Stra
it
will notice that all the features on the Stanley
Smithton Port Latta
Bass Strait Mount William NP
map have been shrunk by the same West Marrawah Rocky Cape NP
Point Wynyard Gladstone
amount so that they fit on the page. Arthur
Roger River Asbestos Range NP
George Town
Bridport
Burnie Penguin Herrick
Riv
Scottsdale
You can use the line scale to Ulverstone Devonport Bell Bay
er
Derby
Ta
Beaconsfield
m
measure the distance between two
ar
Savage River NP St Helens
Riv
rth
Sheffield
points ‘as the crow flies’ (that is, in a Waratah
er
Mathinna
Fo
Savage River Launceston Scamander
Deloraine Westbury Ben Lomond NP
straight line) by following these steps:
River
Mole Creek Evandale St Marys
Cradle Valley Longford
Pie
So Rossarden
T a s m a n i a
er
Cradle Mountain
Step 1 Place the straight edge of a M u
Fingal
ma
Riv
er 1420 m ac th k Douglas–Apsley NP
Riv Es
n
Rosebery Poatina qu Maclean
sheet of paper over the points you Cradle Mountain– Mt Ossa 1617 m Great ar
i e Conara Bay
Zeehan Lake St Clair NP Lake
Walls of Jerusalem Campbell Town Bicheno
wish to measure. NP Arthurs Lake
er
Miena
Riv
Ross
Queenstown Lake St Clair Lake
Step 2 Mark the starting and finishing Sorell
Riv
Strahan Derwent Bridge Swansea Coles Bay
g
INDIAN Kin
er
li n Lake
points on the paper. Frank er Echo Great
Macquarie Riv Oyster Freycinet
Harbour Oatlands NP
Bay
Step 3 Hold the edge of the paper OCEAN
D
Franklin–Gordon erw Bothwell Schouten Island
Wild Rivers NP en
Go
Ouse
against the line scale to work out the t Melton Mowbray Triabunna
rdo
Hamilton Orford
Mount
real distance between the two points. n Lake Field Maria Island NP
Riv
Riv GordonNP Maria Island
Bridgewater
er
er
Strathgordon Richmond
Apply the skill New Norfolk Sorell Marion Bay
Mt Wellington 1269 m Hobart
1 Use Sources GT.29 and GT.30 to Lake
River Kingston Tasman NP
Huonville Eaglehawk Neck
Pedder Huon Franklin
answer the following questions: Snug
Geeveston Cygnet Storm Port Arthur
Bay
a How far is it from the peak of Southwest NP Hartz Mountains
NP North Bruny Tasman Peninsula
Dover
Cradle Mountain to the centre of Port Davey Bathurst
Harbour Hastings South Bruny NP
Hobart as the crow flies? TA S M A N
0 30 60 90 km South Bruny
South West SEA
b How far is it from Devonport in SCALE 1 : 3 000 000 Cape
South East Cape
One centimetre on the map measures
the state’s north to Queenstown 30 kilometres on the ground.
in the west as the crow flies? Source GT.29 Source: Oxford Atlas
c How long is Lake Gordon from
north to south?
d How wide is the state of Tasmania
at its widest point?
Source GT.30 Measuring straight

distances on a map using a sheet
of paper

Comparing map scales
Maps are often shown at different scales depending on the amount of detail they need
to show. Source GT.31 shows three maps at different scales:
• Map 1 is a large-scale map. It shows a large amount of detail but only a small area.
You can see the city area (in pink) and Lake Burley Griffin.
• Map 2 is a medium-scale map. It shows a medium amount of detail and a medium
area. You can see the whole of the Australian Capital Territory (ACT).
• Map 3 is a small-scale map. It shows a small amount of detail but a large area. You
can only just see the border of the ACT.
ACT AND EASTERN AUSTRALIA

R
A
Lake
R
3
k
T
1 2
George
Ngunnawal
ee
E
Cr
k
Ngunnawal
ee
Cr
Hall a Hall E
err
a
err
ind Palmerston
D
ind Palmerston uth Wales
orgin
Ginninderra Ginn
s Ginninderra Ginn
F
I
Mitchell
a Riv
Belconnen
V
r
LLake
La
ake Gin
Ginninderra
nn
Mitchell
ve
er
Mt Majura
Ri
I
“Uriarra Crossing” M 888 m
Belconnen
olo Mt Painter
D
ng 743 m
tina
Lake Ginninderra
lo
Black Mountain 812 m Canberra
Mt Ainslie 843 m
Tropicc of
I
man
Mt Majura Lake Burley Griffin “Kowen”
Riv
N
er
888 m Capital Hill
Dia
“Uriarra Crossing”M Mt Coree 1421 m Mt Stromlo Kingston
olo Observatory on
G
ng Mt Painter Narrabundah
743 m Woden r t
M
lo Weston Valley
ur
Mt Ainslie 843 m
River
ru
Creek Queanbeyan FFras

rass
m
bidd
River
Black Mountain 812 m Canberra Watson
R
ge
e
Kambah Hume Jerrabomberra

Paddys
Lake Burley Griffin
A
Riv
Riv
Wanniassa
i eer
er
Capital Hill
N
Gilmore
m Canberra Deep Space
Cotter
Communications Centre Tuggeranong

Kingston “Tidbinbilla”
Calwell
G E
Tidbinbilla Peak
Narrabundah Bendora 1562 m
Dam
Conder
Woden Australian
M
Weston Valley
ur
Mt Franklin 1646 m “Lanyon”

River
ru
Queanb Cape
Creek
m
Tharwa Royalla
bid
Capital
BRINDAB
Watson
ge
E
e
Mt Tennent
Kambah Hume Jerrabomberra Corin Dam er
ELLA
1383 m
Riv
N G
s
Macq
Paddy
Mt Gingera
Te r r i t o r y Williamsdale Lake
Frome
uarie
g
1857 m Honeysuckle Creek
Rive Wanniassa
rlin
r
R A
“Naas”
RANGE
Da
Cotter
Namadgi River
Or
Gilmore
ror
a
by
l
National
Gudgen
Tuggeranong Orroral
New South Wales
River
River
Rive
dbinbilla” Park River
G
Calwell Bimberi Peak
r
1912 m n
chla
N GE
Re
IN
inbilla Peak
nd
Glendale Mu La
ez
2m
vou
Mt Murray Crossing rra

N as
Na
y Murrumbidg
S
s
ID
1845 m Boyle 1791 m
Conder ee
stralian “Lanyon”
Mt Kelly 1829 m Cree
Cre
ek
k
River
IV PA
D
RANGE
n g River
go
Bo T
Tharwa Royalla E A
R
Riv
ivveerr
Capital Na
as G R Mt Kosciuszko
2228 m OC
Cr
ee
m Mt Tennent k
1383 m
R
EA
CL
erritory 0 5 10 km
“Mt Clear” Mt Clear 1603 m
0 10 20 km
Cape Otway
Bass Strait 0 250 500 km
King Island Furneaux
Large-scale maps show detailed Small-scale maps show general

information about a small area. information about a large area.
Remember:
• Large-scale maps show a large amount of detail, but a small area.
• Small-scale maps show a small amount of detail, but a large area.

Locating places on maps Grid and area referencing
Maps are used for many different purposes, but the most commonly Alphanumeric grid referencing
used maps help us to find things we are looking for. These maps are In maps that use alphanumeric grid
often overlaid with a set of lines that form a grid. These gridlines divide referencing the spaces between gridlines
the map into smaller areas and help us fi nd places more easily. There are labelled with letters and numbers. The
are a number of ways in which you can locate things on maps and a letters appear along the bottom (or top and
number of methods you can use to help other people find these places. bottom) of the map while the numbers
Some of these methods will give you a general idea of where something appear down the left-hand side (or both
is, while others can help you pinpoint the exact location of something. sides) of the map. For example, in Source
GT.32 the grid reference for the Paradise
Centre is J6.
SURFERS PARADISE STREET MAP
Area referencing (AR)
16
The area referencing (AR) method is used
on topographic maps that have gridlines.
15
Each line is given a two-digit number. The
14 lines that run up and down the map are
known as eastings (because the numbers
13 increase as you move east). The lines
that run across the map are known as
12 northings (because the numbers increase
as you move north). A four-figure area
11 reference will pinpoint the bottom left-
hand corner of the grid square in which
10
you will find the feature. The eastings are
given first then the northings. For example,
9
in GT.33 the park is located in AR2813.
8 Six-figure grid referencing (GR)
Six-figure grid references (GR) help locate
7
exact points on a topographic map. The
6 area between each easting is divided into
ten further parts (tenths), as is the area
5 between each northing. This is just like
adding a finer set of gridlines over the
4 existing gridlines allowing you to be very
specific about where things are within
3 each grid square. As with area referencing,
the eastings are given first then the
2
northings. The difference is that one more
1 figure is added to the easting and one
more figure is added to the northing. This
makes six figures in total. For example, in
A B C D E F G H I J K L
GT.33 the hospital is located at GR297156.
Source GT.32 Source: Brisway

TOPOGRAPHIC MAP EXTRACT SHOWING AR AND GR
Remember:
• Latitude – think ‘lat is flat’.
16
6 • Longitude – think ‘long is long’.
15
LEGEND
14 Creating graphic representations
Road
River In addition to maps, geographers use a range of other
13 Contour line visual representations to communicate information they
Park
have collected. These include:
Hospital
12
26 27 28 29 7 30 31 • Tables – These allow geographers to present and
compare data by organising it under different
Source GT.33 Source: Oxford Atlas Project 3
headings (see Source GT.36).
• Diagrams – These allow geographers to show the
Latitude and longitude features or characteristics of some places or things
much more effectively than describing them in words.
Maps that show large areas of the Earth’s surface (such as
Certain interesting or complex processes can also be
world maps) use a set of imaginary lines that form a grid.
more easily explained and demonstrated with the help
These gridlines, known as latitude and longitude, help
of sketches, flow charts or illustrations (see Source
us to locate places accurately.
GT.34 and Source GT.35).
Lines that run from east to west are known as lines (or
• Graphs – These allow geographers to compare data
parallels) of latitude. Lines that run from north to south
and present it in an interesting and attractive way.
are known as lines (or meridians) of longitude. Each of
There are a number of different types of graphs used
the lines is separated by degrees rather than distance
by geographers for different purposes. The most
because the world is round, not flat.
common of these are explained on the following
The line of latitude midway between the north
pages.
pole (90 degrees north) and south pole (90 degrees
south) is known as the Equator, which is located at 0 Source GT.36 A table showing the populations of Australian states
degrees latitude. It divides the Earth into the northern and territories in 2011
hemisphere and southern hemisphere.
State/Territory Population Percentage
Lines of latitude are measured in degrees north and of Australia’s
south of the Equator. population
Lines of longitude are measured east and west of the New South Wales 7 317 500 32.3
Greenwich meridian (also known as the Prime Meridian),
Victoria 5 640 900 24.8
which is located at 0 degrees longitude.
Queensland 4 599 400 20.3
North Pole Western Australia 2 366 900 10.4

North Pole
75°N
5 N South Australia 1 659 800 7.3
60°N
0 N
45°N
N Tasmania 511 000 2.3
•G
Greenwich
ee wi
30°N
N
Australian Capital Territory 366 900 1.6
75°W
15°N
N
0°W
60°W
75°E
Equattor
45°W
60°E
Northern Territory 231 200 1.0

30°W
75
45°E
15°W
30°E
0°
15°E
0°
15°S
S Australia 22 693 600 100.0
30°S
S
45°S
S
60°S
S
75°S
5 S
Source GT.34 Lines (or Source GT.35 Lines (or

parallels) of latitude meridians) of longitude

Simple graphs
Column graphs
Graphs are one of the most effective graphical
Column graphs are similar to bar graphs, but they
representations when it comes to showing numerical (or
show information as a series of vertical columns that
quantitative) data. Some kinds of graphs are simple, while
are arranged side by side. They are also usually used
others are more complex. This year you will be learning
to compare quantities.
how to create a number of different types of graphs and
interpreting the information that they provide. Some of
250
these graphs are described below.
Settler arrivals (thousands)

200
Line graphs 150

Line graphs show information as a series of points
100
that are joined up to form a line. The line shows a
trend or change over time. The horizontal axis (x)
50
will usually show units of time and the vertical axis
(y) will usually show amounts. 0
United Kingdom
Germany
Italy
Netherlands
Malta
New Zealand
Greece
USA
Egypt
Poland
24 000
22 000
Population (thousands)
20 000
18 000
16 000
14 000
12 000 Country
10 000
8000 Source GT.39 A column graph showing top ten countries
6000 of settler arrivals in Australia, 2010–11
4000
2000
0
Pie graphs
1918
1828
1898
1848
1928
2008
1838
1938
1858
1978
1998
1888
1958
1868
1968
1908
1948
1878
1988
Before
European
settlement
Year Pie graphs are shaped like a circle and are divided up so
Source GT.37 A line graph showing the increase in Australia’s that the information being shown represents the slices
population, 1828–2011 of a pie. The circle of 360 degrees represents 100 per
cent and each of the slices is a percentage of that. The
slices of the pie are organised from largest to smallest in
Bar graphs a clockwise direction starting from 12 o’clock.
Bar graphs show information as a series of bars that
run in a horizontal direction and are stacked one on State and territory populations
(% of Australia’s population)
top of the other. They are usually used to compare
Australian Capital Territory 1.6%
quantities. Northern Territory 1.0%
Tasmania 2.3%
South Australia 7.3%
Taiwan
Italy Western
Country of origin
Australia
Germany 10.4%
France
China
Thailand New South Wales
32.3%
India
South Korea
Queensland
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 20.3% Victoria 24.8%
Average number of nights

Source GT.40 A pie graph showing state and territory
Source GT.38 A bar graph showing average number of nights
populations as a percentage of Australia’s total population, 2011
spent in Australia by tourists from different countries, 2009

More complex graphs
Population pyramids
Over the course of the year you will also be working
Population pyramids are bar graphs that show
with a number of other, more complex graphs. You won’t
the percentage of males and females in different
necessarily be creating these yourself, but you will be
age groups in a population. They help geographers
learning how to make sense of the information they
identify trends in population growth in a country.
provide. Some of these graphs are described below.
Population pyramids are organised so that younger
age groups are at the bottom and older age groups are
Climate graphs at the top. Percentages of males are placed on the
Climate graphs show the average monthly left-hand side and percentages of females are placed
temperature and rainfall for a place over a year. on the right-hand side.
Climate graphs combine line and column graphs.
Temperature is recorded as a line graph and rainfall is Male Age (years) Female
80+
recorded as a column graph. 75–79
70–74
°C Perth mm 65–69
60–64
50 500 55–59 Source GT.43 A
Average temperature (°C)
50–54
45–49 population pyramid for
Average rainfall (mm)
40 400 40–44 Australia in 2009. From it

35–39
30–34 you can see, for example,
30 300 Source GT.41 A
25–29 that there are more
climate graph showing 20–24
15–19
females than males over
20 200 the average monthly
10–14 the age of 80
temperature and rainfall 5–9
10 100 in Perth 0–4
6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 0 Percentage of the total population

J F MA M J J A S ON D
Month

Compound column graphs
Compound column graphs are a more complex type
1 Give two examples of primary data and two examples
of column graph in which each column is split into
of secondary data. What is the main difference
sections so results can be more easily compared.
between these two types of data?
2 What is a map?
10 000
3 What does BOLTSS stand for?
8000
Apply and analyse
Population (millions)
6000 4 Look carefully at Source GT.29 and answer the

following questions:
4000 a What is the scale of the map? Give your answer in
the form of a ratio.
2000
b If you were flying from Marrawah to Port Arthur in
which direction would you be travelling?
0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
Evaluate and create
Year
5 On a piece of graph paper, draw a simple map of
KEY Oceania North America
South America
and Caribbean your bedroom. Be sure to include all the furniture (for
Europe Asia Africa example, your bed and desk) in the correct location
and to the correct scale. Make sure it has BOLTSS.
Source GT.42 A compound column graph showing the 6 Look at Source GT.37 and construct a bar or column
increase in world population by region, 1950–2050
graph to represent this data graphically.

Interpreting, analysing and Quantifying involves using statistics, amounts, sizes and
locations to give specific details. For example, rather than
concluding just saying ‘Most mountains run along the coast in the
east,’ you would need to quantify this statement. You
Use methods to identify trends, patterns might instead say ‘A mountain range known as the Great
and relationships in geographical data and Dividing Range extends more than 3500 kilometres
draw conclusions along the eastern cost of Australia from Queensland to
Victoria. It is the third longest mountain range in the
Once you have collected, recorded, evaluated and world.’
represented your data, it is time to identify any trends,
patterns or relationships in the information. You will Exceptions (E)
have used questionnaires and surveys to gather visitor In this step, you need to identify anything that does not fit
statistics, drawn sketches and diagrams, created graphs your patterns.
and tables and taken photographs (all of which are Often you may find that there are things in your data
primary data). You will also have collected information that do not fit into a pattern you have identified. These
from various other sources, such as textbooks, websites, are called exceptions. They also need to be identified
GIS and atlases (all of which are secondary data). Now it and quantified. For example, you might say ‘There are
is time to look at this information, identify any possible a number of other mountain ranges that are not on the
links and relationships and draw conclusions. east coast. These include the Flinders Ranges in South
There are a number of methods that geographers use Australia and the MacDonnell Ranges in the Northern
to help them during this stage of their inquiries. These Territory.’
include the:
• PQE method Using the SHEEPT method
• SHEEPT method. SHEEPT is a tool used by geographers to help them
consider the many factors that may contribute to
Using the PQE method the patterns identified in their data. When you are
PQE is a tool used by geographers to analyse the data examining issues related to your inquiry, it is useful to
they have gathered (such as maps, tables, graphs and think about them in terms of these six factors and rank
diagrams) and reach conclusions. The letters PQE stand them in order of importance. This will help you reach
for pattern, quantify and exceptions. your conclusions. The letters SHEEPT stand for:
• social (S) – factors relating to culture and people
Pattern (P)
• historical (H) – factors relating to past events
In this step, you need to give a general overview of any
• environmental (E) – factors relating to the natural
patterns you may identify.
environment (including climate, landforms and
When looking at any form of data, look for things that vegetation)
stand out or form patterns. A pattern may be a group
• economic (E) – factors relating to the earning or
of similar features on a diagram, a concentration of a
spending of money (including income earned from
particular colour or feature on a map, or a particular
industry and tourism and the cost of building a dam
shape that is created by data on a column graph. For
or highway)
example, when looking at a physical map of Australia
• political (P) – factors relating to governments
(see Source GT.44) you might say, ‘Most mountains run
(including laws, regulations and policies)
along the coast in the east.’
• technological (T) – factors relating to the availability
Quantify (Q) and use of different types of technology (including
In this step, you need to add specific and accurate the development of greener technologies, alternative
information to define and explain the patterns. energy sources and GIS).

PHYSICAL MAP OF AUSTRALIA SHOWING OCEANS AND MAJOR MOUNTAIN RANGES, RIVERS, LAKES AND DESERTS
Melville Cape York

Bali Sumba
Sumb
mbba
ba Timor Island
Rotiti
Rot Bathurst
B hur
Bat u st
TIMOR
TIMO
T R Isl
sland
an
Island Cape Arnhem
Arnhem Princess
SEA
SE A
Land
Groote Eylandt Charlotte
G PACIFIC
INDIAN Cape
C
Cap
aappe Londonderry
Lond
Lo
ondond
on ond
nder
eerrr y Gulf of Cape Bay RE
Carpentaria AT O C E A N
OCEAN Lake Argyle BAR
York
KL
BA
Cape Leveque Kimberley Y Peninsula CORAL
TA
RR
B LE SEA
GR
Hinchinbrook
LA
IE
Tanami ND Island
R
EA
Desert
RE
Whitsunday
T
Great Sandy Island
EF
D
Desert
IV
North Lake Mackay
West Tropic of Capricorn
ID
Cape HA MACDONNELL RANGES
ME Mt Meharry 1249 m
IN
RSL Lake Amadeus
EY Simpson
RA
G
NG Gibson Desert Uluru 868 m Desert
E Fraser Island
RA
Lake Yamma Yamma
Shark MUSGRAVE RANGES Sturt Stony
NG
Bay Desert
Great Victoria Kati Thanda (Lake Eyre)
E
Lake Austin
S
Cape Byron
GE
Desert er
Lake Torrens Lake Riv
FLINDERS RAN
Lake
GE
NULLARBOR PLAIN Frome ing
Barlee Lake Gairdner rl
N
Da
RA
Eyre Mu
Great Australian Peninsula
NG
rra
y
Bight
I
ID
Cape Naturaliste V
DI
Point Lake River
Cape Leeuwin Hood Kangaroo Alexandrina
AT Mt Kosciuszko 2228 m
Island
G RE PACIFIC
LEGEND
Cape Howe
Height of the
land (metres)
Depth of the Cape Otway OCEAN
sea (metres)
King Island Bass Strait
Furneaux Group
Cape Grim
Mt Ossa
Lake Pedder 1617 m TA S M A N
20
10
50
25
10
0
De
0 pr
20
20
40
60
00
00
0
0
0
0
00
00
00
South West Cape S E A

es
si
on
Mt Kosciuszko
2228 m Mountain 0 400 800 km
Source GT.44 Source: Oxford Atlas

Remember and understand Evaluate and create
1 What do the letters PQE stand for? 5 Conduct your own Internet research on the way in which
2 What do the letters in SHEEPT stand for? Uluru is managed and use the SHEEPT method to think
3 How can the PQE and SHEEPT methods assist us to more closely about the factors that impact on Uluru.
identify trends, patterns and relationships in geographical a List at least one point for each of the SHEEPT factors.
data and draw conclusions? b What conclusion(s) can you make about the way in
which Uluru is managed?
Apply and analyse
6 Create a colourful and informative pictogram (by adding
4 Look at Source GT.44. Use the PQE method to think an image or picture to each of the letters in the word
about Australia’s lakes. SHEEPT) to help you and your classmates remember
a Can you identify a pattern? what each of the letters in SHEEPT stands for.
b Can you quantify this pattern?
c Are there any exceptions to this pattern?

Communicating skilldrill
Present conclusions using a
range of communication forms
Creating an annotated visual display (AVD)
and digital technologies One of the most popular ways of presenting and communicating the findings
of a geographical inquiry is to construct an annotated visual display (AVD).
Geographers use a wide range of methods
An AVD combines written text with visual images (such as photographs) and
to inform other people about what other graphic representations (such as maps, graphs, tables, sketches and
they have found over the course of a diagrams).
geographical inquiry. After carefully To create a successful AVD there are a few steps to follow:
considering their audience and the
purpose of the inquiry they may choose Step 1 Gather your data
to communicate their conclusions in Make sure that you have collected all the pieces of information and data
a number of different ways. Some of that you have found and/or created throughout your inquiry. Print your
the methods that geographers use to photographs, tidy up your sketches and process any data that you have
communicate their findings include: collected. Tables of raw data are usually much more effective when they are
• written methods, such as essays or made into graphs (for example, bar graphs or pie graphs). Ensure that all
your maps, including sketch maps, have BOLTSS. Each resource (such as a
reports
graph, map, sketch, photograph, cross-section or written explanation) must
• oral forms, such as oral reports,
also have a title and, in the case of photographs, a caption.
presentations, discussions and debates
• graphic forms, such as maps, graphs, Step 2 Organise your results
and diagrams On a large sheet of poster paper, lay out all your information and data. All
• visual forms, such as annotated written descriptions and answers should be typed, or neatly printed, on
visual displays (AVDs), photographs, separate sheets of white paper, not written directly onto the poster paper.
sketches, satellite images and posters This will allow you to arrange them on the poster paper in the most logical
and relevant way before you glue them down. The key inquiry question that
• digital forms, such as Wikis,
began your geographical inquiry may guide your final layout. In the following
Geographic Information Systems (GIS),
example, the focus question, ‘Is it a good thing that so many tourists visit
databases, 3-D models and simulations,
Uluru?’, suggests that there will be three main parts to the AVD:
and multimedia presentations.
• information about Uluru and its physical features
• tourist statistics and other data that show the effects that visitors are
having on Uluru and its surroundings
• an analysis of the data. A conclusion that answers the key inquiry
question.
Step 3 Present your results

When you are happy with your layout, design a main heading and other
smaller headings. Don’t forget to write your name in small, neat letters next
to the heading or at the bottom of the AVD. Use glue to stick your resources
onto your AVD. You may like to draw borders around some information.
Step 4 Acknowledge your sources

If you have used books or other resources (such as websites) these need to
be acknowledged in a bibliography or list of references. This can be stuck
on the back of your AVD.

All diagrams,
sketches, Is it a good thing that so many tourists visit Uluru?
photographs
and graphs Make the
NATURAL PROCESSES
must have a heading
heading and EROSION stand out
a caption TOURISM AT
ULURU
Legend
Conglomerate
Arkose
Folded Proterzoic sedimentary rocks
Igneous and metamorphic rocks
Palaeozoic rocks
Alluvial sediments
EROSION OF ULURU LOCATION MAP
The side of Uluru Cold nights and hot

is eroding days can crack the
rock
Always include
a location map;
remember
BOLTSS
Water running
down the side
wears rock away
Name:
A simple sketch Lists may be better

can break up lots than long paragraphs
of writing
Source GT.45 An annotated visual display (AVD)

Natural processes illustration © Director of National Parks (Parks Australia) www.parksaustralia.gov.au
Apply the skill

1 Imagine that your class is exploring the Great Barrier Internet, books, magazines or from your own
Reef as a geographic inquiry with a particular focus on personal experience. You should try to find about
the impact of tourism on this natural environment. three or four images and some writing, such as a
a Discuss with a partner some geographic questions newspaper article.
about this place. d Work with your partner to design your AVD on a
b Select one of these questions that could be used piece of A3-sized paper.
to complete an AVD. e Complete your AVD by following steps 3 and 4 of
c Gather some data in response to this question. the skill drill.
There is no need to explore this topic in great f Display your AVD on the classroom wall and
depth, but just to practice your communication compare it with those of your classmates.
skills. Your data could be sourced from the

Use correct geographical terminology
Just like scientists, geographers share a common language. They use geographical
terminology to clarify what they are talking about and to share their findings.
Source GT.46 lists and defines some commonly used geographical terms; additional
geographical terms can also be found in the glossary at the end of this book.
Source GT.46 Some useful geographical terms
Term Definition
BOLTSS The six essential features that should be included on every map: border, orientation, legend, title, scale and source
direction A way of orienting a map, usually shown by the use of compass points, such as north
distance The amount of space between two objects or places, generally measured by using the scale on a map
distribution The way in which things are arranged on the Earth’s surface; the pattern formed by the way objects or places are
distributed across a space
exception A feature that falls outside a usual pattern or does not follow an observed pattern
geographical inquiry The stages that geographers follow to guide their investigations
key inquiry question A question that helps geographers to plan and focus their geographical inquiries
primary data Data collected for a geographical inquiry by a person conducting an inquiry, such as survey data, hand-drawn maps or
photographs
region An area of the Earth’s surface with a feature that makes it different from surrounding areas
scale A line that indicates the distances on a map as represented in the real world
secondary data Data collected for a geographical inquiry from another source, such as textbooks, atlases and government websites
spatial pattern The distribution of features on the Earth’s surface that may form particular patterns, such as linear (in lines), clustered or
radial (like spokes on a wheel)
trend A general direction in which something is developing or changing (e.g. the trend in population in Australia is positive
because the population is growing)

Remember and understand 6 Which form (such as written, oral, graphic, visual or
1 What do the letters AVD stand for? digital) do you think would be most appropriate for
presenting the findings of a geographical inquiry into
2 Make a list of the things you need to gather before
tourism at Uluru? Why?
creating an AVD.
3 Why is it important to spend time on the layout of the written Evaluate and create
and visual information that will be shown on your AVD? 7 Your geography class has been asked by the principal
Apply and analyse to complete a geographical inquiry into the issue of
recycling at your school. The principal hopes that by
4 Do you think an AVD is an effective way to communicate
raising awareness of recycling, the school community
the findings of a geographical inquiry? Why or why not?
may be willing to change their behaviour and make the
5 As part of a geographical inquiry looking at the key
school more sustainable. Conduct a class discussion on
question ‘Is it a good thing that so many tourists visit the most effective way to conduct the inquiry. At the end
Uluru?’ your teacher has asked you to take part in a of your discussion, make a decision about the best way
class debate. List three points for the affirmative and in which your findings could be presented to the whole
three points for the negative. Which side would you school in order to convince them to participate.
rather be on? Why?

Reflecting and responding Justify possible methods of response
After reflecting on what you have learnt, you may
Reflect on what you have learned discover that action is needed in order to respond to the
The final stage of a geographical inquiry is to reflect on issue you have been investigating. There are a number of
what you have learned and decide whether any action different ways that geographers can take action to make a
needs to be taken. Reflecting involves not only looking at change. These include:
what you have learned but also how it has been learned. • creating a fact sheet or multimedia presentation about
It involves asking critical questions about the way in the issue to inform your class, school or community
which your geographical inquiry was conducted and • using social media to raise awareness and gather support
your role in it. One of the best ways to reflect on your • emailing your local government representative or
progress is to complete a self-evaluation checklist rating Member of Parliament about the issue
your performance at each stage and adding comments. • inviting an expert speaker to present at your school
assembly
Source GT.47 A • planning a campaign to raise money for the issue.
geographical inquiry
found that cigarette butts Our geographical inquiry into Uluru based around the key
were a leading cause inquiry question ‘Is it a good thing that so many tourists
of litter at Uluru. One of visit Uluru?’ may lead us to actively campaign for tourism
the responses was the
introduction of personal at Uluru to be managed in a more sustainable way so
ashtrays. These ashtrays that this important landmark can be enjoyed by future
are available from the generations. In particular, one of the negative effects
Cultural Centre and carry
the logo ‘Don’t let the discovered in the inquiry was litter, and a good example
ranger see your butt’. Park of a campaign to combat this is shown in Source GT.47.
authorities reduced the
number of butts littering
the area and believe this
has also reduced the risk
of bushfires.
1 Name two ways in which you could
The title of my geographical inquiry is:
‘reflect’ on what you have learnt
My geographical inquiry set out to investigate:
GENERAL POINTS My rating Comments throughout a geographical inquiry.
I was able to complete all stages of my geographical 1 2 3 4 5 2 Give two reasons why it is important
inquiry
to be able to self-evaluate your work.
I was able to answer all my key inquiry questions 1 2 3 4 5
I was able to plan my inquiry effectively 1 2 3 4 5 Apply and analyse
My maps, graphs, tables and diagrams were clear and 1 2 3 4 5
accurate 3 Which do you think are the two most
I was able to analyse my data and reach a conclusion 1 2 3 4 5 important questions to ask yourself in
I was able to communicate my findings in an interesting 1 2 3 4 5 the self-evaluation checklist? Why?
and appropriate way
AREAS OF STRENGTH Comments Evaluate and create
My areas of strength are:
I’m getting much better at:
4 The completed self-evaluation
AREAS NEEDING IMPROVEMENT Comments checklist can look very different
The part I found most difficult was: depending on what you are
I need the most help with: investigating. Are there any areas that
IMPORTANT ISSUES HIGHLIGHTED BY MY INQUIRY Comments
you think could be improved in GT.48?
The most important thing I learned from my inquiry was:
This issue is important to me because: What questions could be changed or
This issue is important to my community/country/world added so that you could improve on
because: the reflection process?
Source GT.48 A self-evaluation checklist

GT.3 Fieldwork
in geography
What is fieldwork?
Fieldwork is any geographical study that takes place
outside the classroom or, as geographers say, ‘in the field’.
The ‘field’ is the source of geographical information
(primary data). It can be conducted at a number of scales
– in your school grounds, within your local community,
in another state or even in another country. Fieldwork
is an essential part of geography because the world
outside the classroom is the geographer’s ‘laboratory’.
Working in the field provides opportunities for fi rst-hand
investigation of both natural and built environments.
Fieldwork provides an opportunity to develop skills
associated with observing, measuring and recording.
Different forms of geographical data can be collected and
then analysed to find relationships between the natural
and human environments. The results of a fieldwork
investigation are presented and communicated in a
fieldwork report.
Fieldwork also involves identifying issues or problems
and finding possible solutions. It is a way to engage with
the real world and make a contribution to developing more
sustainable and fair ways to manage the Earth’s resources.
Fieldwork often looks at a key feature, issue or conflict.
For example, many tourists visit Uluru each year with
the intention of climbing ‘The Rock.’ In doing so, they
ignore the wishes of the traditional owners of the land,
the Anangu people (See Source GT.49). They also put
themselves and others at risk. About thirty-five people
have died while climbing Uluru and countless others
have been injured or rescued. Geography students
visiting Uluru may try to find out why people continue
to climb it, and study the impacts of this activity on
people and the natural environment.
Source GT.49 Every tourist that climbs Uluru must pass a sign
asking them not to climb the rock out of respect for the traditional
owners, the Anangu.

Different types of fieldwork
Most topics you learn about in class can also be studied
during fieldwork. The types of fieldwork you conduct will
differ according to your topic and the places you visit,
but all these activities will help you to better understand
your world. Source GT.50 provides examples of fieldwork
locations and activities for a range of topics.
Source GT.50 Examples of fieldwork locations and activities for a

range of topics
Topic Possible location Sample fieldwork

activity
Water in our Local river or stream Water sampling
environment
Water as a resource Water treatment Taking geographical

plant, desalination photographs
plant or dam
Growing cities Edge of a large city Observing and

describing
Changing cities Urban renewal Land use mapping

project
Coastal landscapes Local beach Sketching a cross-

section
Landscape hazards Local beach Field sketching
Global links Shopping centre Using a

questionnaire
Communities Local area, including Street surveying

houses and shops
Food security Farming area Asking questions
Endangered Zoo Comparing

environments and environments
animals
Conducting successful fieldwork

Fieldwork is a type of geographical inquiry, so whenever
you take part in fieldwork you will need to follow the
stages that are outlined in this toolkit, namely:
1 Observing, questioning and planning
2 Collecting, recording, evaluating and representing
3 Interpreting, analysing and concluding
4 Communicating
5 Reflecting and responding.
The first stage is vital as this gives you a focus for your
fieldwork. It also allows you to make a judgement about
whether your fieldwork investigation has been successful.

Stage 1: Observing, questioning and A fieldwork example: Gumtree
planning
College litter investigation
Begin by looking at an issue or location and compile a
In the following example, a Year 7 geography class at
set of related inquiry questions that you would like to
Gumtree College (7G) decided to conduct fieldwork to
answer. Plan what information you will need and how
explore a problem in their school – litter. As a class, they
you will collect it.
followed a process of inquiry to understand the issue and
Stage 2: Collecting, recording, try to resolve it.
evaluating and representing
Plan your fieldwork so that you can collect Gillard Street
the evidence and data that you will need. Main gate
For example, take photos, draw sketches, Information
Resources
conduct tests, construct questionnaires and Administration and Creative Learning
surveys. You will then need to use this data
to create graphs and maps for analysis. You
Rose garden
may also need to consider members of the
public, including Indigenous people and
Humanities Building
their beliefs and feelings about places in
the landscape. If your class is planning a
field trip to a natural environment, such as
Year 7 Learning Centre

Science Building
Mathematics Building
a forest or beach, you will need to ensure
you do not damage the environment by
Toilets
trampling on plants or animals or by
Canteen
Abbott Street
dropping litter.
Stage 3: Interpreting, analysing

and concluding Creative Arts Shade
Interpret and analyse the data you have
collected and look for patterns or clues that
will help you to answer your key inquiry
question and come to a conclusion. There Visitor carpark
are a number of different tools and methods Cricket
Abbott Gymnasium
you can use to do this, including PQE and Street nets
SHEEPT. Gate
Stage 4: Communicating
Communicate what you have found to Sports Ground
an audience in the form of a report, a
presentation or an annotated visual display
(AVD).
Stage 5: Reflecting and

responding Location of litter
Think about your fieldwork findings Rubbish bin
and reflect on ways to improve your
investigation process. Finally, decide on a Source GT.51 A sketch map of the schoolyard showing the locations of the bins and
litter at Gumtree College
course of action, if this is appropriate.

Source GT.52 A questionnaire of students in the canteen
Stage 1: Observing, questioning and Stage 2: Collecting, recording, evaluating

planning and representing
During a brainstorm session, a range of investigation After some discussion, 7G decided to gather the
questions were raised by 7G. These included: information they needed to answer their inquiry
• What are the most popular foods sold in the school question in three ways:
canteen?
• Does our school have the worst litter problem in the city?
• Does our school have enough bins in the yard?
During discussion it was decided that the first question
wasn’t really about litter. It was also decided that the
second question was too broad and complex to answer
in one fieldwork inquiry. The class agreed that the third
question was the best one for the class
to investigate.
The next stage was to plan what data had to be
collected in order to answer the question and choose
the methods used to collect this data. As geographers,
7G had to carefully consider other people and the
environment when collecting data in the field. For
example, they had to be careful not to disturb other
classes while collecting their data. Source GT.53 A litter survey

• A sketch map of the schoolyard showing the locations They decided to use the same method to explore a
of the bins and the litter – To complete this map, a more complex problem in the local community.
group of students would look for rubbish at the end of
every lunchtime for five days and show their findings
Do you dispose of your litter in a
on a dot distribution map (see Source GT.51). bin if the bin is nearby?
• A litter survey – This would involve another group of
no: 18% yes: 82%
students looking closely at the rubbish and classifying
each piece of rubbish using certain headings (see
Source GT.53).
• A questionnaire of students in the schoolyard – Another
group of students would ask other students about litter
and how they disposed of it (see Source GT.52).
Stage 3: Interpreting, analysing and

concluding
After asking questions and collecting evidence through Source GT.54 A pie graph showing the results of
fieldwork, 7G needed to interpret and analyse this data the student questionnaire
so that they could come to some conclusions about what
they had found. Their aim was to use the evidence to Check your learning GT.7
answer the key question. By looking closely at their map
and applying the PQE method, 7G students identified Remember and understand
that most of the litter in their schoolyard was located 1 What is meant by studying geography ‘in the field’?
close to the canteen where there were no bins. It was
2 List two ways in which the results of a fieldwork
found that in places where bins were provided they were investigation may be presented.
generally used. The results of the student questionnaire
3 What is the main aim of all fieldwork investigations?
were graphed (see Source GT.54); the results confirmed
that 82 per cent of students used bins if they were nearby. Apply and analyse
4 In what ways did 7G gather the information they
Stage 4: Communicating needed to answer their fieldwork question?
Based on the data they had collected, 7G prepared an 5 Which of these methods do you think would have
AVD about this issue and presented it to the school given them the most valuable and reliable data? Why?
council. The students argued that three new bins had
Evaluate and create
to be installed in the schoolyard – two near the canteen
6 Look again at the geographical questions shown in
and one next to the sports ground. This information was
Source GT.10. Imagine that you are on a field trip to
passed on to the school principal.
Uluru to study the impact of visitors on the natural and
Stage 5: Reflecting and responding cultural environment.
a In small groups, decide on an issue related to Uluru
The bins were installed within a week, but 7G also that you would like to investigate.
decided that students at Gumtree College needed to take b Generate a set of inquiry questions and decide on
more responsibility for their own litter and placed some the one you would most like to explore in detail.
posters in the canteen to remind students why littering c Create a set of questions for a visitor questionnaire
was bad for the school. that you think will help you get the information you
In the final stage of their fieldwork, the 7G students need to answer your key inquiry question.
had a class discussion to reflect on the ways in which d Share your key inquiry question with the class and
they carried out their fieldwork. Most of the students felt read out the questions you decided to include in
that the process worked well, but a few thought that the your visitor questionnaire. What do your classmates
key question about bins was a little too simple. think of your ideas?

Water in
the world
1
unit
Water as a
resource
A resource is anything we use to satisfy a need
or a want. Resources we use from the natural
world are called environmental resources. All
life on Earth depends on these environmental
resources to survive. The water we drink, the
Sun we depend on for light and warmth, the
soil we use to grow our crops, and the trees
we rely on to produce the oxygen we breathe
are all environmental resources.
As the world’s population grows, we
continue to place more and more pressure
on these resources. The availability of many
of these environmental resources (including
oil, forests, and of course, fresh water) is
becoming increasingly uncertain.
1.1 1.2
How is water an environmental How does water connect and
resource? affect places?
1 Which environmental resources do we need to survive? 1 How do you think the Ganges River connects places in
2 How are the people in the photograph using the India?
Ganges River as a resource? 2 List three ways that water from the Ganges River might
be used.

chapter
Source 1.1 Hindus in India believe that bathing in the holy waters of the Ganges River gives them spiritual blessings.
1.3
How much water do we have?
1
1 Water covers about 70 per cent of the Earth’s surface.
Why, then, do we have a shortage of water to drink and
to wash in?
2 Where do you think the wettest and driest places in
Australia might be found?
chapter 1 water as a resource 41

1.1 How is water an environmental resource?
Environmental resources:
an overview Plants, animals and human beings
are renewable resources. Humans,
however, are unique in that our use of
the Earth’s resources is disrupting the
Earth’s natural systems.
Over thousands of years, humans have developed ways of life
that depend on almost all environmental resources found on Plants are renewable resources
Earth. Water from rainfall, minerals from rocks, and food from because they produce seeds in
order to reproduce themselves.
the forests and oceans have allowed us to build homes, farms,
cities and highways all over the world. We have found and used
resources in almost every corner of the Earth. Oil is drilled from Soil is formed when rocks break
beneath polar ice caps and water is drilled from far below barren down. We use soil to grow the
deserts. Deep in the rainforests we have found plants that can crops we eat. The animals we
cure illnesses and we have even worked out how to generate farm for food also rely on the
soil for the grass they eat.
electricity from the waters flowing in our rivers.
Types of environmental resources

Geographers divide all of the environmental
resources on Earth into three types:
• renewable resources
• non-renewable resources
• continuous resources.
The first type – renewable Ocean waves are resources
for surfers and holiday-
resources – will replenish
makers. They can also be
themselves naturally over time if we used to generate electricity
do not use them too quickly. The trees and may be a valuable natural
in a forest are a good example of a renewable resource in the future.
resource. We can cut them down for wood, but
they will grow back in time. We just need to manage
them carefully. In countries such as Australia, fresh water
is considered a renewable resource but it needs to be carefully
managed to ensure that enough is available for everybody.
The second type – non-renewable resources – are only
available in limited (finite) amounts. If we overuse them, they
will one day run out. Minerals such as coal, oil, diamonds and
uranium are good examples of non-renewable resources.
The third type – continuous resources – are available in
unlimited (infinite) amounts. No matter how much or how Oil is the world’s most commonly used
often we use them, they will never run out. Energy from the source of energy. It is also used to make
many important goods, such as plastics,
Sun and wind are both examples of continuous resources. petrol and fertiliser for farms.

Types of environmental
Wind is used to power
resources:
ships and windmills and
Renewable resources to produce electricity.
Non-renewable resources
Continuous resources The Sun provides the energy
Even gravity is a resource. Without
for plants and animals to
gravity, seeds from trees and plants
grow and forms the basis
would never fall to the ground and
The amount of oxygen in our of everything we eat. It also
grow into plants. There would also
atmosphere stays about the evaporates water, setting the
be no rain to help them survive.
same because it is constantly water cycle in motion.
recycled through plants,
animals and oceans.
Forests are a renewable resource
that is under serious threat. Most of
In some parts of the world, the world’s natural forest cover has
electricity is generated from been cleared or logged.
heat within the Earth. This is
known as geothermal energy.
Fresh water is vital for
all life forms on Earth,
including plants,
animals and humans.
Most of Australia’s
electricity comes from the
burning of coal. Coal is an
important energy resource
in many countries.
Minerals are used as a resource in many

ways. Uranium is just one of thousands
of minerals mined around the world. It is
being used at this nuclear power station
to produce electricity.

Remember and understand Apply and analyse
1 What are the three main types of 5 Collect pictures of continuous resources,
resources? Give two examples of non-renewable resources and renewable
each type. resources from newspapers, magazines
2 Why is it important to look after or the Internet. Sort these pictures into
renewable resources, such as groups and describe how each resource
fresh water? is used by humans.
3 Describe how you may have used a non-
Evaluate and create
renewable resource in the last hour.
4 What problems might societies around
6 What do you think is the most important
the world face if people continue to rely resource shown in Source 1.2? Give
heavily on non-renewable resources? some reasons for your answer and be
Source 1.2 An overview of the
many types of environmental prepared to discuss this with a partner
resources. and with the class.

Where water comes from
Water is one of our most precious environmental Orographic rainfall
resources. Without it, nothing can survive. It is an Air is forced to rise due to the height of landmasses, such as
essential, renewable resource that occurs naturally on mountains. As the air cools, condensation forms, producing rain.
Earth. It can exist as a solid (such as ice in a glacier), a As the air begins to fall from the high land, it warms up, creating
dry regions.
liquid (such as water in a river) or a gas (such as steam).
Fresh water is an available resource when in liquid form Dry air falls resulting in
Air forced to a low chance of rain
and a potential resource as a gas or a solid. Liquid water rise cools and
is constantly being recycled through the atmosphere, clouds form
rivers and oceans in a natural system known as the
water cycle (see Source 1.4).
In the water cycle, water from the oceans and lakes
is heated and evaporated by the Sun. The evaporated
water vapour, which is like steam, then rises until it Rain falls
Mountains
reaches the cooler parts of the atmosphere. Cold air
cannot hold as much moisture as warm air, so the
water vapour turns back into liquid water in a process Frontal rainfall
known as condensation. These drops of water then Two air masses meet and the cooler air mass wedges itself under
the warmer air mass. This forces the warm air to rise and cool,
form into clouds, which may be carried on to land by
causing condensation and rain along a distinct line.
winds and forced to rise. The colder air can no longer
hold the condensed droplets and they fall as rain. The Cold air sinks Warm air rises and
rainwater finds its way back to the world’s lakes and cools forming clouds
oceans through rivers and streams and the process and condensation
begins again.
As you can see in Source 1.4, rain falls when wet air
masses are forced to rise. There are three reasons that air
masses rise. Each of these will produce different types of
Rain falls
rainfall at different places on the Earth’s surface.
keyconcept: interconnection Convectional rainfall

Temperatures during the day warm the ground causing warm air to
The water cycle rise rapidly and condense at high altitude. This produces heavy rain
and thunderstorms.
The water cycle links together large areas of the natural
Warm air expands Clouds form and
environment (see Source 1.4). The world’s oceans, and rises heavy rain falls
mountains, rivers and atmosphere are all important parts
of this cycle. The water cycle links together the natural
and human environments because water is so central to
all human activities. The presence of water is key when
settling new farms and cities. For more information on the
key concept of interconnection, refer to section GT.1 of
‘The geographer’s toolkit’.
Source 1.3 Different types of rainfall

The water cycle
Condensation is water vapour in the When wet air is forced to rise into the
air that cools down and changes to tiny cooler parts of the atmosphere, the
drops of water. When these drops gather tiny water drops in clouds join together
together, we see them as clouds. and become heavier. They then fall as
A cloud is a large collection of water drops precipitation (rain, snow, hail) onto the
or ice crystals. The drops are so small and land or into the ocean, rivers and lakes.
light that they can float in the air.
Some of the
precipitation that falls
The Sun heats the water on land returns to
in oceans, lakes and the rivers, lakes and
rivers and turns it into a oceans as runoff.
gas called water vapour.
The water vapour
rises into the air. This
process is known as
evaporation.
When water on the ground soaks into

the soil (infiltration), plants then take
it in through their roots.
Source 1.4 The stages of the water cycle

Remember and understand in our world but it can also help us understand how
rivers change the landscape. How do you think the rivers
1 What is the water cycle?
shown in Source 1.4 have changed this landscape?
2 What causes water to fall as rain?
7 What type of rainfall do you receive most often in the
3 List these words in the correct order within the water
place where you live? Why will the answer differ for
cycle: precipitation, condensation and evaporation. Now students who live in other parts of Australia?
write a definition for each in your own words.
8 Salt water in oceans cannot be used to drink or water
Apply and analyse crops. Is salt water an available or potential resource?
4 What is the difference between frontal rainfall and Evaluate and create
orographic rainfall? How are they similar?
9 Imagine that you are a water droplet in a cloud. Describe
5 Why do you think the wettest place in Australia is near
your journey through the water cycle in language that
Tully on the eastern slopes of the Great Dividing Range a young child would find interesting. Here is a start:
in Queensland? You might like to find Tully in an atlas to ‘Floating along with billions of my closest friends,
help with your answer. I thought nothing would ever change …’
6 The water cycle helps us to understand how water moves

Accessing water resources
Although the surface of the Earth is covered with water, only a tiny Total water 100%
percentage of that water is fresh and available for consumption. Typically
oceans 97.5%
this is found in surface water, such as lakes and rivers. Source 1.6 shows the
breakdown and availability of this water. As populations grow and more
water is used, people are also using groundwater locked away in underground
Fresh water 2.5%
aquifers. This water supports every man, woman, child, animal and plant permafrost 0.8%
on Earth. This makes water our most precious resource.
To further complicate matters, the available fresh water is not evenly glaciers 68.7%
distributed across the planet. Some areas of the world have much more
groundwater
than they need, while other areas do not have enough. 30.1%
Countries with large rivers, such as the Amazon River in Brazil, and Surface
those with high rainfall, such as Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, can be water 0.4%
thought of as being ‘water rich’. Other countries, including Australia, can wetlands 8.5%
be considered to be ‘water poor’.
freshwater lakes 67.4%
Groundwater soil
moisture
When it rains, water seeps into the soil to provide moisture for plants 12.2%
to survive. As water passes through the spaces between soil and rock it
becomes groundwater. In the saturated zone, all the spaces between soil and plants and
rivers 1.6%
rock particles are filled with water. The top of this zone is referred to as the animals 0.8% atmosphere 9.5%
water table (see Source 1.5).
Groundwater is fed by surface water from rainfall and rivers and Source 1.6 Distribution of the world’s water
naturally comes to the surface at springs or at oases in dry areas.
Groundwater is also drawn to the surface by bores
drilled into the ground. Most of Perth’s water is rainfall
drawn from an underground aquifer, a layer of
permeable rock that stores water. windmill
The world’s freshwater

resources
Source 1.7 is a map of the world as you have never
seen it before. While each country is shown in
its correct location, its size shows the proportion
of the world’s freshwater resources found there.
Countries that appear fat are water rich; those that
appear thin are water poor. Comparing the size
and shape of countries in Source 1.7 with the same
countries on a standard world map (like the one
provided at the back of this book) will clearly show water table saturated zone unsaturated zone
which are water rich (larger than normal) and
which are water poor (smaller than normal). Source 1.5 Groundwater from aquifers is pumped to the surface via bores
for use by humans

WORLD: FRESHWATER RESOURCES
ATLANTIC
O CE AN
PACI F I C
O CE A N
INDIAN
OCEAN
AT LANTIC LEGEND
OCEAN Available freshwater resources
(cubic kilometres per year)
1000 100
Africa Oceania
Asia North America
Europe South America
Source 1.7 Source: Oxford Big Ideas: Humanities 1
skilldrill Check your learning 1.3
Using the PQE method to describe maps Remember and understand

1 How much of the world’s water is
The PQE method is used by geographers to identify trends and patterns fresh water, available for our use?
in data and draw conclusions. For more information on the PQE method
2 Is Australia water rich or water poor?
refer to section GT.2 of ‘The geographer’s toolkit’. There are three steps
What does this mean?
to follow when using the PQE (pattern, quantify, exceptions) method to
3 Study Source 1.7.
describe maps:
a Which countries would you
Step 1 Pattern: Give a general overview of the pattern, referring to consider to be the most water
particular places. Which areas seem to have common features? rich? Which are the most water
(For example, ‘The map of the world’s freshwater resources shows poor?
that countries throughout South America have lots of fresh water’). b Compare the freshwater resources
Step 2 Quantify: Quantify your general overview using data for specific of Australia, New Zealand and
regions or countries. (For example, ‘Brazil has more than 5000 km3 Papua New Guinea.
of fresh water a year.’)
Apply and analyse
Step 3 Exceptions: Point out any exceptions to the pattern you have
described. (For example, ‘Madagascar, the island off Africa, appears to 4 What can countries that are water
have abundant water supplies, whereas the rest of the African continent poor do to access more fresh water?
does not.’) Brainstorm this as a class. Think first
of those methods that you already
Apply the skill know about, perhaps those used
1 Use the PQE method to describe the world’s freshwater resources. in your local area, and then expand
Be sure to describe areas that are water rich and those that are water these into other possibilities.
poor. The world map on the inside back cover will be useful.

Stored water
The water cycle is the movement of water through the
Earth, but most of the fresh water on Earth is in storage.
Fresh water can be stored for days or weeks in a lake or
for thousands of years underground or in an ice cap, such
as the one that covers much of Greenland. About 97.5 per 1 List three places where ice is stored.
cent of the Earth’s water is found in the oceans and is 2 Where is most of the world’s fresh water stored?
too salty to drink. Much of the remaining 2.5 per cent, 3 Why doesn’t the ice in Antarctica melt?
which is safe for us to drink, is locked in the polar ice
Apply and analyse
caps and in flowing rivers of ice, known as glaciers.
Antarctica contains nearly 70 per cent of the world’s 4 Look carefully at the map in Source 1.9.
fresh water as ice in an ice sheet that covers large sections a What happens to the sea surrounding Antarctica in
of bedrock (solid ground) in Antarctica. The ice sheet winter?
has an average thickness of 2500 metres and scientists b What is the difference between an ice sheet and an
have found places where the ice is thought to be twice ice shelf?
this thickness. If this ice were to melt, sea levels around 5 Look carefully at the cross-section of Antarctica in
the world would rise by up to 60 metres. Because the Source 1.9. This shows a view of Antarctica from the
temperature in the interior of Antarctica remains below side as if it had been cut along the A–B–C line on the
freezing, any snow that has fallen there in the last few map.
a Over which part of Antarctica is the ice sheet the
million years has never melted and has gradually formed
thickest?
into a great dome of ice. The ice is gradually moving
b Describe what Antarctica would look like without its
towards the sea away from the centre of the continent. As
ice sheet.
it reaches the sea, the ice breaks off into gigantic icebergs.
c Why is this cross-section a better way of showing
the thickness of ice in Antarctica than the map?
Source 1.8 The ice of Antarctica stores most of 6 What would happen if all the ice in Antarctica were to
the world’s fresh water. melt? What conditions might cause this to happen?
ANTARCTICA: LANDFORMS
140°E 160°E 180° S O U 160°W

TH KEY
ER
N Ice sheet
120°E
South Magnetic Pole O
C Mountains
E
Ice shelf
TR
A
Cape Mose R O S S S E A
N
A N S A N TA
Cape Goodenough Permanent sea ice
Mt Erebus 3795 m
Scott Base Winter sea ice
B (New Zealand)
Casey (Australia) Ross Ice
Lesser
R
100°E A Shelf 100°W
C
AMUNDSEN SEA
T
C (Western)
I
Vostok (Russia) M Cape Flying Fish PACIFIC
Antarctica
O
OCEAN
U
D AV I S Greater
N
South Pole Vinson Massif
TA
(Eastern) 5140 m
S E A Polar
INS
BELLINGSHAUSEN SEA
Antarctica
Plateau Ronne
80°E Lambert Glacier Ice Shelf Antarctic
80 80°W
°S Peninsula
Mawson (Australia) Larsen
Ice Shelf CHILE
Cape Boothby Cape Horn
C
Cape Ann
ARGENTINA
INDIAN WEDDELL SEA
OCEAN Cape Norvegia
HAAKON VII SEA

60°E Antarcti
c Circle
SO 60°W
60 UT AN SCOTIA SEA
°S HERN OCE
ATLANTIC
0 500 1000
kilometres 0° 20°W OCEAN 40°W
40°E 20°E
Height 5000 Vinson Massif

Casey TRANSANTARCTIC 5140 m
(metres) 4000 (Australia) Greater Antarctica MOUNTAINS
3000 Lesser Antarctica
2000 Antarctic Peninsula
ice sheet Scott Base (New Zealand) ice sheet
1000
Ross Ice Shelf
Sea level 0
–1000
–2000 bedrock
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500
A B kilometres C
Source 1.9 Source: Oxford University Press

1.2 bigideas: broadsheet PERTH: WATER RESOURCES
LEGEND
Perth’s water supply

Groundwater
treatment plant
Water reservoir
or dam
Desalination plant Area of map
Town
Like many Australian cities and towns, Perth faces many River
Water pipeline
challenges in supplying its population with enough fresh Perth metropolitan
area
water. A decline in its rainfall over the last 100 years has
meant that the people of this rapidly growing city can no
Northam
longer rely on rivers, lakes and dams to supply all their Neerabup Wanneroo
Lexia
water needs. About half of Perth’s water now comes out Mirrabooka
Gwelup
of the ground. North of the city are large aquifers which CBD Mundaring
have collected rainwater for thousands of years and stored Victoria
Churchman Brook
Jandakot
it within sand or limestone layers. Wells are dug to access Perth
Canning
Seawater Wungong
the water which is treated, mixed with rainwater and used
Serpentine
by Perth residents in their homes, farms and gardens. North
Mandurah Dandalup
Up to 20 per cent of Perth’s water comes from two large
South Dandalup
desalination plants. The city was one of the first in Australia to
use desalination plants to provide fresh water. The Western Sampson Brook
Australian state government hopes that expansion of these
Stirling
plants will help to ‘drought-proof’ Perth. Southern
Seawater N
Bunbury
Collie 0 20 40 km
Source 1.10 One of Perth’s desalination plants. The Perth Seawater Plant removes the salt from sea water to produce fresh water.

1000
900
Total annual inflows into Perth dams (gigalitres*)
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1941
1943
1945
1947
1949
1951
1953
1955
1957
1959
1961
1963
1965
1967
1969
1971
1973
1975
1977
1979
1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
2009
2011
*1 gigalitre = 1 000 000 000 litres Year Source 1.12 Water flowing in to
Perth’s dams 1941–2011
skilldrill Extend your understanding
Using a map legend 1 Look carefully at Source 1.12.

a Compare the annual flow of water into Perth’s dams
In order to show the features on maps clearly, various symbols before and after 1975. What difference can you see?
and colours are used. To help us unlock the information on the b List the four years with the smallest annual inflows of
map these symbols are explained in a legend (or key). There water. What do you notice from this pattern?
are three main types of map symbols:
c Why do you think the annual inflow of water changes
• point symbols – show features in one particular place so greatly between years?
(such as a railway station or desalination plant)
2 What two other sources of water does Perth use to access
• line symbols – show features that connect places water other than dams fed by rain?
on the map (such as roads and rivers)
3 Do you think it is possible to drought-proof a city? Give some
• area symbols – use colours or patterns to represent large reasons for your answer.
areas (such as lakes and cities).
4 What do you think will happen to the water in an aquifer if
Apply the skill water continues to be pumped out of it for use in a city such
1 Study Source 1.11. as Perth?
a What symbol has been used for desalination plants 5 Why does Perth need more water now than it did 100 years
on this map? ago?
b Give an example of an area symbol used on this map. 6 What are some of the strategies being tried to address water
c How many groundwater treatment plants supply water problems in other parts of Australia?
to Perth?
d What do you notice about the location of the dams
on this map?

1.2 How does water connect and affect places?
Water connects places

Because people rely on water to survive, easy access to Trade and transport
water influences where people choose to live. Cities, towns
and villages are often located near fresh water sources such Rivers move water across the Earth’s surface, carrying
as rivers, lakes and underground water reserves. Water water great distances to the sea. Rivers, lakes and oceans
sources also directly influence the way people live; for also act as transport networks, allowing products
example, the crops they grow or the transport they use. As and people to move easily from one place to another,
human settlements tend to cluster around the same types connecting the communities established on their banks.
of water sources, these water sources need to be shared by
the communities. Because of this, many places around the
world are connected with each other through these water
sources. Generally, three main factors relating to water
influence where people settle. These factors are discussed
below and shown in Source 1.13.
Historical and environmental factors

Historically, towns and cities have developed along rivers
and near lakes and other fresh water sources. People will
settle anywhere there is water, adapting their way of life
to the local environmental features. Communities in
the Hindu Kush region of the Himalayas in Pakistan and
Afghanistan depend on the seasonal melting of the snow
and glaciers to provide them with fresh water. This melt Check your learning 1.5
also feeds the great rivers in the region, the Indus River
and the Ganges River, that supply water to the many cities Remember and understand
and communities that have been established along their 1 Why does water play such an important part in where
banks – around 1.5 billion people. people decide to live?
2 How does the availability of water determine how
Agriculture people in different places live?
3 Name three factors relating to water that influence
Communities also rely on fresh water to grow crops
where people choose to settle. In your own words,
and farm animals. The availability of fresh water will
describe each of these factors briefly.
determine the sorts of crops grown. In places where water
is limited, crops that need little irrigation, such as corn, Apply and analyse
will be grown. Crops that rely heavily on water, such as 4 Describe how water flowing along a river can connect
rice, are grown on floodplains where water is plentiful. people living at different points along it.
These floodplains and deltas, located on flat land where 5 How has the choice of crops being grown in Source
rivers meet the sea, have particularly rich soil due to the 1.16 been determined by the environment? By
deposits of silt that has travelled down the river from the contrast, what types of crops do you think would be
mountains. grown in the location shown in Source 1.14?

How rivers connect people and places
Source 1.14 Communities in the

Hima
Himalayas (a mountain range in
Asi
Asia) depend on annual glacial
m
melts to replenish their water
ssupplies. Once replenished,
excess water flows into
rivers, connecting these
communities with others
downstream.
Source 1.15 Large cities and

S
ttowns around the world are
connected by rivers. River
waters allow people to travel
and goods to be transported
and traded. This barge on the
R
Rhine river is carrying coal from
th
the city of Cologne south to
Sw
Switzerland. Source 1.16 Farming
communities along the
Mekong Delta in Vietnam
plant their rice crops
in the rich soil of the
floodplains.
Source 1.13 The water that flows through the river systems around
the world connects people and places in many ways.
Water affects places
As well as connecting different people and places, water Case study: Thailand floods, 2011
can also affect them – in both positive and negative
ways. On the positive side, water from the rain and rivers In 2011, the people of Thailand experienced some of
is used to irrigate the crops and farm the livestock that the worst flooding they had seen for decades. Areas of
we eat. This water has a positive effect on the places in Thailand are prone to flooding as the annual monsoon
which we live. Without it, no life could exist. On the brings heavy rain, particularly in the north of Thailand.
negative side, water in all its states – whether as a liquid In early 2011, a tropical cyclone combined with the
(water), a solid (snow and ice) or a gas (fog) – can cause monsoon to more than triple the amount of rain
serious problems and damage in different places. Snow falling on northern Thailand. As heavy rains continued
storms can shut down cities for days, heavy fog can for several months, rivers burst their banks in the
disrupt air travel and cripple airports, and heavy rainfalls mountainous north, resulting in flash flooding and at
can cause widespread flooding. least 13 deaths.
A good way of understanding how water affects places Flooding continued downstream in many large towns
is to look at some case studies relating to rivers. Rivers built beside rivers. Soon the country’s capital, Bangkok,
are interesting to study because if there is a problem became the area of greatest concern. Located on a low
upstream (such as a flood or pollution) this problem will floodplain at the mouth of the Chao Phraya and Tha
quickly travel downstream, affecting the people who live Chin Rivers, Bangkok is very prone to flooding and,
there. Flooded rivers can affect many settlements along despite an intricate system of flood walls and canals,
their banks, collecting and carrying debris, such as trees much of the city flooded. By the time the floodwaters
and cars, as they go. If pollution or toxic chemicals enter receded, they left more than 500 people dead and a
the water at one location on the river, they quickly affect damage bill of more than US$45 billion.
other parts of the river downstream, as well as the people
who use it.
Case study: Tisza River pollution,

2000
In 2000, a storage pond used by a gold mine in Romania
burst its banks. Around 100 000 cubic metres of water
containing poisonous cyanide spilt into a local river that
flowed into the Tisza River in nearby Hungary.
The cyanide spill killed much of the fish and plant
life for several 100 kilometres downstream. Drinking
water was polluted in four different countries: Romania,
Hungary, Serbia and Bulgaria.
Source 1.17 A Hungarian fisherman pulls out toxic fish from Lake
Tisza on the Tisza River 12 days after a serious chemical spill
upstream in Romania on 30 January 2000.

THAILAND: TIME LAPSE MAP SHOWING THE SPREAD OF
FLOODWATERS, MID-AUGUST 2011 TO 15 NOVEMBER 2011
Source 1.18 Floodwaters in the main street of Ayutthaya during the

floods in Thailand in 2011 shut down the city and resulted in many
deaths

1 Give examples to show how water affects places in its
gas, liquid and solid states.
2 What problems did the gold mine in Romania cause
downstream?
Apply and analyse

a When did floodwaters reach Bangkok?
b How far had some of the floodwater travelled? (Use
the scale provided to calculate the distance.)
4 Decide whether each of the following facts makes
flooding in Bangkok more likely or more dangerous.
Justify your answer for each one.
a Between June and October Thailand experiences
its wet season with heavy monsoon rains.
b Bangkok has been built on the Chao Phraya River
delta.
c Between 1985 and 2010 Thailand’s population
increased by more than 10 million people.
d The land on which Bangkok is built is sinking by 30
millimetres a year.

Water for food 12
10
Water (megalitres*)
8
Farmers are by far the biggest users of water in Australia. 6
About 70 per cent of the fresh water used each year in 4

Australia is used in agriculture. This water is used to
2
produce an enormous range of products, many of which
you consume every day (see Source 1.20). 0
Cotton Sugar Vegetables Grains/ Fruit Grapes Rice
You may not realise it, but a lot of water was needed pasture/
to produce your breakfast. Many everyday products use livestock
even more water. For example, it takes up to 50 000 litres *A megalitre is 1 million litres Crop
of water to produce 1 kilogram of beef, and 685 000 litres Source 1.21 Water used per hectare (10 000 square metres) to grow
to produce enough wool to make one suit. The amount of selected crops
water needed to produce an item of food, such as a steak,
Farmers are allowed to use a certain amount of water
or a piece of clothing, such as a suit, is known as virtual
each year and are charged for the amount of water they
water.
use. Because they have to pay for their water, farmers
In Australia, many crops are grown in the Murray–
in this region use it very carefully. Another reason for
Darling Basin in south-eastern Australia (see Source
farmers to use water as efficiently as possible is the scarcity
1.23). While a lot of the water used in this region falls
of water in many parts of Australia. In the early years of
on the farms as rain, much of it is taken from the rivers.
the twenty-first century, a widespread and severe drought
Movement and control of water has a large economic
turned the Darling River and many others into a series of
impact in this region.
pools separated by kilometres of dry river bed. Because of
In the past, the rivers in this region had a normal these factors, many farmers and farming industries have
cycle of flood and drought. Farmers needed a more developed more water-efficient methods of farming.
reliable flow of water and so a system of dams and weirs
was built along the river. These collect water during wet
times and release it gradually during dry times, thereby
controlling the flow of the river.
Raspberry jam
m
The main ingredient
in raspberry jam is Rice Bubbles
es
sugar. Virtually all of Rice Bubbles are
Apricots er
Milk and butter Australia’s sugar is made from 89 per
Apricots are grown More than 60 per cent grown in Queensland. cent whole white
and processed in Bread
B d of Australia’s milk and Raspberries grown in rice, which is grown
northern Victoria The main ingredient milk products comes the Goulburn Valley in the Murrumbidgee
and southern New in bread is wheat. from Victoria. Leongatha make up 40 per cent Irrigation Area (part
South Wales. They New South Wales in Victoria is home to a of the jam. of the Murray–Darling
are processed produces the most huge dairy factory. Estimated water Basin). Much of
in various plants wheat in Australia, Estimated water needed to produce the rice industry
centred around most of this in the needed to produce 1 kilogram of sugar: is centred around
Shepparton, east of the Murray– 1 glass of milk: 173 litres Estimated Deniliquin in southern
Victoria. Darling Basin. 200 litres amount of water New South Wales.
Estimated water Estimated water Estimated water needed to produce Estimated water
needed to produce needed to produce needed to produce 1 kilogram of needed to produce
1 kilogram of 1 kilogram of 1 kilogram of butter: raspberries: 1 kilogram of rice:
apricots: 1391 litres wheat: 750 litres 18 070 litres 713 litres 1550 litres
Source 1.20 Water requirements to produce typical breakfast foods

MURRAY–DARLING BASIN: LAND USE
LEGEND
High rainfall grazing
Summer rainfall grazing
Irrigation areas
Wheat/sheep belt
Rangelands
r
ve
Murray–Darling Ri
g
Basin rlin
Da
Murray Riv
er
Source 1.22 An irrigation channel in the Murray–Darling Basin
Lake Hume
Murray River irrigation
0 200 400 km
Lake Hume is an artificial lake formed by the Hume Weir
near Albury–Wodonga on the Murray River. Completed Source 1.23 Source: Oxford Atlas
in 1936, it is one of a series of dams and weirs built to
control the flow of water in the Murray River. Its main
purpose is to trap water during periods when there is a Check your learning 1.7
large amount of water in the Murray River and release it
gradually to keep the flow of the river relatively constant. Remember and understand
A network of irrigation pipes and open channels 1 How much of Australia’s fresh water is used on farms?
carries the water from the Murray River hundreds of
2 How does water for irrigation of crops and pastures
kilometres to individual farms. Open channels are
reach the farms?
generally less efficient than pipes as water is lost to
3 Rank the breakfast foods shown in Source 1.20 in
evaporation and water seeping into the soil. However,
order from greatest water need to least water need.
they are much cheaper to build than pipes.
When the water reaches the farms it flows through Apply and analyse
gravity or is pumped onto the crops or pastures. A 4 Can farmers use as much water as they want?
common method of irrigation is the use of a pivot spray. 5 Look at Source 1.21.
A giant arm with sprayers attached moves around a a Which crop uses the most water?
central pivot point, creating distinctive circles of green. b Which crop uses the least water?
6 Why do you think it takes so much water to produce
Source 1.24 Pivot spray irrigation
1 kilogram of rice?
7 In what ways is the Murray–Darling Basin one of
Australia’s most important resources?
8 Look closely at the map (Source 1.23).
a What relationship do you notice between irrigation
areas and rivers?
b Explain the nature of this relationship.
Evaluate and create

9 Draw a labelled diagram to clearly show how pivot
spray irrigation works. Use Source 1.24 to help you.

Water for energy
Moving water has been used as a source of power since
Case study: Three Gorges Dam,
240 BCE, with the invention of the water-driven wheel.
Watermills use the force of the flowing water to drive the China
blades of a large wheel or turbine. This, in turn, rotates
China’s Three Gorges Dam is not only the world’s largest
an axle to drive the machinery inside the mill.
dam, it is also the largest power station ever built. More
than 2 kilometres long and 180 metres high, the dam has
Hydroelectricity turned the Yangtze River into a lake 660 kilometre long.
Hydroelectric power is generated in the same way that As well as producing electricity, the dam has increased
early watermills operated. A dam is built across a river, the Yangtze River’s shipping capacity, and has reduced
creating a large reservoir of water. This water is then the flooding hazard downstream. The building of the
released through turbines, causing them to turn. The Three Gorges Dam stirred protests around the world, as
spinning turbine rotates giant magnets around a huge it involved displacing 1.25 million people and flooding
coil of copper wire to create electricity. The faster the more than 600 square kilometres of land; that is about
water flows, the more electricity is created. 30 000 times the size of the Melbourne Cricket Ground.
Australia’s largest plant is the Snowy Mountains

Hydroelectric Scheme. More than 100 000 people from
over thirty countries constructed the huge tunnels, dams
and power stations. Electricity generated by the scheme is
used in the Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales
and Victoria.
Hydroelectricity is the largest source of renewable,
non-polluting energy in the world. The main negative
impact of building a hydroelectric plant is that the natural
flow of the river is stopped and the land behind the dam
is flooded. The flooding of valleys behind the dam can
destroy natural habitats and human features, such as
houses, fences and roads.
long-distance power lines
reservoir
generator
powerhouse
intake
turbine
river
Source 1.26 An oblique aerial view of the Three Gorges Dam on the
Yangtze River in China. Water flows through the open sluice gates.
Source 1.25 How a hydroelectric power station works The hydroelectric power station is to the left of the sluice gates.

geothermal 3%
other 1%
wind 5% Remember and understand
1 How is water used to create electricity?
solar 7%
2 What is the main source of renewable
energy in the world?
3 What advantages and disadvantages
bioenergy hydro does the building of dams bring?
21% 63% 4 How can you stop a river flowing to
enable a dam wall to be built?
Apply and analyse

5 Look carefully at Source 1.26. Oblique
aerial images are taken from an
Source 1.27 Energy from renewable and continuous sources. Hydroelectric power angle and show a foreground and a
accounts for most of the total energy produced from these sources around the world. background. Is the dam wall in the
foreground or the background?
6 Draw a sketch of the oblique aerial
CHINA: THREE GORGES DAM image (Source 1.26) and label the
following:
18
• Three Gorges Dam
Sha Ping • Yangtze River
17 Long Tan Ping
0 • hydroelectricity plant
400
20
Tai Ping Xi Zhen
• flooded valley.
16
200
412 Mark in where you think the original
course of the river flowed.
15 Wu Xiang Miao
Da Yan Tou 7 What happened to the towns, villages
Shuang Shi Ling
14
and farms upstream of the Three
Pan Jia Wan
Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River?
0
Yan Zhu Yuan
40 Ying Zi Zui
13
Li Jia Wan
Bai Shi Xi 770 LEGEND
R
206 E
12 Jin Gang Cheng IV Main road
Loc R
20 ks San Duo Ping Other road
0
30° 50’ N E
TZ
Track
11 438 G
N Dam wall
YA 40
0 Watercourse
Sandouping
10 Village
Three Gorges Dam
Buildings
iao Zi
09 Bai M 800 Contour with value (interval 200 metres)
Yang Jia Wan
8
657 Spot height (metres)

0
60 Mostly forested
08 731
200
563 Large river/reservoir

363
Built-up area
80
07
0
Yang Gui Dian Open area

uildings Open area
40
0
890 Scale 1:100 000
06
0 1 2 3 4 5
99 111° E 00
60
96 97 98 01 02 40 03 04 05 06
0
20
0
0
kilometres kilometres

1.2 bigideas: broadsheet
The Ok Tedi mine

The Ok Tedi copper and gold mine is located at
the headwaters of the Ok Tedi River, a tributary
of the Fly River, in Papua New Guinea. During
mining operations large amounts of chemicals
are used to separate the precious minerals from
other rocks. These chemicals, along with the
residue of rocks and ore (known as tailings),
need to be disposed of. In order to do this, the
mine owners (BHP) built a dam known as the
tailings dam. The tailings dam allowed heavy
metals and solid waste from the mine to settle.
Cleaner water would then be released into the
river system.
Unfortunately, an earthquake in 1984
collapsed the tailings dam. BHP argued it was
Source 1.29 Ok Tedi mine
too expensive to rebuild it.
Ok Tedi mine
Since 1984 the mine has discharged 70 million tonnes of Fly River
tailings into the river system each year. Chemicals from these
tailings destroyed wildlife, particularly fish, in the river, and
the materials dumped into the river changed a deep and
slow river into a shallow river with rapids. Transport up and
down the river became more difficult. The change in the
river bed led to frequent floods that spread contaminated
mud onto 1300 square kilometres of farms by the Fly River.
The discharge from the Ok Tedi mine caused great harm to
the 50 000 Indigenous people who live in the 120 villages
Tabubil
downstream of the mine. Millions of dollars in compensation
was paid to those affected by the misuse of the river system.
Ok Tedi River
Source 1.30 Satellite image of Ok Tedi mine, 5 June 1990

skilldrill
Identifying change over time

By carefully examining photographs, satellite images or maps
from different times we can see the changes that occur at a
location. When studying the same area at two different times:
Step 1 Find a key feature, such as a river or main road, as a
reference point on both sources.
Step 2 Note the areas of the image where there has been
little or no change.
Step 3 List the differences in the later image where there has
been change.
Step 4 Look for other information on the image that shows
what might have contributed to the change.
Step 5 Describe the type of change – permanent change
or seasonal change (such as different stages of crop
production or plant growth).
Apply the skill

1 Study Sources 1.30 and 1.31.
a In what two years were the satellite images taken?
b Were the images taken at different times of the year?
c What changes to the rivers occurred between the two
years when these images were taken?
d Why did these changes occur?
e Are these changes permanent or seasonal?
Ok Tedi mine
Fly River f Draw a sketch map of the area in 2004, using a key
and labels to outline the changes that have occurred
since 1990.
1 What competing uses were there for the Ok Tedi and

Fly Rivers?
Tabubil 2 What problem did BHP have managing the polluted water
in their tailings dam?
3 What environmental impact did the tailings have on the rest
Ok Tedi River of the river?
4 What social impact did the actions of BHP at the Ok Tedi
mine have on the Indigenous users of the river?
5 Give another example where change in water use in one
part of a river has impacted on water users downstream.
Source 1.31 Satellite image of Ok Tedi mine, 26 May 2004

1.3 How much water do we have?
Water in Australia
Australia has the lowest volume of water in rivers and the Rainfall distribution in Australia
smallest number of permanent wetlands of any continent
except Antarctica. Australia’s water supplies are not evenly Much of the Australian continent is dry. It is only the
distributed. The northern third of the continent lies in northern, eastern and south-western coastal regions that
the tropics and receives heavy rainfall with monsoons in receive good annual rainfall. The climate of the eastern
the summer. It is a water-rich area. By comparison, vast half of Australia is influenced by the Great Dividing
areas of the interior receive very little rain. Range. It extends 3500 kilometres from the northern tip
Virtually all of Australia’s large cities and towns are of Cape York to southern Victoria. Moisture-rich winds
positioned on the coast, especially in the east and south- from the south-east push warm, moist air over the land.
east. While most of these areas receive good, reliable Forced to rise and cool, the water droplets fall onto the
rainfall, pressure from a large number of water users has east coast as rain, but as the air descends to the west, it
put great strain on water resources in these areas. becomes warmer and drier.
Average temperature Rainfall

AUSTRALIA: AVERAGE ANNUAL RAINFALL (CLIMATE GRAPHS Average temperature Rainfall
45 450 FOR SELECTED LOCATIONS) 45 450
40 400 40 400
35 350 35 350
30 300 30 300
Darwin
Temperature (°C)
Temperature (°C)
Rainfall (mm)
Rainfall (mm)
25 250 25 250
20 200 20 200
15 150 15 150
Tully
10
10 100
Nor thern 100
5 50 Territor y 5 50
0 0 0 0
JFMAMJJASOND JFMAMJJASOND
Month Queensland Month
Darwin Capricor
n Alice Springs Alice Springs
f
Tropic o
Western
Australia Brisbane
Lake Eyre
Average temperature Rainfall Average temperature Rainfall
45 450 45 450
40 400 South New South 40 400

Wales
35 350 Perth Australia 35 350
Sydney
LEGEND Adelaide 30 300
30 300
Average annual rainfall ACT Canberra
Temperature (°C)
Victoria
Temperature (°C)
Rainfall (mm)
(millimetres) 25 250
Rainfall (mm)
25 250
Over 2400 Melbourne
20 200 20 200
1600 to 2400
15 150 1200 to 1600 15 150
600 to 1200
10 100 200 to 600
Tasmania 10 100
Under 200 Hobart

5 50 5 50
Great Artesian
0 0 Basin 0 400 800 km 0 0
JFMAMJJASOND JFMAMJJASOND
Month Month
Adelaide Source 1.32 Source: Oxford University Press Sydney

Australia’s river resources
Rivers are a vital source of fresh water for many people.
Australia, though, has the lowest volume of water in
rivers of any inhabited continent on Earth. On average,
just 12 per cent of Australia’s rainfall is collected in rivers;
this is referred to as the river discharge. The remaining
88 per cent of rainfall is used by plants, held in natural
water storages (such as lakes, wetlands and aquifers) or
returned to the atmosphere through evaporation. The
Darling River, part of Australia’s largest river basin (the
Murray–Darling Basin), loses enough water every year
through evaporation to fill Sydney Harbour four times.

1 Why do many Australians live on the southern and
Source 1.33 Australia’s heaviest rainfall makes Tully the white-water eastern coast?
rafting capital of Australia.
2 Where are the wettest regions of Australia? Where are
Being such a large country, Australia has a great deal the driest regions of Australia?
of variation in rainfall. It is common for one part of the 3 How do many farmers and communities in inland
country to have floods while another has a long drought. Australia access more water?
The wettest place in Australia is Tully, near Innisfail in 4 Use the map in Source 1.32 to estimate how much
north Queensland, which averages 4204 millimetres of rainfall is received every year on average where you live.
rainfall a year. Tully receives so much rain because of its Apply and analyse
location within the tropics on the north-eastern facing
5 Use the PQE method outlined on page 47 to describe
slopes of the Great Dividing Range.
the distribution of Australia’s rainfall.
The driest place in Australia is on the shores of Kati
6 Four climate graphs are shown in Source 1.32. Each
Thanda (Lake Eyre) in South Australia, which receives
of these gives us two important pieces of information
little more than 100 millimetres per year. Kati Thanda
about the climate at a particular place. Rainfall
receives so little rain because it lies far from any supply of
is shown as a series of blue bars while average
moisture. Air masses reaching the interior of the country
temperatures are shown with a red line. The trickiest
have generally dropped their rain on to the south-eastern
part of reading a climate graph is reading the correct
corner of Western Australia, and so they are dry by the scales. Temperature is shown on the left-hand
time they arrive at Kati Thanda. side, rainfall is shown on the right-hand side, and
Many communities in the interior of Australia rely months along the bottom. For more information on
on underground water as well as the little rain that falls. reading a climate graph refer to section GT.2 of ‘The
Lying beneath much of eastern Australia is the world’s geographer’s toolkit’.
largest underground water supply, the Great Artesian a Which is the most water poor of the four places
Basin (see Source 1.32). It is over 1.7 million square shown? Why is this?
kilometres in size and covers approximately 22 per cent b Which has the most even or reliable rainfall
of Australia. The water is trapped underground in a throughout the year? Why is this?
sandstone layer covered by sedimentary rock, creating a c Which has the most seasonal rainfall?
aquifer. Farmers and communities access this water by
drilling a well and pumping water to the surface with
a windmill.

Variations in Australia’s water
supply
Water is particularly difficult to manage in Australia, the due to drought and water that is taken to supply farms for
driest inhabited continent on Earth. Australia has the irrigation. The Darling can be a small trickle or a raging
lowest amount of water in rivers and the smallest areas torrent – it can even dry up completely. The Darling River
of permanent wetlands in the world. Australia’s water stopped flowing at the town of Menindee, near Broken Hill
supplies are not evenly distributed. The northern third in New South Wales, 48 times between 1885 and 1960.
of the continent is water rich, while vast areas of the
interior receive very little rain. Variable rainfall patterns Climate change
make it quite common for one part of the country to
experience major flooding while others experience Australians have come to see drought as part of the natural
extended periods of drought. cycle of rainfall patterns, but a new threat now faces
us – and it is one we do not fully understand. For years
scientists have been warning us about the possibility that
The Darling River our climate is changing. While the vast majority of the
The Darling is Australia’s third-longest river, flowing world’s scientific community now accepts that the planet
1390 kilometres from Brewarrina until it joins the is warming due to the effects of greenhouse gases, these
Murray River at the town of Wentworth. The Murray and experts are much less sure how this will affect specific
Darling are the main rivers in the Murray–Darling River places and specific climates. It appears that climate change
Basin, where 40 per cent of Australia’s food is produced. will mean less water for many Australians in the future,
The flow of water in the Darling River varies greatly putting even greater pressure on our current supplies.
Bourke Bourke
Louth Louth
Tilpa Tilpa
Cobar Cobar
0 25 50 km 0 25 50 km
Source 1.34 These satellite images of the Darling River show the river affected by drought in 2011 (left), and flooded in March 2012 (right).
These images use a photographic technique to help geographers distinguish between water and land. The colours used in the image are
blue for water, bright green for vegetation, and an earth-tone for bare ground.

Much of Australia’s fresh water comes AUSTRALIA: RAINFALL TRENDS, 1970–2011
from water collected in rivers, lakes and
dams. This water will evaporate more Darwin
quickly in the future, meaning that there LEGEND
will be less available for use in cities and Trend in annual
rainfall,
rural areas. Source 1.37 shows the trends 1970–2011
(millimetres per
in annual rainfall over the last four 10 years)
decades. The green areas have had an 50.0
increase in rainfall while the yellow and Capricorn 40.0
Tropic of
30.0
brown areas have had a decrease.
20.0
Brisbane 15.0
Source 1.35 Part of the poem ‘My Country’ 10.0
by Dorothea Mackellar (1908) 5.0
0.0
Perth –5.0
I love a sunburnt country, Adelaide Sydney –10.0
Canberra –15.0
A land of sweeping plains,
Melbourne –20.0
Of ragged mountain ranges, –30.0
Of droughts and flooding rains, –40.0
–50.0
I love her far horizons, 0 Hobart
400 800 km
I love her jewel-sea,
Her beauty and her terror – Source 1.37 Source: Oxford University Press
The wide brown land for me! …
Core of my heart, my country!
Her pitiless blue sky,
When sick at heart, around us,
We see the cattle die – Check your learning 1.10
But then the grey clouds gather,
And we can bless again
The drumming of an army,
The steady, soaking rain… 1 Which part of Australia is the most water poor?
2 Read the poem ‘My Country’ in Source 1.35.
a Decide if you think the poem accurately describes
Source 1.36 A young girl from Wentworth in New South Wales
jumps over the Darling River in 2006 (top) and swims in it during a the part of Australia you live in.
flood in 2008 (bottom). b Which line in the poem best sums up Australia’s
variable water supply?
3 Why might a warmer future lead to less water being
available in Australia?
4 Look at Source 1.34. How and why did the flow of
water along the Darling River change between 2011
and March 2012?
Apply and analyse

a Between 1970 and 2011, which parts of Australia
experienced significant decreases in annual rainfall?
b Which capital cities have been most affected?
c How has the Murray–Darling River Basin been
affected?

Water in the world
In an average year, 577 000 km3 of rain falls on Earth. evaporation rate than Australia.
Of this, 458 000 km3 fall, on the oceans and 119 000 km3 The amount of water in Australian rivers is the
on land. smallest of all inhabited continents, with South America
When water falls to earth as rain, most of it experiencing the highest volumes of water in its rivers.
evaporates back into the atmosphere. Of the annual For example, the Amazon River (the second-longest river
rainfall that falls on land 74 000 km3 (or 62 per cent) in the world) carries more water than any other river
evaporates. In Australia, around 65 per cent of our total on Earth with an average discharge (volume of water
rainfall each year evaporates. The remaining 35 per flowing through it) greater than the next seven largest
cent runs off the land, and of this, only about 12 per rivers combined. Nearly 20 per cent of all the fresh water
cent ends up in our rivers. Only Africa has a higher entering the oceans comes from the Amazon River.
LEGEND
Asia
55% 32 200 km3 Rainfall (km3)
North America
Evaporation (%)
55% 18 300 km3
Africa
Runoff (%)
South America 80% 22 300 km3
57% 28 400km3
45% 45%
Europe
65% 8 290 km3
35%
43% 20%
Australia and
Oceania
65% 7 080 km3
35%
Source 1.38 Average volume of yearly rainfall (km3), evaporation and runoff by world region Source: FAO Aquastat
Source 1.39 Some of Australia’s driest regions are in the desert.

WORLD: ANNUAL RAINFALL
Source 1.40 Source: Oxford Atlas

1 Use Source 1.38 to rank the six
inhabited continents from the
continent with the most runoff to the
continent with the least.
2 Which river carries the most water and
how does it compare to other rivers?
Apply and analyse

a Which region of the world is the
wettest? Why do you think this is
the case?
b Which part of Africa experiences
the lowest rainfall? What type of
landscape would you expect to find
here?
c Which part of Asia is the wettest?
What are some of the advantages
and disadvantages of high rainfall?
d Does the region north of the Arctic
Circle have low or high rainfall?
How might much of the water in
Source 1.41 South America’s high rainfall has contributed to the creation of the Igazu this region be stored?
Falls, which is 80 metres high and 3 kilometres wide.

The world’s drinking water
Drinking water, sometimes called potable water, is water that is safe
to drink and use for cooking and washing. In Australia, most water
undergoes some form of treatment to make it safe to drink. Water
treatment removes sediments, pollutants and microorganisms that can
Mozambique China United
make us sick. Australians are among the world’s biggest water users,
4 litres 86 litres Kingdom
using almost 500 litres of water per person per day. This figure is for all 149 litres
water use, including water used in agriculture and industry. While this
amount has declined in recent years, it still ranks among the highest in
the world. Experts estimate that each Australian will need to use 12 per
cent less water by 2030 in order to stay within the limits imposed by our
rainfall. Some households have started to use a number of strategies to Peru Australia USA
save water, while many others continue to waste large amounts. 173 litres 493 litres 575 litres
Source 1.42 Water use per person per day.

Access to safe drinking water Mozambique has the lowest daily water use per
capita while the United States has the highest.
In Australia, we take for granted that we have flush toilets, running Source: United Nations 2006
water from taps and clean, safe drinking water. However, millions
of people around the world get sick or die each year from drinking
contaminated water. The United Nations estimates that half the world’s
Source 1.43 In Chad, as in many African
population has problems caused by lack of access to clean water. More
countries, each day begins with a walk to the
than 1 billion people do not have access to a reliable freshwater supply, village well.
and 2.6 billion do not have basic sanitation, such as running water to
clean their hands or flush their toilets.
It is estimated that, at any one time, almost half the people in poorer
countries are suffering from health problems due to a lack of safe water.
Each year, millions of people die from diseases carried in their water.
Millions of women and children around the world, particularly in
Africa, spend several hours a day collecting and carrying enough water
to keep their families alive for another day.

WORLD: ACCESS TO SAFE DRINKING WATER
ARCTIC O CEAN
Arctic Circle
NORTH
EUROPE A SI A AMERIC A
ATL A N TIC
OCEAN
Tropic of Cancer
AFRIC A PACIFIC O CEAN
Equator LEGEND
ATL ANTI C Percentage of population SOUTH
with access to safe
OCEAN drinking water AMERIC A
IND IAN OCEAN
100
Tropic of Capricorn
90 to 99
AUS TRALIA
70 to 89
50 to 69
Under 50
No data available
0 1500 3000 km
keyconcept: environment Check your learning 1.12
Serah’s story Remember and understand

1 What is potable water?
Serah and her six children live in Ethiopia in Africa. The
scarcest resource in her region is water. Before dawn, 2 How many people in the world do not have access to a
she makes her first journey to the village pump. Once reliable supply of fresh water?
there were three wells, but the 8-metre well has dried up. 3 Describe the differences in the drinking water available
The 9-metre well has a little salty water at the bottom. in most Australian homes and in Serah’s village.
The flow from the pump of the 25-metre well has slowed Apply and analyse
to a painful trickle. There is just barely enough for
everyone to drink. 4 Using Source 1.44 and the world map on the inside
While it takes her 25 minutes to walk down the hill to front cover of this book, identify two countries with
the pump, it will take her 40 minutes to make the return excellent access to safe water and two countries with
journey with the 10-litre jar balanced on her head. She poor access to safe water. Which continent has the
makes this trip at least twice a day. She tends not to worst access to safe water?
drink as much as the others as she believes she should 5 Read Serah’s story.
look after her children before herself. This means that a How much water will Serah collect in two trips to
she cannot produce enough milk for her baby, so he is the pump?
often ill. The water contains parasites that make her other b How many people depend on her trips to the pump?
children sick, but Serah has little choice. c How much will each person receive?
For more information on the key concept of d The average toilet in Australia uses 8 litres per flush.
environment, refer to section GT.1 of ‘The geographer’s Write a statement about the way water is used in
toolkit’. Australia compared to Ethiopia.

1.3
skilldrill
Windhoek, Namibia Drawing climate graphs

Climate graphs combine bar graphs and line
Namibia is the driest country in Africa south of the
graphs to help us interpret the climate in a
Sahara Desert. Its capital, Windhoek, receives about specific location. In order to draw a climate graph,
360 millimetres of rainfall a year and its 250 000 people geographers gather climate data – the monthly
average rainfall and temperature – for the location
rely on three dams for most of their water. These dams,
they are investigating.
however, are built on rivers that do not always flow and are
Step 1 Look carefully at the climate data to find
therefore unreliable for city water use. the lowest and highest temperature figures
that you will need to show on your graph. In
this example, Windhoek’s temperature varies
In 1969 the government decided to mix water from traditional sources, such from 20 to 30 degrees Celsius. Decide on a
as dams and wells, with recycled water from the city’s sewage-treatment scale that shows this range of data, then place
plant in order to supplement Windhoek’s fresh water. As the city’s it on the left-hand axis of your climate graph.
population continued to grow rapidly, in the 1990s it was decided to build Step 2 Using graph paper, plot the temperature
another treatment plant to convert sewage into drinking water. This was data on your graph by placing a small, neat
completed in 2002. Now more than one-third of Windhoek’s drinking water dot in the centre of each month at the correct
comes from this unlikely source, making the city the world leader in turning height. Join the dots with a smooth red line
waste-water into drinking water. and continue the line to the edges of the
graph.
Step 3 Look carefully at the climate data to find
the lowest and highest rainfall figures that
you will need to show on your graph. In this
example, Windhoek’s rainfall varies from 0 to
79 millimetres a month. Decide on a scale that
skilldrill
skilldrill
shows this range of data, then place it on the
right-hand axis of your climate graph.
Step 4 Plot the rainfall on your graph by drawing
a blue bar to the correct height for each
month. You may like to very lightly shade the
bars with a blue pencil.
Step 5 Complete your graph with a suitable title
and a label for each of the three axes.
Apply the skill

1 Using the steps shown above and the data in
Source 1.45 Water is a scarce and precious resource in Namibia. Source 1.46 and referring to the Alice Springs
climate graph (Source 1.32), construct a
Source 1.46 Climate data: Windhoek, monthly averages climate graph for Windhoek.
Months Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Rainfall (mm) 76 74 79 41 8 0 0 0 3 10 23 48
Temperature (°C) 29 28 27 25 22 20 20 23 25 29 29 30

NAMIBIA: AVERAGE ANNUAL RAINFALL
1 Describe the annual pattern of rainfall in

ANGOLA
Windhoek.
ZAMBIA
Cu
2 Explain how this annual pattern makes
a
nd
Za m
o
dams and reservoirs an unreliable water
be
Ri
Cu
C
ve
ui
zi
ene Rive to resource.
r
ba
Ri
Cun r Ri
ng
ver
ve
o
R iver r 3 Describe the annual pattern of temperature
Rundu
Etosha and explain the impact of these
Pan
temperatures on the evaporation of water
Grootfontein Okavango
Delta
held in dams.
BOTSWANA 4 Compare the climates of Windhoek and
Makgadikgadi Alice Springs (Source 1.32).
Pan
LEGEND 5 Examine the map of Namibia. Identify three
Windhoek Average annual rainfall
(millimetres) water resources on this map.
0 150 300 km
NAMIBIA Over 500 6 a What have the people of Windhoek
400 to 500
300 to 400
done to make their water supply more
200 to 300 sustainable and safe?
Fish Ri v er
100 to 200
b What problems does lack of access to
Under 100
Existing canal
safe water cause?
SOUTH
Proposed pipeline 7 Use the information on the map (Source
Namibia Permanent river
AFRICA Temporary river
1.47) to explain why a pipeline is proposed
r Country border to be built from the Cubango River to
Oran
e
ge R i v
Grootfontein.
Source 1.47 Source: Oxford University Press 8 Why would the people of Botswana be
concerned about this proposed pipeline?
Source 1.48 Many Namibian rivers are only temporary, meaning they are dry for most
of the year.

Valuing and
managing
water
People value water for many different reasons.
It has economic, cultural, spiritual and even
aesthetic (appreciated for its beauty) value.
As populations grow, the demand for water
increases, yet its supply is limited. People all
over the world need to examine how they use
water, and put in place measures to conserve
and manage it. On the other hand, when
rainfall is high, communities in low-lying areas
close to rivers need to put in place measures
to deal with the opposite problem – floods.
2.1 2.2
In what ways do we value and How can we overcome water
manage water? scarcity?
1 Considering that only 2.5 per cent of all water on Earth 1 What could the managers of the Cascata Golf Club do
is fresh water, do you think that the Cascata Golf Club’s to use less water?
use of water (see Source 2.1) is responsible? 2 Make a list of strategies that you, personally, could put
2 Why might water have a higher economic value in the in place to use less water.
Nevada Desert?

2
chapter
Source 2.1 The Cascata Golf Club in the Nevada Desert uses 5 000 000 litres of water per day to irrigate its fairways and greens.
2.3
How do we respond to floods?
1 The Nevada Desert suffers from permanent drought
conditions. Other parts of the world are frequently
flooded. What factors do you think might make an area
prone to flooding?
2 Suggest two ways that communities in flood-prone
areas might plan for floods.

2.1 In what ways do we value and manage water?
The importance of water Spiritual uses

Water holds a special
significance for almost
all world religions. It
often plays a key part in
Since the beginning of human history, we have
religious ceremonies.
relied on water. We drink it in order to survive;
we wash, cook and clean with it; and we use it
to grow our food and produce electricity. In this Firefighting
way, water is arguably our most precious resource. Firefighters around the
Domestic uses world rely heavily on
Life on Earth without it would be impossible. One
The average Australian household a constant supply of
of the challenges facing Australia today is that we uses over 350 litres of water a water in order to carry
use too much of this environmental resource. day for drinking, preparing food, out their work.
Only 12 per cent of the water consumed in washing, cleaning, flushing toilets,
cleaning cars, and watering
Australia is used in our homes and gardens,
lawns and gardens. Toilets and
whereas 70 per cent is used to irrigate farms. This bathrooms account for about
irrigation provides us with much of the food we 40 per cent of this domestic
eat, so it must be included when we think about water use.
how much water each of us personally consumes.
When you add this water to the amount used
to make other products we use every day, such
as shampoo and toothpaste, every Australian is
responsible for using over 1 million litres
of water per year! Source 2.2 outlines
the various ways in which
we all use water.
Irrigation of parks, gardens and

sporting grounds
Many parks, gardens and sporting
grounds, including football ovals,
rely heavily on water in order to
survive. In dry areas, water is often
taken from drinking storages to
keep them green and healthy.
Environmental needs
As well as being used for human Irrigation of crops and pastures
consumption, fresh water is a vital Irrigation accounts for most of the
part of the natural environment. world’s water use. In some arid
Taking too much water from a river areas, including many parts of
can cause many environmental Australia, irrigation is used to grow Fishing
problems, such as weed growth, crops. So water provides us with
Commercial and recreational
fish deaths and salt build-up. our food as well as our drink.
fishing depends on clean
oceans, rivers and lakes.
Source 2.2 In Australia we use large amounts of water in many different ways.

Power generation: coal-fired Power generation: Snow-making
and nuclear power hydroelectric power Artificial snow-making is
Virtually all power stations use Electricity can be generated important in countries such
large quantities of water. Coal- from the energy of moving water. as Australia where natural
fired power stations heat water Usually, to do this a dam must be snowfalls can be infrequent.
to produce steam that turns constructed across a river and a However, many countries
turbines to create electricity. lake formed behind it. This allows with more regular snowfalls
Water is also used to cool the the river’s flow to be controlled now also use snow-making
station. Nuclear power plants and released through the dam to machines in order to improve
operate in much the same way. produce electricity. conditions and attract
more tourists.
Navigation and trade

Large rivers (such as the Nile
in Egypt, the Rhine in Europe
and the Yangtze in China) have
been used for centuries for
trade, as they provide a fast
method of transporting goods
Construction and
between regions and countries.
industry
The construction
industry relies heavily
on water in order to
make concrete and
many building supplies,
such as bricks. Many
industrial processes use
large quantities of water
for cooling and cleaning.

1 What activity uses the most water in Australia?
How much of our water does it use?
2 How can water be used to help create electricity?
3 Using Source 2.2, categorise each water use
shown as either an off-stream use (in which water
is removed from its source, either by pumping
or diversion) or an in-stream use (in which water
remains in place).
Recreational activities 4 What other water uses can you think of?
Recreational activities (such as Apply and analyse

water-skiing and swimming)
generally have little impact on Mining 5 Using Source 2.2, identify two water uses that
the quantity and quality of fresh The mining industry relies compete with one another and so cannot easily
water. Pollutants in the water heavily on water to cool exist beside one another.
from industry upstream can machinery, enable drilling and
affect water quality and make the process minerals and iron ore
water unsuitable for recreation. taken from the ground.
Growing the world’s grain
Rice is the world’s most important food crop and is the main food Rice farming in Vietnam
source for over half of the world’s population. Rice production is heavily
dependent on water. A semi-aquatic plant, rice is grown in flooded fields. Vietnam is home to some of the world’s
For this reason, rice-growing communities tend to be located in regions richest agricultural regions. It is the
of the world with high rainfall. About 90 per cent of the world’s rice is fifth-biggest producer, the second-largest
grown in Asia, with India and China being the largest producers of rice. exporter and the seventh-largest consumer
Outside of Asia, the USA and Brazil are the biggest producers of rice. of rice. In Vietnam, 75 per cent of people’s
daily calorie needs are met by rice.
The Mekong Delta is called the ‘rice
bowl’ of Vietnam, with over half of the
country’s rice produced there. The delta
is formed by sediment (small particles
of rock and dirt) deposited by the
Mekong River and provides rich soil for
farming. The Mekong Delta region is also
flood prone, making it perfect for rice
production. The rice is grown in flooded
fields known as paddies.
Of the 17 million people in the delta
region, 80 per cent are employed in
rice cultivation. The rice farmers live in
Source 2.3 Rice seedlings being placed in the rice paddy for planting, Mekong Delta,
Vietnam MEKONG DELTA: RICE-GROWING REGIONS
THAILAND
Lake
Tonle Sap CAMBODIA
Phnom Penh M
VIETNAM
eko ng
Ri
Gulf of ve r South
Thailand China
Sea
Area of map LEGEND

Mountains
Croplands
Rice growing
0 100 200 km
Source 2.4 Satellite image of the Mekong Delta in

Vietnam. Farming here is dependent on the rich
soils and plentiful water of the region.

houses built on stilts and the roads in the
region are located on raised embankments
to provide protection from flooding.
Most of the rice produced in Vietnam
and other parts of southern Asia is a
variety known as Indica rice. Indica rice
is a long grain rice that grows well in hot,
tropical climates. In recent times, faster
growing rice plants have been developed.
These new strains of rice mature in 110
days instead of 160, meaning farmers can
grow three crops a year instead of two.
Rice farming in Australia

In Australia, a variety known as
Japonica rice is more commonly grown.
This variety of rice grows well in the
Australian climate. In a dry country such
as Australia, rice farmers have to be very
efficient in their use of water (see Source Source 2.7 Australian farmers carefully plough their fields to minimise water wastage.
2.7). Australian rice growers use 50 per They even use lasers to ensure rice fields are as close to level as possible. Raised
levees divide large fields into individual bays to allow farmers to carefully control the
cent less water than the world average flow of irrigation water.
to grow one kilogram of rice. To ensure
water is not wasted, the soil of Australian
Australia’s rice-growing regions include the Murrumbidgee and
rice farms needs to be checked and
Murray Valley in south-western New South Wales (see Source 2.6). These
approved to ensure that it can hold water
regions are suitable for rice cultivation as they have available water,
and not allow it to escape below.
irrigation infrastructure, large areas of flat land, and suitable soils.
Storage and milling facilities for rice have also been established in these
areas. The rice industry has been a major contributor to the economic
AUSTRALIA: RICE-GROWING REGIONS and social wellbeing of people in the towns of these regions.
ea
ion Ar Check your learning 2.2
rigat
id gee Ir Griffith
Murrumb
Mu Leeton
rr um v
b idgee Ri e r Remember and understand
Coleambally Coleambally
Irrigation Area 1 What economic value does rice have?
Murray Valley 2 How have farmers reduced their water use in rice-growing regions
Swan Hill Irrigation Area across Australia?
M Deniliquin
ur
ra
y Apply and analyse
Ri
ve
r
Corowa 3 Compare rice-growing techniques in Australia and Vietnam. How are
Murra River
y
Echuca they similar? How are they different?
0 40 80 km
Shepparton
LEGEND
Evaluate and create
Rice growing 4 Draw a sketch map of Source 2.4 to show the location of rice paddies
Area of map Rice mill on the Mekong Delta. Mark in the South China Sea and rice paddies
(most of the green area on the image).

Competition for water supplies
Fresh water from rivers is used by people in cities, farms and factories. MURRAY RIVER AND SOUTH AUSTRALIAN
WATER PIPELINES
Competition for this precious economic resource has seen the
introduction of dams all over the world to store the water flowing Port Augusta
down rivers and ensure a constant supply of water to the people nearby.
Because people living along the entire length of rivers depend on them Iron Knob
Area of map
for water, competition also exists between upstream and downstream Whyalla
users. The flow and quality of water available to downstream users Port Pirie
ie
Mo
rga
depends on how the river is used upstream. n–
Wh
ya
lla
Case study: the Murray River allaroo
Wallaroo
S w an Reach
Pipelinne
Pipeline
Morgan
Mo
organ
Moonta
oonta
Pip
The Murray River provides an excellent example of what happens when
el i n
Waikerie
Wai
ikeri
k ie
River
Murray
demand for river water threatens to outpace supply. Water from the Blanchetown
Blanche
la
an eto
etown
n
Murray River has many competing uses, including irrigation, domestic Swan R
Reach
ach
urban water supply, industrial water supply, maintaining the natural Mannum Pipeline
Adelaide
delaide
e Mannum m
environment, recreation, navigation, hydroelectricity and water storage. Edithburgh Murr
Murray
M
Muurrayy Bridge
gee
Pipeline
Pipeeline Murray B
Bridge
There are three major water storage dams on the Murray River. There Tailem
Taailem Bende
Ta
Lake
are also 10 weirs (another type of dam) built across the river to slow the
ile
wa Alexandrina
m Bend
Goolwa
river flow and allow towns to access the water. Locks have been built Murray
LEGEND Mouth Me Meningie
Men
M e
en
eningie Pi –Ke
pe ith
where the water level can be raised and lowered to allow boats to travel Urban area
lin
e
from one side of the weir to the other. Pipeline Keith
h
A series of pumps and pipes carries some of the water from the Murray Weir 0 50 100 km
River to water users in towns, cities and farms many kilometres from the
river (see Source 2.8). One of these pipes carries water from the town of
Mannum to Adelaide, 60 kilometres away. The amount of water pumped
from the river to Adelaide varies from year to year but can be as high as
90 per cent of Adelaide’s water needs in some years.
The agriculture sector is by far the largest user of water from the Source 2.9 Oblique aerial photograph of the
Murray River. On average, 3780 gigalitres (3780 billion litres) is diverted Murray River at Mannum, South Australia
each year to irrigate farmland to grow crops and raise livestock. Clearing
of native vegetation in the river valley has enabled irrigated crops and
78
78 ox
oxf
o
oxford
xffo
x orrrd
ord dbbi
big
ig iideas
dea
de
d ea
eas g
geography
eo
e
eog
og
o grra
rap
ap
aphy
hy 7:
hi
his
h
history
iis
australian
stor
tto
orry 7
o 7:: a
australian
curriculum
ustral
ust
sstrral
ra
a ian
ia
ia
an
n cu
c
curriculum
urr
rrri
rriic
ic
cul
cu
ulu
ulumm
pastures to be grown, but also forced salty groundwater to the surface
and into the river. Along with pesticides and fertilisers, the salty water
keyconcept: scale
causes problems for users downstream. Near the South Australian town
of Waikerie a system of pumps intercepts some of the salty water before it The changing scales of
reaches the Murray River. It is carried in pipes to a 400-hectare lake. It is
estimated that this scheme prevents more than 100 tonnes of salt a day
water management
reaching the river. Most of the water not used for irrigation is diverted The water in the Murray River is one
to homes and industries throughout South Australia through six major of Australia’s most precious resources
pipelines (see Source 2.8). The average amount of water that flows from but is very difficult to manage. This
the Murray River into the ocean near Adelaide is now just 25 per cent of is mainly because there is so much
the total natural flow. This is because around 75 per cent of this water is competition for the water. The water is
taken out of the river upstream. used by thousands of farmers to produce
food and other products for millions of
people. Many towns and cities in three
different states use the river to supply
residents with water for their homes and
businesses.
In the past, many upstream water
users have only considered their own
water needs when taking water from
the river. They have not considered
how this would impact on people and
places downstream. We now know that
this local-scale approach to water use
damages the health of the river. Water
must be managed at the regional scale,
considering the needs of all water users
and the environment in the entire river
basin. For more information on the key
concept of scale, refer to section GT.1 of
Source 2.10 This image was taken in 1981 when the mouth of the Murray River
completely closed, creating changed conditions for wildlife and plants in the region. ‘The geographer’s toolkit’.

Remember and understand marina and a residential development. Are these
developments at a local or regional scale?
1 What competition is there for Murray River water?
7 Examine Source 2.8.
2 What are the two major uses of Murray River water?
a How many pipelines are shown that access water
3 How have the competing water uses of boating and
from the river?
water storage in weirs been catered for along the
b Use the scale to estimate the distance water travels
Murray?
from Swan Reach to Edithburgh.
4 What problems have been caused downstream by
upstream usage of the Murray River water? Evaluate and create
Apply and analyse 8 Draw a map of Source 2.9. Use a legend to show the
following features: the Murray River, irrigated farmland,
5 Why is it difficult to manage the water resources of the irrigated golf course and sporting ground, a marina for
Murray River? houseboats and the town of Mannum.
6 In the foreground on the left of the Mannum oblique
aerial photograph (Source 2.9) you can see a small

The challenges of managing water
Water is an essential environmental resource that is Case study: Ganges River, India
important for the health of humans and the health of
the environment. Different values are often placed on The Ganges River begins high in the Himalayan
water; for example, water used for economic purposes mountains, and travels across India before flowing east
can also have great spiritual and cultural importance for into Bangladesh and into the Bay of Bengal. In total, the
a community. Competition for water use needs careful river is 2525 kilometres long. The Ganges is worshipped
management. It is often not easy to come up with by Hindus, who believe bathing and praying in the river
solutions. Water management is difficult because: purifies them. This sacred river is also used by millions
• it is an essential resource needed by every person on of Indians who live along its banks and depend on it for
the planet their daily needs.
• it moves through the environment quickly so it is In the last 30 years, India’s population has grown
difficult to capture and store to nearly 1.2 billion people; one-third of these people
• its availability is not constant – it changes over time live along the banks of the Ganges. Huge increases in
and in different locations the size of cities, factories and agriculture have put
enormous pressure on the river. Irrigation canals siphon
• it is a shared resource with many competing uses.
off large amounts of water to grow food for the country’s
Over the past 50 years the world’s population has
increasing population. Untreated waste-water is dumped
doubled, and the output from farms and industries
into the river from cities and towns that lack proper
has surged to meet increasing demands. The growth
sewage-treatment facilities. Around 25 per cent of India’s
in demand and competition for water has put a much
population work in manufacturing and industry. The
greater strain on global water supplies. We need to
waste-water and effluent from these industries often
make good decisions to fairly share the use of water and
contain hazardous chemicals. The Ganges is now one of
minimise the impact our water use has on the natural
the most polluted rivers in the world.
environment.
Overuse and lack of management have meant that
Source 2.11 Sewage spills into the Ganges River in the city of Varanasi India’s most sacred river is gradually dying. In Varanasi,
a city on the banks of the Ganges in north-eastern India,
the bacterial count in the water is 3000 times higher
than the safe levels established by the World Health
Organization. Polluted water is the main cause of skin
problems, disabilities and infant deaths, but many Hindus
refuse to accept that the Ganges (or Mother Ganga as they
call her) is the source of these problems. ‘People have so
much faith in this water that when they bathe in it or sip
it, they believe it is the nectar of God [and] they will go to
heaven,’ says a scientist at the Central Pollution Control
Board in India.
In 2011, Indian officials signed an agreement with the
World Bank for a $1 billion loan to fi nance a government
project that aims to stop the flow of untreated waste-
water into the Ganges by 2020.

COURSE OF GANGES RIVER
Srrriinaggar
Sri
Srin
Srinagar
S gaar
ar
AN
Islamabad
am
maaaba
bad
ba
baad
d LEGEND
Rawalpindi
Rawaallpin
piin
p indi
di
TA
JJammu
Ja
Jam
am
ammu Over 5 000 000 people NI Land relief
AKIST
H
NG
Lahore
La
L ahore
o e 1 000 000 to 5 000 000 people JIN
G
Cropland
Amritsar
Am
Amr
A mrritsa
m iittts
itstsa
saarr
sa I MO
Shimla
Shi
SShim
Sh
hhiim
mla
ml
llaa
500 000 to 1 000 000 people CountryUNborder
TA 1 Why is water difficult to manage?
M
PA
Cha
Chandigarh
C
Chhaandigar
h and
ndi
diiggar
d gaarrh
rh 100 000 to 500 000 people IN
River S
P
Dehra
D
De
Deh
eehra
hra
hra
ra Dun
Dun
Du
un
A Under 100 000 people Country capital city 2 List three reasons why water
Meerut
Me
eeru
e
eru
rru
ut
ut N L CHINA resources are under threat.
New
w Delhi
De
Del
Delhhi Moradabad
Mor
orraad
aada
daabad
d baad
b ad E A Y A S
Bika
Bik aner
err
Bikaner
Aligarh
Aliliigar
A garh
arrh
ar h
Bareilly
B
Bare
Ba
Bar
aarre
eiilly
P
Kathmandu
Kat
Ka
K aatthm
hma
hman
hma
man
andu Gaaan
G
Gangtok
ngtotok T
ggtto Thimphu
Thi
Thhhiimph
mpphhu
mp
Itanagar
It
Ittaaanag
Ita nag
na
nag
agaarr
Jaipur
ipu
ipur
pur
pu
pu Agra
Agra A L BHUTAN
B HUTAN a Why have all of these people
Ajmer Ya Luckn
Lu
Luc
Luck
uck ow
Lucknow
m
Gwalior
Gw
Gw
waalio
aalior
llio
io
io
orr un
a K p
Kanpur Gauhati
Gauh
Gau
auh
auh
auhaaati
Gauhatiti
ti gathered at the Ganges River?
es
Kotah
Rive
r Gang River SShillong
Sh
Shi
hillllo
llo
ong
ng Kohima
Kohhima
ohhiima
ma Baoshan
Ba
Baao
osh
ssha
haa
h b What dangers do they face?
Allahabad
A ah
ah
aha
haaba
ba Pattna
tna
Patna
Varanasi
Varanasi
aaraan
nas
naaasi
assi BA
B AN
NGGLA
GL
G LA
LA
AD
BANGLADESHD ES
DEESH Imphal
IIm
m
mph
mppha
phal
ha
hal
al
I N D I A Dh
D haanb
an
nba
nb
n
Dhanbad d Rajshahi
baad Rajsh
a sh
shah
hii Agar
h Agartala
Ag
A
Aga
garta
ga ttal
aalla 4 List as many competing uses of the
Bokaro
ro
o Dhaka Aizawl
A izaaw
Aiiz
Aiz wl
wl
Bhopal Jabalpur Ranchi Asa
As
Assaaan
anso
nso
n
Asansol so
ol M YA
YA N M A R Ganges as you can.
Indore Jamshedpur
ur
ur Khulna
Kh
K h
hul
huu
ullna
na Chittagong
Ch
C h
hiitt
ttago
ong
onngg
n Mandalay
Maan
nddal
da
al
a ay 5 Why is the Ganges River so difficult to
Rourkela Kolkata
Kolka
olkat
o
ol
lka
kat
ata ta
Del manage?
Nagpur Bhilai Raipur G anges
DECCAN PLATEAU
Cuttack
Cu
Cut
C
Cutt
utt
ut
ttack
taack
tac
taacck
k
Bhubaneswar 0 200 400 km
Aurangabad Naypyidaw Apply and analyse
Source 2.12 Source: Oxford University Press 6 Look at Source 2.12. Why is the
pollution of the Ganges a much
Source 2.13 Tens of thousands of Hindu devotees gather on the banks of greater problem in Kolkata than in
the holy Ganges River to bathe and offer prayers during Karthik Purnima
festival in Patna, India. Kanpur in northern India?
7 How do you think the pollution
of the Ganges affects the natural
environment around the river?

Water and Indigenous Australians
Water is a vital resource valued by both Indigenous and
non-Indigenous Australians. Non-Indigenous Australians
generally consider water as a natural resource with great
economic and aesthetic value. Indigenous Australians
on the other hand generally value water for cultural and
spiritual reasons. They regard the rivers and waterholes
as an inseparable part of their land. Land and water
management is a key part of the culture of Aboriginal
and Torres Strait Islander peoples.
A spiritual connection with water

Prior to European settlement, most Aboriginal peoples
lived in the well-watered coastal areas and along the
rivers of the Murray–Darling Basin. Aboriginal people in
the arid areas of Australia studied the habits of wildlife to
detect water supplies. They mapped the location of water
in their artwork. In these maps, spirals identified the
location of pools and wells while wavy lines showed the Source 2.15 In the past, Indigenous Australians communicated the
location of water resources through symbols on maps (like this one)
location of running water (see Source 2.15). and through spoken instructions and stories.
Aboriginal people also passed on their knowledge of

water resources through stories. The Worrorra people live
in the Prince Regent River region of the Kimberley. Their
Dreaming (or Lalai) stories tell of the formation of the
Prince Regent River.
The stories tell of how the Wunggurr snake (a creator)
dug a path where the Prince Regent River now flows by
travelling from far inland to the sea. Other creator beings
called Wandjina then took the animal forms of Rock Cod
and Melo (a large sea snail), and created Malandum (the
Prince Regent River) by swimming upstream along this
path. At what is now called King Cascade Falls, Rock Cod
was forced to stop abruptly by the Lalai Bowerbird and
thrust herself against the soft mud, where she created a
step-like cliff. Today, a waterfall flows over these rocks
from the stream above where the Bowerbird lives (see
Source 2.17).
Source 2.14 Aboriginal links to water in the Kimberley region

go back thousands of years. These scenes were created by the
Worrorra people on a cave ceiling about 8000 years ago. The scene
is said to depict a ‘great fish chase’, showing figures representing
both Rock Cod and Dugong and their Wandjina captors.

Indigenous water management
Traditionally, Aboriginal peoples in drier areas of
Australia depended on their knowledge of water sources
to survive. They accessed water trapped in waterholes,
rocks and tree hollows. They watched the flight paths of
birds, such as the zebra finch, to help uncover wells and
springs. The long roots of eucalypt trees were followed to
find underground water, and water was collected from the
morning dew on plants. Indigenous Australians would
also enlarge rock holes and chip channels through rocks
to divert water into specific holes to increase their access
to water. To catch fish, dams were built across narrow
creeks using rocks or woven branches (see Source 2.16).
In modern Australian society, Indigenous Australians Source 2.17 King Cascade on the Prince Regent River is now a
have been largely left out of the decision-making process popular tourist destination.
when it comes to managing their traditional water sources.
In some remote areas of Australia, many traditional water However, Allan and the traditional owners of the area
sources have become unreliable or unusable because do not have control over all important water resources
station owners have given their cattle access to these in the region. The permanent spring that Allan visited
important areas without consulting the Aboriginal peoples. as a child has been polluted by cattle. This once valuable
water resource is now undrinkable.

1 Where did most Aboriginal peoples live in Australia
before Europeans arrived in 1788?
2 Give examples of traditional and modern Aboriginal
water management.
3 How are Indigenous and non-Indigenous views of
water resources different?
4 Both Aboriginal peoples and Europeans built dams
along the Murray River. What impact did each have?
Apply and analyse

Source 2.16 An Aboriginal dam made of woven branches designed
to catch fish.
a What is the spiritual value of this place to the local
Indigenous people?
Urlampe in the Northern Territory, 1330 kilometres b What value might this site have to a tourist?
south-southeast of Darwin, is home to one of Australia’s 6 Look carefully at Source 2.15
most remote Aboriginal communities. Allan Rankine of a Sketch the symbols you think represent water holes
the Urlampe Aboriginal Corporation is responsible for and running water.
managing the water supply for the community. Allan b Why were maps such as these important to
decides what water the community pumps from the bore Aboriginal communities?
and how it will be distributed. Traditionally, Aboriginal c Why do you think maps like these are still being
land and water management plans are clearly defined produced by Indigenous Australians?
and everyone understands and respects them.

a p pro
a p p r o x i m at e
xi m
a te
The Aral Sea
sh
or
eli
sh
ne
or
19
,
el
e, 60
in
19
73
The Aral Sea is located on the border of

Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. In the early 1960s,
the two rivers that channelled water to the Aral
Sea, the Amu River and the Syr River, were 0 50 100 km
diverted to irrigate areas of the surrounding desert

to grow rice, melons, cereals and cotton. From
1960 to 1998, the size of the Aral Sea shrank
by 60 per cent, and its volume was reduced by
80 per cent. In 1960, the Aral Sea was the fourth-
largest lake in the world. Today, it is the thirty-first
a p pro
a p p r x i m ate
largest. Over the same period of time, the lake has
xi m
o
a te
also become five times saltier.
sh
or
eli
sh
ne
or
19
,
e li
60
ne
,1
97
3
The Kara Desert covers about 70 per cent of the land area in
Turkmenistan. It is crossed by the 1375-kilometre Karakumski
Canal, the second largest irrigation canal in the world. The
canal brought a water supply to the town of Ashkhabad and
allowed farming to take place in the desert, particularly cotton
growing. Leakages from the canal allowed 50 per cent of the 0 50 100 km
water to escape.
Source 2.18 Satellite images of the Aral Sea in 2000 (top)

and 2011 (bottom)
skilldrill
Interpreting satellite images Apply the skill

1 Study Source 2.18.
Satellite images help geographers view large areas of
a Describe how the Aral Sea has changed between 2000
the Earth’s surface. Special cameras in orbiting satellites
and 2011.
700 kilometres above the ground record variations in the
b What colour represents deep water on these satellite
light reflected on the Earth’s surface. Satellite images can
images?
show different features on the Earth’s surface through colour
variations on the image. Sometimes this colour variation is c What is the shallowest part of the lake in 2000?
natural but it can also be added by computer to highlight d What type of land surrounds the Aral Sea in 2000
specific features. The natural colour satellite images of the Aral and 2011?
Sea in Source 2.18 accurately record the shrinking size of the e Use the scale to estimate the length of the longest
lake from 2000 to 2011. remaining part of the Aral Sea in 2011.

ARAL SEA BASIN: WATER RESOURCES
KIRGHIZ STEPPE
LEG END
Atasu
Desert Highland Akadyr
Country border Town/city
Atyrau Chelkar Country
Kulsary Grassland Zhezkazgan
Mountains River
KAZAKH UPLANDS
capital city
Shrubland Irrigated area Lake
Balkhash
Aralsk
Saryshagan
Lake Balkhash
ARAL SEA Kazaly
Fort Shevchenko Beyneu Baykonur Koshkarbay
previous extent K
Kzyl-Orda
Aktau
UST URT of Aral Sea K A Z A K H S TA N
PLATEAU Muynak
Sy
Alma-Ata
Alma-At
AN SEA
rR
Kyzyl Desert Qaratau
Q tau
Qarat
Chimboy Tu
Turkestan
Tu n
ive
K ra Balta
Kar
Kara t
r
Nukus BISHKEK
BIS
B SHK
KEKK
Kara U Z B E K I S TA
AN C
Ch
Chi
Chimkent
hmmkent
k t Talas
Ta Lake
L a Issyk
ssyk
Bogaz
Gol Bay Dashoguz K Y R G Y Z S TA N
Sarygamysh Urgench Toktogul Reservoir
Naryn
Nar AN
CASPI
Lake Zara
afsh
han
Zarafshan SH
Shardara Dam
m TASHKENT
T
TA
A
ASSHK
HK
KEN
KEN
NT EN
TI
Am
Turkmenbashi Angre
An
A n re
en
en
Angren
d An
Andizhan
A
Andi
And
nd
n
ndiz
dizzh
han
u Ri
Kokand
K
Kok
okand
o
oka
kan
ka
and
nd
Kara G u
uliliisto
ulis
Guliston ton
on Kh
K hu
ujja
ujan
an
an
Khujand nd
d O
Os
Oshsh
Navoi
Navoi
Na Fergana
F
Fe
ergan
ergana
gana a
ver
Cheleken Desert D
Dz
Dzh
zzh
hizak
hiz
hizak
iza
izzak
zza
Dzhizak ak
ak Kayrakum Reservoir
Bukh
B ukhara
kh
hara
Bukhara r
Kashi
ve
Serdar T U R K M E N I S TA N Sa
S a
amm
mark
ma
ark
ka
Samarkandand
and
Ri
CHINA
rkant
Turkmenabat
Karshi TA
T AJIKIST
TAAN S
Shache
Abadan
Ya
DUSHANBE
DUS
D US
SH
HANB
BE
BE
ASHKHABAD Denau
Gonbad-e Kavus Karakumski Ca
nal Kerki Kulob
ulo
Amol Kaka Mary PAMIRS
Sari Gorgan Tedzhen Kurgan
K
Kuu
urga
an Tyube
Tyube
Tyub
Tyu
Termez
T
Ter
e
erm
ermez
rme
rm
me
m ez
ez Khorog
Khoro
K o
og
Andkh
Andkhoy
hoy
ho Feyzabad
Feyz
Fe yza
a ad
aba
K
Kund
Kunduz
d
duzz
Meshed Shebe
be
erghan
h n
Sheberghan
Semnan Mazar-i-Sharif
M zar-i-
Ma ar -Shariif
IRAN B
Baghlan
n Gilgit
ilg HIM
Maimana SH
Kashmar U KU PA
P AKIST
TA N AL
AY
0 100 200 300 km A F G H A N I S TA N IND AS
H
Source 2.20 The shore lines of the Aral Sea have receded by 60 to
Extend your understanding 80 kilometres, leaving behind rusting fishing trawlers that used to
fish in its waters. All 20 known Aral Sea fish species are now extinct,
unable to survive in the salty water that remains.
a What is the name of the longest river that feeds the
Aral Sea?
b Where does this river begin?
c Into which canal is most of the water from the Amu
River diverted?
d What is this water used for?
2 Look carefully at Sources 2.18 and 2.19.
a What was water once used for in this region?
b How has the Karakumski Canal changed this region?
3 The management of the water resources in this region is
made more complex because more than one country is
involved. Name the countries involved and the ways in
which they use water resources in this region.

2.2 How can we overcome water scarcity?
Managing water scarcity

Water is most difficult to manage when there is not groundwater in underground aquifers. Clean water from
enough to go around. Water becomes scarce when the a well stops people catching any water-borne diseases.
demand for clean water exceeds the available supply. It is Providing clean and drinkable water for communities
one of the biggest issues facing Africa, the second driest across Africa is a high priority for many of its developing
inhabited continent in the world after Australia. Whereas countries and international relief agencies, such as
all Australians have access to clean water, millions of World Vision and AusAID.
Africans face water shortages. Of the 800 million people
who live in Africa, more than 300 million live in water-
scarce areas.
The main reasons for water scarcity in Africa are:
• a large and fast-growing population
• large areas with low and variable rainfall
• poor water quality
• lack of water infrastructure, such as pipelines.
Water scarcity contributes to the deaths of many African
children. Local water sources may contain harmful
bacteria that cause diseases, such as typhoid and
dysentery. These diseases are spread by drinking and
washing in contaminated water.
Source 2.22 This woman in Zambia is collecting water from a
Delivering safe water dried-up river bed half a kilometre from her house. She uses a
saucepan to fill the large container, which she will carry on her head
The most common solution to water scarcity in African or shoulder back to her home.
villages is digging a well. A water well is created by
digging or boring into the ground in order to reach
Source 2.21 A young girl in Guinea-Bissau enjoys clean water from

a new well that has been sponsored by the World Vision aid agency.

WORLD: FRESHWATER AVAILABILITY PER PERSON PER YEAR, 2007
A R CT I C O CE A N
Arctic Circle
N O RT H
EUROPE AS I A AMERICA
ATLANTIC
O CE AN
Tropic of Cancer
AF R IC A PACI F I C O CE A N
Equator
AT L ANTIC LEGEND S O U TH
OC EAN Freshwater availability AMERIC A
INDIAN OCEAN (cubic metres per person per year)
Tropic of Capricorn Over 70 000
AU S T R A L I A 15 000 to 70 000
6000 to 15 000
2500 to 6000
1700 to 2500 (vulnerable)
1000 to 1700 (stressed)
0 1500 3000 km 0 to 1000 (scarce)
No data available

Source 2.24 A woman fills a water container from a well in the
desert in Niger. In most African societies, women are the collectors Check your learning 2.6
and managers of the family water supply. African women can spend
up to 60 per cent of their day collecting water, especially where
water sources are far from the village.
1 What is water scarcity?
2 Why is water scarcity such a problem in Africa?
3 What problems does water scarcity cause, especially
for women and young children?
Apply and analyse

a Describe the area of Africa that suffers most from
water scarcity.
b Australia is the driest inhabited continent on Earth.
Does it have a water scarcity problem? Why or
why not?
c Compare freshwater availability in Australia and New
Zealand. Which country has access to more fresh
water? Why do you think this might be the case?
Evaluate and create

5 Create a poster or PowerPoint presentation highlighting
the problems of water scarcity in Africa and how it
affects people’s lives.

Managing water at home
The easiest way for us to become involved in water
management is to understand how we can be more water
wise at home. A resource management plan takes into
account the range of uses of the resource, the amount of
the resource required and the impact of resource use on
the environment. Decisions are then made about what is Shower 20%
Toilet
the best and most sustainable way to use the resource. 20%
Rest of bathroom 6%
Sustainability is an important concept in geography. In
order for a resource to be used sustainably there must not
be so much used that it affects the ability of the resource
to replace itself naturally. Domestic users of water are Laundry
16%
under more pressure than ever before to manage their Kitchen 5%
water use properly as our water resources become more
stressed.
As you have learned, Australians are among the Outdoor 33%
highest users of water in the world. Nearly half of
Source 2.26 Water use in the home
the domestic water usage occurs in the bathroom. To
improve water management in the home we need to
select water-saving appliances, capture and recycle Bathroom
water and attempt to use less water. To ensure we have a Take shorter showers and install new water-efficient
showerheads that use no more than 9 litres of water
sustainable supply of water into the future, think about
per minute (compared with old-style showerheads
some of the water-saving ideas shown in Source 2.25. that use 20 litres per minute). This can save up to
20 000 litres of water per person per year.
Laundry
Only use the washing machine when
you have a full load. Redirect the waste
water from the washing machine into a
collection bin and use it on the garden,
but make sure you use detergents that
will not kill your plants.
Kitchen
Don’t rinse dishes under
Outside
a running tap. Ensure the
Don’t use the hose to clean dishwasher is full before
hard surfaces outside; use a turning it on.
broom. Install a plastic pool
cover to reduce water lost to
evaporation. Install a rainwater Garden
tank to use the water that falls Plant native gardens using local plants that are
on your roof. It can be used to accustomed to the climate and soil conditions
flush toilets, wash clothes and in your area. Use drippers to deliver water
water the garden. Top up the directly to the base of the plants where they
pool with water from the tank. need it. Avoid sprinklers, which allow water to
be blown away and evaporated.
Source 2.25 A range of simple water-saving ideas

keyconcept: sustainability
The air shower

Despite living in one of the world’s driest
places, Australians are among the world’s
biggest water users. Many scientists
believe that our use of water is not
sustainable and have looked for ways to
increase our water supply or decrease
the amount of water we use.
AIR SHOWER SET TO CUT

WATER USE BY 30 PER CENT
As Australians become increasingly
alert to the importance of using
water wisely in the home, CSIRO
researchers have found a way to use Source 2.27 This cartoon was first published in 2007 during a period of severe drought.
a third less water when you shower –
by adding air.
The scientists have developed
a simple ‘air shower’ device
which, when fitted into existing
showerheads, fills the water droplets 1 What does a management plan need to take into account?
with a tiny bubble of air. The result is 2 Which room in the house uses the most water?
the shower feels just as wet and just 3 What is the easiest way of reducing the amount of water and energy
as strong as before, but now uses used in the shower?
much less water. 4 Suggest three ways that water can be gathered and reused around
The researchers, from CSIRO the home.
Manufacturing Materials Technology 5 Give two examples of how technology can be used to help save water.
in Melbourne, say the device
increases the volume of the shower Apply and analyse
stream while reducing the amount of 6 Look carefully at the news article.
water used by about 30 per cent.
a What have researchers at CSIRO developed to help save water
Given the average Australian in the home?
household uses about 200 000 b What water savings do they hope to make?
litres of water a year, and showers c Apply your understanding of the air shower to develop a new water-
account for nearly a third of this, the saving product idea to clean dishes.
‘air shower’ could help the average
household save about 15 000–
a What is the cartoonist suggesting about our management of water
20 000 litres a year. If you extend
in the future?
this across the population, that is an
b When was the cartoon drawn and what influence might this have
annual saving of more than 45 000
had on the cartoonist?
Olympic-sized swimming pools …
CSIRO website
Evaluate and create
For more information on the key concept 8 Create your own water-saving reminder for display in one of the rooms
of sustainability, refer to section GT.1 of of your house.
‘The geographer’s toolkit’.

Managing water in
Australia’s biggest cities
In order to ensure that reliable supplies of safe water are available for
use now and into the future, we all need to use water more sustainably.
Careful management of our existing supplies and reductions in our
consumption will help to achieve this. We also need to remember that
people are not the only living creatures on the planet. The interests of
all living organisms need to be considered if the natural environment
is to be protected for the future.
Source 2.28 The Warragamba Dam near Sydney is one of the

largest domestic water supply dams in the world. It supplies
80 per cent of Sydney’s water.

Ensuring reliable water supplies in Option 2: Use underground water reserves
Australian cities Drilling water bores is a common method used on
Australian farms for supplying water for irrigation and
Over 60 per cent of Australia’s population lives in one animals. Many Australian cities have started to use this
of our five largest cities – Adelaide, Brisbane, Melbourne, method to add to their freshwater supplies. Deep holes,
Perth and Sydney – all of which are home to more than called bores, are drilled down into a layer of rock under
a million people. The sites of these cities were chosen the ground that holds water. This layer of rock is called
in large part because of their reliable rainfall and access an aquifer. The water is then pumped to the surface
to fresh water from neighbouring rivers. However, all (see Source 2.29). It is also possible to replace the water
of these cities have now outgrown their original water in the aquifers during wet periods by pumping the
supplies. Large dams have been built to provide a water back underground. In this way, aquifers operate
permanent water supply for large towns and cities, but as underground dams. In Western Australia scientists
population growth and drought have put enormous are trialling a method of treating storm water (rainwater
pressure on these reserves. As a result, many Australian that falls on the hard surfaces of a city, such as roofs and
cities are now looking at a number of strategies to reduce roads) and using it to recharge the aquifers that supply
their water usage and ensure they have access to reliable much of Perth’s water.
supplies into the future. Some of these options are There are large aquifers in many areas of Australia,
discussed here. including beneath Melbourne. Often this water has a
high mineral content and must be treated before it can
Option 1: Build more dams
be used for drinking and other household uses. This
Across Australia, governments are thinking about water could be used for industrial purposes, such as to
building more dams to create a reliable water supply for clean machinery and irrigate crops. This would allow
our growing population. Dams can also be used to create drinking water, currently used for these other purposes,
hydroelectric power when water let through the dam to be added to the city’s water supplies. This idea of using
wall turns a turbine to create electricity. lower-quality water for non-domestic purposes has been
considered in many Australian cities.
Source 2.29 Water from rainfall soaks into

permeable rock. This water-bearing rock
is known as an aquifer. The water cannot
penetrate the impermeable rock below. Water re-enters
Wells (or bores) are drilled into the aquifer to
the aquifer
pump water to the surface.
bores
Layer of permeable
rock
aquifer
Layer of impermeable Water soaks into the

rock permeable layer (aquifer)
Direction of water
movement

Option 3: Build desalination plants
Desalination plants treat sea water to remove from it the
salt and other impurities (see Source 2.30). This process,
known as reverse osmosis, turns sea water into fresh
water for drinking. As Australia has easy access to a vast
supply of sea water, desalination plants are an attractive
option for many cities.
There are three main reasons why there are not more
of them already:
• Desalination plants cost a lot of money, making the
Source 2.31 Huge pipes carry water beneath our city streets. Here,
water they produce expensive. The Perth desalination pipes are being laid in Brisbane.
plant, opened in 2006, cost $387 million to build and
adds about $44 a year to every consumer’s water bills. One proposal currently involves piping water not just
• Desalination plants use a lot of electricity and can hundreds of kilometres but thousands. For many years,
damage the environment. It has been estimated that there has been an idea to pipe water from the Fitzroy
the Sydney desalination plant uses as much electricity River in the Kimberley region in north-western Western
as 120 000 households. A new power plant had to be Australia to the city of Perth. This pipeline would need to
built to run it, adding to the cost. be 3700 kilometres long. The cost of transporting water
• Desalination plants can damage the environment. this far through steel pipes is much greater than other
They release highly concentrated salt water (brine) options, such as desalination plants, and so this method
back into the ocean, which can harm marine animals. is unlikely to be used in the near future. It will also cause
environmental problems at the source of the water and
Option 4: Build water pipelines would require large amounts of energy to build and operate.
Perhaps the simplest method of ensuring a reliable water
supply is to move water from areas that have a surplus.
Option 5: Capture and store storm water
This already happens in most Australian cities. Rainwater Storm water is collected in pipes and gutters and
is collected in catchments in the hills and forests close discharged in the sea or rivers. Rainwater tanks capture
to cities and piped to treatment plants and then to this fresh water but cities have not been designed to
water users. collect this water on a large scale.
Filters remove salt

Storage from the water.
tank for the
desalinated
water
Sea water intake
Desalinated water
is pumped into
the water supply.
Brine (very salty

water) is pumped
Source 2.30 How a desalination plant works back into the sea.

In Adelaide, there is a plan to capture this water
through existing pipes and treat it in the current water-
treatment facilities. In this way, it could be added
relatively easily to the city’s drinking water.
Option 6: Recycle and treat wastewater

and sewage
Water that leaves our homes is generally unsuitable to be
used again. In using the water to clean clothes, dishes and
ourselves and to flush toilets we have polluted the water.
Source 2.32 At this plant in Singapore, waste water (sewerage) is
This water (known as wastewater or sewage) is usually processed and then used in industry or blended with rainwater for use
piped to a treatment plant where it is cleaned and purified in homes.
and then released back into rivers and bays. In some
places, notably Singapore and Windhoek (see Broadsheet Check your learning 2.8
1.3) in Namibia, this water is added to rainwater and
piped back into homes and to other water users. Remember and understand
1 In your own words, describe what a sustainable
resource is.
keyconcept: sustainability 2 List five different ways that governments might
investigate to find extra water resources for growing
Toowoomba says ‘No’ to cities.
drinking sewage 3 When a new dam is built across a river, what problems
are caused for people and wildlife upstream from
In trying to use our resources sustainably, we sometimes the dam?
have to change our attitudes and behaviours. While many 4 How can aquifers be used to provide and to store water?
Australians believe that we should use less water or use 5 What are the advantages and disadvantages of
water from different sources, it can be difficult to convince desalination?
people to change. In 2006, for example, the people of
6 Where does the water that you use at home come
Toowoomba were faced with a difficult decision about
from? Where does it go when you are finished using it?
water.
At that time, Toowoomba’s three dams had fallen Apply and analyse
to critical levels. The town council proposed a radical 7 What plan for recycling did Toowoomba residents
solution. The town would treat its sewage to a high level, oppose? Do you think the recycling plan was a
store the treated sewage in a dam for three to five years good idea?
and then add it to the town’s freshwater supplies. 8 Why doesn’t Perth pipe water from wet places in
The supporters of the scheme pointed out that this is Western Australia?
exactly the system used successfully in parts of California
and Singapore, and that the technology exists to treat the Evaluate and create
sewage to a safe, clean, drinkable level. The opponents of 9 For the capital city in your state, complete the following
the scheme called it ‘drinking poo’ and voiced concerns activities:
about the town’s reputation as a tourist centre and about a Research the city’s current water supply. Which of
potential health hazards. the water supply methods described here does it
The campaigning was fierce for months before the currently use?
vote. In the end, 62 per cent of Toowoomba’s population b Which of these methods do you believe should be
voted ‘no’ to the proposal, leaving the council in the difficult used to add to this water supply?
position of having to find other sources of fresh water. For c What impacts would these new methods of water
more information on the key concept of sustainability, refer supply have on the natural environment and the
to section GT.1 of ‘The geographer’s toolkit’. cost of water?

New ways of thinking about water
As global pressure on water resources increases, water Blue water and green water
experts are beginning to think of water in new ways.
New terms for describing types of water and usage have Historically, water suppliers have focused on the capture
been devised, including virtual water, and blue and and supply of blue water (that is, water in storages, such
green water. This new thinking is designed to promote as lakes, rivers and acquifers) over green water (that is,
a better understanding of the ways in which people rainwater stored in the soil as soil moisture). Green water
use water and will help to make water usage more is the water that remains in the soil to be used by plants.
sustainable. Farmers in dry regions, such as the interior of Australia,
need to understand how to manage both their blue water
resources and their green water resources. Installing a
Virtual water
rainwater tank to collect and store water for later use is
The amount of water used to produce a good or service an example of blue water management. Adding a layer of
is called virtual water. This includes the water used to mulch to slow the evaporation of water from the soil is
grow crops or raise animals as well as the water needed an example of green water management.
in processing these crops and animals into products.
Experts coined the term virtual water because we cannot Water footprints
actually see how much water went into producing the
goods and services we consume every day. For example, The total amount of water you consume each year is
15 000 litres of water are needed to produce just known as your water footprint. This includes the real
1 kilogram of beef. This 15 000 litres of water is known water you consume (by drinking, bathing and cleaning)
as virtual water. and the virtual water you use through your consumption
It is often impossible to move real water between of goods and services. The total volume of water used
water-rich countries and water-poor countries. It is, by everyone who lives in a country, including the water
however, relatively simple to transport virtual water in used to produce exported goods, is the national water
the form of goods, such as meat and wheat. This helps to footprint.
support water-poor countries with their water needs. The size of a country’s water footprint is largely
determined by the country’s:
• climate, especially the amount of rainfall and
Source 2.33 One kilogram of rice contains 1500 litres of virtual evaporation
water, making it one of the world’s thirstiest crops.

• farming methods, especially how efficiently water is used
• production and consumption of crops
• general consumption and production patterns.
Countries where people eat lots of beef and rice and buy many
manufactured goods use more water than countries where
people eat mainly vegetables and have few personal goods.
Australians are one of the world’s biggest water users. It is
estimated that Australia’s population will increase to about
35 million by 2056 and this will place a great strain on an
already stressed water-supply network. Experts believe that
Australia’s capital cities, for example, will need 76 per cent
more water by 2056 than is currently supplied.
The good news is that Australians have embraced new
water-saving measures. Despite the population of Australia
increasing by 7.7 per cent between 2003 and 2009, the amount
of water used by households actually fell by 12 per cent. This is
due largely to water restrictions in many capital cities and the
use of new technologies, such as dual-flush toilets and water-
saving showerheads.

1 What is virtual water?
2 What is the difference between blue water and green water?
3 Why is it important to understand virtual water when working
out your water footprint?
4 How can an understanding of virtual water help water-rich
countries to decide what to produce and export?
Apply and analyse

5 Source 2.34 states that the world is thirsty because it is
hungry.
a What does this mean?
b What evidence is presented to support this idea?
6 Look carefully at the image of the Chinese farmer working in
his rice fields (Source 2.33).
a How is he using water as a resource?
b How is he able to control the flow on water in his fields?
c Explain how this makes his use of water more
sustainable.
Evaluate and create

Source 2.34 A poster from the United Nations that uses the 7 Draw a poster to be displayed in your school canteen or
idea of virtual water to communicate a message tuckshop that makes students aware of the ways in which
their food choices impact on water supplies in Australia.

skilldrill
The Wodaabe nomads Understanding flow maps

Communities in extreme environments develop ways of life Flow maps show the movement of things
from one place to another (for example,
that allow them to survive and thrive. In the south-eastern
people or goods). Flow maps can be simple
part of Niger, in Africa, live the Wodaabe people. They live or complex. They can show the movement
in a desert region where water is often scarce and feed for of one group of people around a small area
or compare the movement of many different
their cattle is in short supply. In response to these conditions
goods around the world. Depending on what
they have become nomads and rarely stay in one place for they are showing, flow maps use arrows of
more than 10 days. They follow the seasonal rains across the different colours and sizes. These arrows help
the person making the map show different
desert as rain brings grass for the cattle; this takes them on a
things moving around and the numbers of
route they have followed for hundreds of years. these things. Here are some steps that will
help you understand flow maps:
Step 1 Read the title of the map carefully,
as this will tell you exactly what is being
shown.
Step 2 Look at the legend on the map. This will
tell you what the different coloured arrows
on the map are showing and provide you
extra information that you may need (like the
time of year this movement happens).
Step 3 Look for patterns in the movements
shown on the map. Are the movements
related to changes in the weather, to
the time of year, to political or economic
factors or all of these things?
Step 4 Once you have identified the pattern
Source 2.35 Packing up the homestead to follow the rains
being shown, try to explain the reasons
The seasonal migrations of the Wodaabe take them from the clay plains for it.
near Lake Chad to the sandy soils away from the lake. Over the last few Apply the skill
decades the lake has become smaller as other communities in the area have
1 Describe the movement of the Wodaabe
used its water for irrigation. This has meant that the Wodaabe’s have had
during the months of May and June.
to change annual migration routes. The reduction in the size of the lake has
meant that more grass is able to grow on land that was once covered in water, 2 Where do the Wodaabe travel to from the
but it has also meant that freshwater supplies have become less reliable. beginning of July to mid September?
3 In your own words, explain the pattern
Source 2.36 Climate data: Nguigmi, Niger being shown in Source 2.37.
Months Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Rainfall (mm) 0 0 0 1 5 11 55 100 15 1 0 0
Temperature (°C) 21 24 28 31 33 33 31 30 30 29 25 22

SOUTH-EASTERN NIGER: NATURAL ENVIRONMENTS AND SEASONAL MIGRATION ROUTES OF THE WODAABE
Nguigmi CHAD
NIGER Former extent
of Lake Chad
Niger
Area of map NIGER CHAD NIGERIA
Current extent
of Lake Chad CAMEROON
LEGEND
Landscapes
Clay plains
Clay plains with low elevation
Sandy plateaus and valleys,
sand dunes
Sand dunes, valleys
Komadougou Yobe river bed
(most recent)
Former banks of the lake
Former Lake Chad (currently no
water in Nigerien territory)
Seasonal migrations of nomads and
livestock
Fo
Leaving the clay plains at the start
be
rm
Yo of the rainy season (May/June)
er
ou Returning to the clay plains (early
ex
ug
ten
o July to mid September)
d
ma
t of
Spreading out on the clay plains
Ko (September to May)
La
ke
Ch Road
NIGERIA ad
River
Country border
0 15 30 km
1 Clay plains with low elevation are the best

areas for the Wodaabe to graze their
cattle in the dry season. Why? Describe
the location of the clay plains with low
elevation.
2 Construct a climate graph for Nguigmi
in Niger using climate data provided in
Source 2.36.
a When is the rainy season?
b When is the dry season?
3 Would you describe the Wodaabe as
voluntary migrants?
4 Source 2.35 shows a Wodaabe family
packing their belongings, to follow the
rains. Describe their possessions. How
many donkeys would your family need
to move?
Source 2.38 Young men of the Wodaabe tribe

2.3 How do we respond to floods?
Why rivers flood

Natural factors Location of human
Put simply, rivers flood because they are settlements
forced to carry more water than they
can hold. This process is like filling a
glass from the tap but leaving the tap
dripping into the glass after it’s full. Every
river, like every glass, can only hold a Natural disaster
certain amount of water. This is known
as its carrying capacity. Heavy rain or a
collapsed dam can cause a river to exceed
its carrying capacity and force it to burst River in flood
its banks. As a result, water covers the

surrounding land.
The soil carried by the river is spread Source 2.39 A flood is a natural event, but becomes a disaster if humans are
across the surrounding land. Over adversely affected by it.
millions of years and thousands of
floods the land near the river is slowly
built up and, appropriately, is called a
floodplain. Billions of people around the
world choose to live on these floodplains
because of the fertile soil, flat land and
ready supply of fresh water. The world’s Flood hotspot:
floodplains support billions of people, river mouth
many of whom live with the constant
threat of floods.
Flood hotspot:
Human factors narrow gorge
Some human activities make rivers more
likely to flood, endangering both natural
and human environments. Clearing the
natural vegetation, such as trees and Flood hotspot:
plants, growing on the sides of hills may two streams meeting
result in more water flowing into rivers
instead of being used by these trees and
plants. Replacing natural environments
(such as forests, grasslands, wetlands and
soil) with hard surfaces (such as concrete
and roads) also means that water does Source 2.40 Rivers tend to flood in particular places, shown here as hotspots.

not soak into the ground; instead, it flows across it. The presence of so
many communities, towns and cities also increases the flood risk. Rivers
naturally flood. In areas where there are no humans this is considered a
natural process, but in areas where there are lots of people, these natural
events turn into potential and real disasters.
In some places, large artificial banks known as stopbanks or levees
have been built to help protect communities from floods. While they
help defend the community from small floods they sometimes make
the effects of a large flood much worse. The river runs faster and deeper
between the levees and is able to carry more water. During a major flood
the water may have nowhere to go if it meets an incoming tide or storm
surge at the river mouth. The water then banks up behind the levees
and may spill over into surrounding areas.
If the levee collapses from the strain of holding back Source 2.42 The first of many giant sandbags is
the floodwaters, this can result in catastrophic flooding lowered by helicopter to close a hole in a levee
following Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans, USA.
as the water floods through a narrow gap with terrifying
force. This occurred in the US city of New Orleans in
2005 when Hurricane Katrina brought torrential rain
and a storm surge up to 9 metres high. Levees protecting
much of the city collapsed and more than 1800 people
were killed. 1 What is a floodplain and why do so many people live
on them? Do you live on a floodplain?
2 What is a levee and how can it reduce flooding in some
reservoir areas?
3 List some of the human activities that may contribute
to flooding. Select one of these and explain why it may
lead to a flood. You may wish to use a sketch in your
explanation.
Apply and analyse

4 Explain why floods are more likely at each of the
hotspots shown in Source 2.40.
levee
5 Do you think that the attempt to repair the levee in
Source 2.42 will be successful? Give some reasons for
your answer.
6 Examine a map of Australia online or in your atlas that
shows our largest cities and towns. List the Australian
cities of over 1 million people that are located on flood
plains at the mouth of rivers. What is the largest town
or city that you can find that is not located in one of
these hazardous places? What does this tell you about
the flood threat in Australia?
collapsed
Evaluate and create
levee
7 Why do levees sometimes make the effects of flooding
worse? Design a flood protection system that you
believe would work better than a levee. Conduct some
more research to assist you in designing your system.
Source 2.41 A levee before and after its collapse Sketch your design and label the key features.

Floods in Australia
Most towns and cities in Australia are located close to types of rivers. Australia is the world’s flattest continent,
rivers, but some experience more floods than others. so generally our inland rivers flow, and flood, slowly.
This is due to a combination of important geographical Those that flow from the mountains to the sea, however,
factors, particularly rainfall patterns and river geography. tend to flow and flood more quickly and this can be
As you have already learned, different places experience devastating for the people who live beside them.
different types of rainfall but there are also different
AUSTRALIA: FLOODS
George
2007
Darwin
PACIFIC
INDIAN Katherine
OCEAN
1879
OCEAN Glenda
2 011
2006 Yasi
Cairns
Steve 2000
Nor thern Larry 2006
Ingham 1927
Territ or y
Burdekin River
1930
Quee nslan d Clermont
Alice Springs 1870; 1916
Tropic o
fCapricorn
Birdsville
Weste rn Charleville
1990
Austr alia
South Lake Eyre
Toowoomba Brisbane
1893;1928;
1927; 2011
1974; 2011
Geraldton Austr alia Bourke
Lismore 1954
1894 er
Riv 1885; 1890
ng
rli New South
Da Bolwarra 1857
Perth
1862 Wales Hunter Valley 1955
M Eastern Creek 1950
ur
ra
Adelaide y Sydney 1950
Gundagai
Nowra 1860
Ri
Charlton 1852
ve
Canberra 1971
r
Victo ria ACT Araluen 1860

Melbourne
1934
LEGEND
Great Di
Dividing
ivid Range Average sea surface
temperature (°Celsius)
Floods
Over 28
Coastal rivers
riv – short-duration rapid-onset floods
22 to 28
rivers
ver – long-duration slow-rise floods
Inland riv
16 to 22
Tasma nia
Low flood
L fl d hazard Hobart
Under 16 1929
Perth Major flood location, year
1862 Cyclones
Flood fatalities Coastal crossings in the last 50 years
Over 30 Over 10 Under 10
21 to 30 Major cyclone since 2000
11 to 20 Yasi Cyclone name, year
2011
Under 10 0 250 500 km

Inland rivers
The rain that falls on inland Australia flows into one of
our many inland river systems. Some of these never
reach the sea as they flow into large salt pans, such as
Kati Thanda (Lake Eyre). Once a decade or so, enough
rain falls in central Australia to fill Kati Thanda, creating
Australia’s largest lake. The rivers that flood these inland
regions and fill the lake move very slowly, giving people
time to prepare for them. Farming communities and Source 2.45 In early 2011 about one-quarter of Victoria was
affected by major flooding. In some inland towns, such as Charlton,
towns may be isolated for weeks if roads are covered by the floodwaters took many weeks to recede.
floodwaters but few lives are lost in these slow-onset
floods.
Some of our inland rivers, however, can be deadly.
Coastal rivers
Much of the rain that falls in inland eastern Australia Most of Australia’s most devastating floods occur on
flows into the Murray–Darling river system and our coastal rivers, particularly along the eastern coast.
eventually reaches the sea near Adelaide. Some of the During summer, tropical cyclones and thunderstorms
rivers in this system can rise quickly with little warning. often dump heavy rain on the eastern slopes of the
The deadliest flood in Australia’s history, for example, Great Dividing Range (see Source 2.43). This rain fi lls
occurred when the Murrumbidgee River destroyed the the short, fast-flowing rivers in the area to bursting
small New South Wales town of Gundagai in June 1852. point, causing rapid-onset floods. Towns and farming
Swollen by torrential rain the river rose and washed away communities at the foot of the ranges, such as Clermont
all but three of the town’s houses. Eighty-nine people and Toowoomba, are most in danger.
lost their lives, and many more were saved from the
floodwaters by local Aboriginal men.
In southern New South Wales and northern Victoria, Check your learning 2.11
floods may be caused by summer thunderstorms or by a
series of cold fronts sweeping in from the south. These
fronts, created when warm air is forced above cold air, 1 Why do Australia’s inland rivers flow slowly? How does
may bring heavy rain along the southern coast and into this affect the types of floods that occur in the interior?
much of the southern Murray–Darling Basin. 2 Seven Australian floods have resulted in more than
30 fatalities. Where and when did they occur?
Source 2.44 The Diamantina River, shown here flowing past
Birdsville in western Queensland, carries floodwaters to Kati Thanda
Apply and analyse
several times a decade. 3 Which areas of Australia are most at risk from
dangerous floods? Why?
4 What questions could you ask to investigate the flood
risk in your local area?
5 What do you notice about the temperature of the sea
and the risk from tropical cyclones?
6 In what ways does the Great Dividing Range influence
the flood risk in eastern Australia?
7 Fourteen of the fifteen most disastrous floods in
Australian history occurred more than 50 years ago.
Do you think this means that we are experiencing
fewer floods or are there other explanations for this?
Discuss this with a partner and brainstorm the possible
explanations.

How floods affect people
and places
Major floods can have devastating effects
on different regions all over the world.
In large cities, hard concrete and asphalt
surfaces mean that very little water soaks
away through the soil. Instead, roads can
quickly turn into rivers, with terrifying
results.
In farming regions whole crops can
be uprooted and washed away, along
with much of the rich topsoil. Expensive
farming machines and equipment can be
damaged or destroyed by floodwaters and
livestock can also be lost.
In some countries, floods lead to
widespread famine and starvation, with
large death tolls. In Pakistan in 2010,
nearly 2000 people died from flooding Source 2.46 Volunteers remove flood debris from houses in the Brisbane suburb of
and 17 million people were affected. Fairfield on 16 January 2011.
Source 2.47 A Pakistani farmer and his family became stranded by floodwaters in 2010 and were left without
food and medical supplies. The biggest challenge they faced, however, was a lack of fresh, clean water.

Source 2.50 These villagers in Pakistan compete for food supplies
being dropped by an army helicopter after severe flooding in 2010.

1 What are some of the ways in which people’s health
Source 2.48 In flat regions, such as western Victoria, floodwaters can be affected during floods?
can make farming impossible for months at a time.
2 Why does it cost so much to clean up after floods?
a Who are the people in the photograph and what are
they doing?
b Where has all the rubbish come from?
Apply and analyse

a How can the people shown possibly be suffering
from a lack of water?
b How might food aid reach this family?
5 What are some of the short-term and long-term effects
of fl ooding?
6 Which of the flood effects shown on these pages do
you believe will have the most lasting impact? Give
some reasons for your answer.
Evaluate and create

7 Study Source 2.50. Imagine you have been sent into
this region to report on the effects of the flood. Write
a report on the effects on the people who live in this
area. Present it as a newspaper report or as a script for
Source 2.49 This beetroot farm in the Lockyer Valley in Queensland a television news report.
had huge quantities of valuable topsoil washed away in 2011.

Queensland’s ‘inland tsunami’
The deadliest floods in Australia in more than 70 years QUEENSLAND: RAINFALL, OCTOBER TO DECEMBER 2010
struck south-eastern Queensland in January 2011. In late
LEGEND
2010, a combination of record monsoonal rains and a Rainfall
tropical cyclone soaked Queensland’s river catchments. Highest on record
Very much above average
The period from July to December 2010 was the wettest Above average
six months ever recorded in Australia, and December Average
2010 was the wettest month on record for Queensland. Area shown in Source 2.51
Cairns
By early January, many Queensland rivers were in
flood. Towns had been evacuated, businesses destroyed,
Townsville
schools closed, farms swept away, and roads and railway
lines cut. Thousands of homes were flooded, but the Mount Isa
Mackay
worst was to come. 0 250 500 km
The city of Toowoomba sits 700 metres above sea level Tropic of Capricorn
on the Great Dividing Range. Rain that falls to the west
of Toowoomba flows into the Darling River and begins
Lockyer Creek
a long journey of about 3000 kilometres to the sea near Condamine River
Caboolture
Adelaide (see Source 2.52). Rain that falls to the east of Toowoomba Brisbane
Toowoomba flows into the headwaters of the Lockyer
Darling River
Creek and reaches the sea at Brisbane.
On 10 January 2011, a severe thunderstorm dumped

more than 60 millimetres of rain on the town in an
hour. This caused a flash flood to surge through the
town, flooding the town centre and washing away
cars and people. Many pedestrians and motorists had
to be rescued as roads became rivers. The Queensland
Police Commissioner described the flood as an ‘inland
instant tsunami’.
Between the Great Dividing Range and Brisbane sits
the Lockyer Valley. As the thunderstorm that affected
Toowoomba crossed the valley, it continued to dump
torrential rain. When combined with the runoff from
Toowoomba, the already swollen creeks could not
cope. Moving down the valley with great speed and
terrifying force, the floodwaters slammed into the towns
of Murphys Creek, Postmans Ridge, Helidon, Grantham
(see Broadsheet 2.3) and Gatton. A survivor described the
flood as ‘a wall of water’, as creeks rose up to 15 metres
above their normal level in a few minutes.
Thirty-five people died in the floods. More than
Source 2.51 The appropriately named Water Street in Toowoomba’s 78 per cent of Queensland (an area bigger than France
central business district became a waterway in minutes.

and Germany combined) was declared a disaster zone, with over
2.5 million people affected. Floodwaters also affected the Bremer and
Brisbane Rivers with Ipswich and some Brisbane suburbs also flooded.
More than one-quarter of Queensland’s rail network was destroyed and
9000 kilometres of roads were damaged. The total cost of the floods was 1 Why did the streams and rivers of this
estimated to be as high as $20 billion. region overflow and flood?
2 What is a thunderstorm?
LOCKYER VALLEY FLOOD, JANUARY 2011
3 How did the Great Dividing Range
GR
Kilcoy 1 Torrential rain falls along the Great affect the movement of floodwaters
EA
Dividing Range.
from Toowoomba?
T
2 Streams running from the range swell

DI
DI
VI
NG with wa
water and overflow their banks.
RA
Crows Nest
NG
s
3 Towns such as Grantham and Gatton,
located where streams join together,
Apply and analyse
E Esk
are deva
devasted by floodwaters.
Murphys Creek Wivenhoe 4 Floodwaters
Floodwa from the Lockyer Valley 4 List the causes of this flood under
Dam
Withcott join those
thos from the Bremer and
Brisban
Brisbane rivers to flood downstream two headings: natural causes and
k
ee cities, ssuch as Ipswich and Brisbane.
cit
Cr human causes. You may like to refer
r
2 kye Brisban er
1
Helidon
He lidon
do 3 Loc e Riv Brisbane back to the ‘Why do rivers flood?’
Toowoomba
Toowoomb
owoom
wo
oom
om
mbba
ba Gatton Forest Hill spread earlier in this chapter to review
4
er Ipswich
Laidley Riv the human activities that may lead to
er
G RE
Grantham
m
LEGEND
flooding.
Bre
AT
Highest
Land relief 5 On a map of Australia showing flood
DI
Lowest
regions (see Source 2.43), locate
VI
Urban area
DI
NG
Lockyer Valley catchment the town of Toowoomba. Follow the

Major road
A course of rivers from Toowoomba
R
N Path and direction of water flows

G
E to the Murray mouth. Do you think
Scale varies in this oblique view
Ipswich to Toowoomba = 80 kilometres
the flash flood caused flooding at the
Source 2.53 Source: Oxford University Press mouth of the Murray River? Give some
reasons for your answer.
6 Describe the rainfall received in
Queensland in the last three months
of 2010. How did this rain contribute
to flooding in January 2011?
7 Examine the map of the Lockyer Valley
(Source 2.53). Why is the town of
Grantham most at risk from flooding?
8 The Lockyer Valley is an area of
rich farming land. Sometimes called
‘Queensland’s salad bowl’, it is home
to many fruit and vegetable growers.
What resources in the region attract
farmers to the Lockyer Valley? How do
you think farmers were affected by the
flood? How would this impact on other
Australians?
Source 2.54 Downstream from the town of Grantham the rail

bridge was covered by the debris carried by the floodwaters.

Preparing for floods
Floods are part of the natural cycle of many rivers, so lines and help meteorologists make predictions about
it is almost impossible to prevent them entirely. There temperature, wind and rainfall. Although they may
are, however, many steps that we can take to lessen the appear confusing at first, the symbols on a weather map
impact of floods on people and places. These can be are codes and, as with all codes, once you know the
grouped into three categories. First, we can predict where secret, you can read the message.
and when there will be flooding so people have time to
prepare. Second, we can ensure that people, homes and
communities in flood-prone regions are prepared. Finally, Source 2.56 Weather map symbols
when a flood does strike we can respond quickly and Symbol Name Explanation
efficiently to save lives and make the affected area safe.
Isobar A line connecting places with
1012 the same air pressure; the
How do we know floods are 1016 closer together the isobars,
the stronger the wind
coming?
High pressure cell Air rotates anticlockwise
Floods in Australia are caused by heavy rain. To predict H around a sinking air mass;
where and when heavy rain will fall, meteorologists use conditions are warm and dry
thousands of observations from radar, weather balloons,
satellites and other sources. They use their observations Low pressure cell Air rotates clockwise around
to forecast the weather and inform the public about a rising air mass; conditions
L are cool and wet
upcoming weather events. This includes issuing flood
alerts and warnings.
The basic tool of weather prediction is a weather map. Cold front A line showing where cold
Weather maps show what is happening to the air in air moves into an area and
forces warm air to rise, cool
the atmosphere. Air rises and falls and this movement and cause rain; cold fronts
is measured with a barometer as air pressure. Air rises move in the direction of the
when it is heated and sinks when it is cooled. Because the arrowheads
Earth is spinning, the rising and sinking air also spins. Warm front A line showing where warm
We feel this spinning air as wind. Water droplets in air moves into an area,
rises and cools; this often
rising air may cool and join together to create rainfall. produces light rain and
Weather maps show the air pressure as a series of showers
Source 2.55 A thunderstorm rolls into Port Hedland, Trough line A long area of rising air, often
Western Australia. bringing a line of rain and
sometimes thunderstorms
Rainfall On some weather maps,

shading is used to indicate
a region where rain is likely
to fall
Tropical cyclone Air rises rapidly and rotates

TC clockwise with a calm centre;
conditions are extremely
windy and wet, and flooding
is likely; cyclones move in the
direction of the arrow

AUSTRALIA: WEATHER MAP, 10 JANUARY 2011
110°E 120°E 130°E 140°E 150°E
04 10°S
10
L
x L
1000 x
998 x
L
L
999 x 20°S
1002
12
30°S
10
Source 2.59 The Bureau of Meteorology issues
flood warnings that are broadcast on television
and other media.
10
H
20
10
28 x 40°S
1029 Check your learning 2.14
H
x
1033 Remember and understand
1 What are three things that people can
2
101
0 500 1000 km 50°S
do to lessen the impacts of floods?
2 What is a cold front?
Source 2.57 Source: Bureau of Meteorology
3 How could Source 2.57 be used to
lessen the impacts of flooding?
4 North-eastern Victoria experienced
heavy rain and major flooding on
10 January 2011. What was the cause
of this rain?
5 On 10 January 2011 it was a windy
day in Perth. From which direction did
the wind blow? Do you think Hobart
was windier or calmer than Perth on
that day?
Apply and analyse

6 What relationship do you notice
between clouds and trough lines
when comparing the satellite image
(Source 2.58) with the weather map
(Source 2.57).
7 Source 2.57 is a weather map that
shows the situation on the day on
which devastating floods hit the
Lockyer Valley (see earlier in this
chapter). What type of weather can
this region of Queensland expect to
Source 2.58 Satellite image of Australia on 10 January 2011
receive in the next few days?

Managing floods
Individuals living in flood-prone areas should be prepared for a flood. The
government department responsible for managing disasters, Australian
Emergency Management, recommends following the three steps outlined
in Source 2.62.
At the regional level, there are a number of ways that local
communities can prepare for a flood. Some of these involve changing
the physical environment to reduce the flood risk. Flood engineers and
local councils examine the local environment and consider the impacts
of previous floods when designing flood-protection strategies.
Case study: Longford, Tasmania

The town of Longford in the north-east of Tasmania sits at the junction
of two rivers (the Macquarie River and the South Esk River) on a relatively
flat floodplain. Heavy rain can swell the two rivers and when they meet
the waters spread across the plain. This can bring severe flooding to
nearby towns, such as Longford and Perth, and to the city of Launceston,
which sits at the mouth of the South Esk. In 1929, floods submerged parts
of Longford under metres of water and made 4500 people homeless.
The people of Longford have responded to this flood risk. Using
records of floods in the past, flood engineers have estimated the areas
likely to be flooded once every 20 years, once every 50 years and once
Source 2.61 A temporary levee put in place during
every century (see Source 2.60). This allows the local council to consider
a flood in Longford, Tasmania in 2011
rules about building in these places, residents to prepare their flood
plan, and engineers to design systems to control the flooding.
Source 2.62 Disaster management steps
Ask Find out about floods in your local

FLOODPLAIN MAP OF PART OF NORTH LONGFORD
area. Have there been floods before
LEGEND et and, if so, was your house or area
Mac ver
tre
Wellin
Possible flood frequency S affected?

ion
Ri
et
qua
t St George’s
Un ree
Ge
Once every tre 100 years et St

yS
org
re Sportsground
g
ri
a 143 St mi
th Learn Find out how the flood warning
e
ton S
OnceGevery 50 years
e
s on S system works. The Bureau of

St
Once every 20 years Ma

Lal
ree
Bowling
t
Meteorology issues flood watches,

reet
or S
t
Buildings Club
flood warnings and severe weather
tree
Contour (interval 1 m)
146 t warnings. They use terms such as
t
ree
t ree
t St eet minor, moderate, major, localised
kS mi
th Str
Go
r et
Ho
Pa S tre on and flash to describe flooding. You

tlet
de
wi
r S 147 Lyt
142
should learn what these mean.

ric
Wellin
e
ck
h
143
c
Ha
hS
144 Ar
St
14
15
yS
tre
0
ree
Plan and Put together a flood plan that

4
g
151
et
tre
ton S
t
prepare describes what you will do in

et
Cemetery
Back Creek
the event of a flood. Keep a list

t
reet
14
reet
m St
t
Willia
5
S
of emergency phone numbers,

rough
St
prepare an emergency kit (including

nham
important documents to take with

Stre rine
Sportsground
14
6
Marlb
14
et
you if you evacuate) and take into

6
he
Primary
Pake
0 100 200 m
Cat
School account people with special needs,

such as the elderly or disabled.

Based on this and further investigations, a levee has
been constructed beside the river junction at the northern
end of the town. Made of soil and rock, the levee is
4.5 kilometres long and is designed to stop floodwaters
entering the town. It has been designed to cope with
the type of flood that Longford receives once a century.
Large steel gates have been placed in the levee wall to
allow creeks to flow to the main rivers when there are no
floods. There are also temporary flood levee walls stored in
Longford that can be quickly erected in a major flood. Source 2.63 Steel gates are installed in the levee at Longford, Tasmania.
Communicating depending on the audience. For Remember and understand

example, the engineer may need 1 Describe how a levee can help reduce
your findings information such as land use flooding.
maps and rainfall data, whereas
When geographers have completed 2 Why is Longford at risk of flooding?
the family may need a simple
an inquiry it is important that 3 How would each of these people use
brochure outlining what they
they tell other people about what the floodplain map of part of Longford
should do in case of a flood.
they have found. For example, a North in Source 2.60:
Depending on the audience your
geographer studying the impacts • a flood engineer
report may be verbal; it may use
of a major flood in Longford should sound, pictures or video; it may • a person moving to Longford and
communicate the results of their use maps; or it may be a written intending to build a house
inquiry to the local council and report. • a farmer who uses the land next
perhaps also to local residents. to the river.
Step 4 Use the results of your
There are a few steps to follow
investigation to reach your Apply and analyse
when communicating your results:
chosen audience.
Step 1 Think about the type 4 You are listening to the radio when
of audience you will be Apply the skill a flash flooding alert is issued for
communicating your findings to. 1 Identify the different groups of your local area. In teams of three,
Think carefully about who needs people in Longford that would brainstorm the five most important
to know your results. be interested in the findings items in a flood emergency kit.
of a geographical inquiry into Compare your list with your
Step 2 Consider the purpose of
flooding there. classmates’ lists. Were there any items
your communication. What
2 What would be the most that all teams named?
are you trying to achieve?
effective ways of communicating 5 Examine Source 2.60.
This may differ according to
your findings to each of these a How often are floods expected to
your audience. You may, for
groups? Why? affect the Longford Bowling Club?
example, be trying to convince
3 Design a brochure to be given b Approximately how many buildings
a trained flood engineer at the
council to install a levee, or either to campers arriving at are affected once every 20 years?
you may be warning a family the Longford Riverside Caravan
holidaying at the local caravan Park or to local residents. Follow
park. the steps provided to inform
Step 3 Decide on the most campers or residents about
effective means of reaching the flood risk in the region and
your audience. This will differ the ways in which they should
respond if there is a flood.

2.3 bigideas: broadsheet To interpret overlay maps correctly, follow these steps:
Step 1 Look carefully at the map title and legend. Features
Grantham fl oods, that are shown on the overlay map will be shown in the
legend. Looking at the legend on both layers will give you
an idea of how the features shown are linked.
Queensland Step 2 Look for features on the base map that help to explain
what is being shown on the overlay. For example, if the
overlay is showing a pattern of flooding in an area, look
Grantham, a small rural community in the
for rivers and streams on the base map that might have
Lockyer Valley, was devastated by the 2011 caused this.
floods. Local residents described the flood that Step 3 Next, look for other features that might explain the
swept through the town as a wall of water that pattern, such as contour lines on the base map. This will
help you to identify a link between the areas that flooded
appeared with little warning. The waters swept
and the height of the land.
from the Lockyer Creek across the neighbouring
Apply the skill
paddocks and into the town. Experts estimated
1 Using Source 2.64, complete the following tasks:
that the floodwaters were moving at 2 to a What type of map is being used for the base map?
3 metres per second and reached a depth of b What features or events is this overlay map showing the
2 metres within 10 to 15 minutes. link between?
c List three rivers or creeks that were responsible for the
flooding of Grantham in 2011.
Houses were swept away in the flood and people trying to d In which parts of the town do you think most people
escape in their cars were also caught. Twelve people died would have been affected by the flooding? What feature
in Grantham as a result of the flood and 130 homes were on the legend enables you to draw this conclusion?
destroyed or damaged. In the year after the flood some 2 Using a non-permanent marker trace over the 120-metre
Grantham residents moved away from the area and some contour line on the overlay map.
built new homes on higher land near the town. a What relationship do you notice between this line and
the pattern of the floodwaters in Grantham?
b What recommendations could you make to the
residents of Grantham to avoid flood damage to homes
skilldrill and properties in the future?
c Locate two places on the map that are unlikely to flood
Interpreting overlay maps and might be suitable sites to build a new town centre.
Shade these locations on the overlay map in a different
Source 2.64 is an overlay map of the town of Grantham in colour and add them to the legend.
Queensland. Overlay maps are semi-transparent maps (made d Draw in any new roads or rail lines that would be
of tracing paper or plastic) that sit on top of base maps of needed to connect these areas to the rest of the town.
the same area. The overlay shows how different features or e Which of the two sites you have identified would be
events happening in the same place are related to each other. best for a new town centre? Explain your choice.
For example, if a geographer is interested in exploring the
3 If you were to build a home of your own in Grantham,
links between major cities and flooding, they might create a
where would you position it? Mark this position on the
base map of Australia showing the location of major cities
overlay map and provide reasons for your location choice.
and rivers. This would then be covered with an overlay map
showing the extent of floods in these areas over a period of
time.

GRANTHAM TOPOGRAPHIC MAP WITH OVERLAY SHOWING 2011 FLOODWATERS
15 160
W
115
AD
D
0
160 PPla
lacid
acidd
Placid
BRIGALO
135
OA
150
ROAD
RO
51
Hi s
Hills
135
140
170
130
125
yards
a s
130
S
18 182
AN
120
ROAD
0 A
14
B
RG
OM
0
125
145
12
WO D
MO
5
O
TO ROA
CREEK
AD O LD
RO
130
drain
13
0
SANDY
12
120
0 n
12 ai
dr
S
ILP
San
120
M dy
AI
PH
N BOXMO
O 110
STREET R
50
LI
NE
12
12 RFS 115
5
LAW 0 Cre yards

LER
S ek
125
GA
ROAD
TT
ON S
ROAD sports ground AR
DORRS
M
drain ST
RO
RAILWAY
ST REET N
HE GRANTHAM G 117
AD
S
LID
RO
ON RO
115 AD
124 121
HA
OAD
RR
119 0
11
IS
49
LES R
120
WE
120 LL
S ROA
D
ST
CHAR
119
drain
27°35’S
RE
ET
Lockye k
r ee
0 Cr
k
14 119 Ma
Cree
115 Ma
0 120
13 125
abattoir 118
McLUC
120
AS ROA
ROAD
D
48
L
WINWIL
GRANTH
AM SCR
STREET
UB ROAD yards
120
KANSAS
130
130
150
0
140
13
AM
155
Grantham
POOLE
GRANTH
ROAD
Veradilla MISSO
Scrub URI ROAD
0
13
170
20 152°11’E 21 22 23 24
LEGEND
Primary road Vegetation Fence RFS
Secondary road Vineyard, orchard or plantation 140
Contour with value Rural building; Outbuilding
(interval 5 metres)
Minor road Yards
Built-up area Depression contour
Vehicle track S School
Recreational area 119 Spot height (metres)
Restricted access (sealed)
Watercourse Flooded area
Bridge Open area January 2011
Lake/dam
Cutting
Subject to inundation
Railway
Scale 1:25 000

metres 0 500 1000 1500 metres

skilldrill skilldrill
Showing height on maps Locating places on topographic maps

Maps are one of a geographer’s most useful tools but most The grid that is placed on a topographic map allows you to
maps only allow us to see the world in two dimensions – locate places very accurately. Each line on the grid is given
width and length. In order to see the third dimension, height, a two-digit number. The lines that run vertically are called
geographers use a special map known as a topographic map. eastings (because the numbers increase as you move east).
For more information on topographic maps refer to section The lines that run horizontally are called northings (because
GT.2 of ‘The geographer’s toolkit’. On a topographic map, the numbers increase as you move north). For a detailed
such as Source 2.64, brown squiggly lines have been added example of how to locate places on maps refer to section
to show the height of the land (you can see some of these GT.2 of ‘The geographer’s toolkit’.
lines clearly near the top of the map). These lines join together To locate points on topographic maps very accurately,
all places of equal height and are called contour lines. geographers use a six-figure grid reference (GR). For
You can work out not only the height of the land but, more example, the abattoir near Grantham is located at GR195483.
importantly, the shape of the land by following these steps: The method used to work out this grid reference is:
Step 1 Some of the contour lines have a number, such as Step 1 Put your finger on the bottom left-hand corner of the
120, written on them. This tells you that all of the places on square in which the feature you want to identify is located.
this line are exactly 120 metres above sea level. The two-digit number of this easting line will give you the
Step 2 You can work out the height of the lines without first two digits in the area reference.
numbers on them by counting down or up from the Step 2 Estimate the number of tenths that your feature is
numbered ones. For example, the line that is next to the located between this easting line and the one to the right
120 metre line will either be 125 metres or 115 metres of it. For example, if it is half way between the lines it will be
above sea level depending on whether it is uphill or five tenths. This number (5 in this case) is the third number
downhill from the 120 metre line. in the GR.
Step 3 Find places where the contour lines are close Step 3 From the bottom left-hand corner of the square in
together. This land will slope steeply. Places where the which your chosen feature is located follow the northing
contour lines are far apart are flat or gently sloping. line to the side of the map to find out the second two digits
in the area reference.
Apply the skill
Step 4 Estimate the number of tenths that your feature is
1 How high above sea level is the school?
located between this northing line on the bottom and the
2 In which direction does Lockyer Creek flow on this map? one on the top. This number is the last number in the GR.
3 Is Grantham built on flat land or hilly land?
Apply the skill
1 Complete the following table:
Extend your understanding Map feature Six-figure grid reference
Abattoir 195483
1 The rail bridge shown in Source 2.64 is located at GR 222498
221495 on the map. On which creek is this bridge located? Building at the sports ground
In which direction is this creek flowing? Railway line crossing Sandy Creek
2 Using Source 2.40, decide on which of the three flood

hotspots Grantham is located.
3 Following the flood in 2011 many Grantham residents built
new homes in the town at GR 240510. Why is this area
less likely to flood than the town of Grantham?

Place and
liveability
2
unit
Living in
Australia
Both Indigenous Australians and early
European settlers to Australia made
decisions about where to live based on
the available resources needed to survive
– water, food and shelter. The factors that
influence the liveability of places today
are more varied and include access to
services, environmental quality and safety.
Connections to family, friends and places
also influence where we live. Where we live
can also change over time due to a range
of factors, such as work and property
prices. In retirement, many people opt for
a sea change or tree change to enjoy a
more relaxed lifestyle.
3.1 3.2
Where do Australians live and why? Why are some places more liveable
1 What features shown in Source 3.1 tell you that many than others?
people live in the suburb of Bondi Beach?
1 As a class, list the different types of places people live in
2 Why do you think people choose to live in Australia, such as mining towns, coastal towns and so on.
Bondi Beach?
2 If you could live anywhere in Australia, where would it be?
Make a class list of your favourite places to live in Australia
and discuss the reasons for wanting to live there.

3
chapter
Source 3.1 An oblique aerial photograph looking south towards Bondi Beach and surrounding suburbs in Sydney
3.3
How do people connect to
different places?
1 What common interests might members of the
community in Bondi Beach have?
2 How might the lifesavers at Bondi Beach be considered
a community of their own?
chapter 3 living in australia 115

3.1 Where do Australians live and why?
Why we live where we do

The liveability of any place is closely linked to how
suitable and enjoyable you think that place is to live in.
How liveable you find a place to be depends on your own
wants and needs and whether they are met. What we like
about places can depend on our age, income, cultural
background, lifestyle, values and beliefs. The following
questions will help you to determine the features of places
that make them most liveable to you.
What do you like to do?

Access to services and facilities that allow us to do the
things we enjoy has an effect on what we think of the
place we live. This, in turn, increases how highly we rate
its liveability.
Sport and recreation play an important part in our
Source 3.3 Busy streets in cities can make moving around difficult.
lives. Team sports (such as netball, football and soccer) can
be played in most places. Community facilities (such as
sports stadiums and sporting parks) are provided in most
communities. If your passion is surfing, you might consider Where do you like to go?
a coastal town more liveable than an inland town. Horse
The places we like to go to, and how easy they are to get
riders might prefer to live in a rural area or on the edge of a
to, also affect the liveability of a place.
city, close to open spaces where they can keep their horses.
Where do you spend most of your time? Do you like
to catch up with friends, go to the movies, or shop at the
local shopping centre? How do you get there? Do you
walk, ride a bike, or catch a bus, tram or train? Think
about how easy it is for you to travel from your home
to where you like to go. Is it difficult? This could make
you feel negatively about where you live, decreasing its
liveability. Is there another place you could live that
might make it easier for you to travel to where you like to
go? If so, this would increase the liveability of that place
for you.
What are your favourite places?

We all have places that are special to us. There are many
different reasons for this. Some places appeal because
Source 3.2 Some activities, such as horse riding, require
lots of space. of the way they look. This is known as the aesthetic

appeal. Others appeal to us because they are familiar or are attached
to memories of things we have done. This is known as sentimental
appeal. We may even have a spiritual connection with a particular place.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples have developed very strong
connections with their places. Places are a dominant feature of their 1 What is meant by the word liveability?
stories and their lives. These spiritual connections can also increase the 2 What characteristics of a place attract
liveability of one place over another. us?
Every year about 5000 Australians are asked to take part in a survey 3 What do you like to do? Where would
about the factors that they believe make a place liveable. Their replies be a good place to live to enable you
are often similar to the replies of people from all around the world when to do this?
asked the same question. Most people agree that a liveable place: 4 Where do you like to go? Where would
• offers a temperate (mild) climate be a good place to live to enable you
• is easy to get around to do this?
• is able to offer good health care, work and education opportunities Apply and analyse
• is safe 5 Imagine that you could live anywhere.
• is affordable Where would you live and why?
• is diverse 6 What are the important aspects of
• is sustainable liveability that don’t need a lot of
• is attractive. money?
7 Give an example of how a person of
your age and a much older person
Source 3.4 An Aboriginal boy fishing in Manbalbirrlarri billabong at Djukalajarrang,
Arnhem Land. This is a very special place for the Ganalbingu clan because of might have different ideas about the
important rock art, burial caves and secret and sacred sites. The Ganalbingu clan feel liveability of a place.
spiritually connected to this place.
Evaluate and create
8 What is your most special place? Why
do you have a special connection to
this place?

Where early Indigenous
Australians lived
It is impossible to work out exactly when the fi rst people AUSTRALIA: LOCATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF INDIGENOUS
arrived in Australia, but many historians estimate it was AUSTRALIANS IN 1788
between 40 000 and 50 000 years ago. At that time, sea

levels were lower than they are today. The islands of
Indonesia were part of the Asian mainland, and over
time people walked and undertook short sea voyages to
reach what is now northern Australia. Over thousands
of years these people gradually moved south, eventually
reaching the south-western and south-eastern corners of
Australia. As sea levels rose, Australia became an island
and the cultures and traditions of Indigenous Australians
developed in isolation.
Factors that influenced where

Indigenous Australians lived
Upon reaching the Australian continent, early
Indigenous Australians looked for the most liveable
places – those that supplied the resources they needed
to survive and prosper. Many Aboriginal peoples settled Source 3.5 Source: Oxford Atlas
along the northern, eastern and southern coasts as well
as along what we now know as the Murray River. In these Source 3.6 Aboriginal men in northern Queensland demonstrating
places they found the resources they needed to survive, traditional fishing techniques using a spear
particularly fresh water and abundant food.
Indigenous Australians developed a way of life that
took advantage of the natural resources available. Trees
provided many important resources, including bark to
make shelters, canoes and shields, and wood to make
fires and spears.
They fished the rivers, in some places building
elaborate stone traps to catch eels and fish, and hunted
larger game such as kangaroo and wallaby. Birds and
lizards living in the trees also supplied much of their
food. Early tribes used virtually every part of the natural
environment to support their way of life – shells, stones,
plant fibres, coloured clay and bones all had their uses,
however a reliable supply of fresh water, usually a river or
stream, was perhaps the most important resource.
Further inland, resources were much scarcer.
Aboriginal communities living here developed a different
way of life suited to the limited resources. Throughout

or dream of doing so. Like other Australians might long
to see a favourite relative or return to a family home,
Indigenous Australians get their sense of belonging from
their Country.

1 How did Aboriginal people first reach Australia?
Source 3.7 In the Western Desert, Aborigines use fire to expose the 2 Why did most Aboriginal people live near the coast or
hiding places of goanna. along rivers?
much of Australia, fresh water is hard to fi nd and there Apply and analyse
are few large animals to supply food. In these desert
3 Compare the ways of life of inland desert Aborigines
regions, Aboriginal people lived a more nomadic way of and those who lived near rivers in south-eastern
life than the coastal and river peoples. Liveable places Australia. What were some of the similarities and some
changed according to the season, so for most of the of the differences?
year they kept on the move, following natural cycles 4 Examine Source 3.6. What resources from the natural
of monsoonal rains, the movement of animals or the environment are these Indigenous hunters using?
fruiting of plants. They became superb trackers and
5 What factors influenced the liveability of places for early
hunters and were able to survive in some of the harshest Indigenous Austrlaians? Are these factors the same as
environments on Earth. They found water in the most those that influence your ideas on what makes a place
unlikely places, even in the roots of desert plants and liveable? Why/why not?
the bodies of dormant (hibernating) frogs. Much of
their food came from animals such as insects, grubs and Evaluate and create
reptiles, as well as from plants such as the bush tomato. 6 What do you think Aboriginal people may have used
each of these resources for: shells, stones, plant fibres,
A spiritual connection to the land coloured clay and bones?
7 When Europeans arrived in Australia they had
Aboriginal and Torres Strait people developed a deep a different view of land ownership and use than
connection with the land that supported them. The land Aboriginal people. Why did these differences cause
formed the core of their beliefs and spirituality and an tensions and conflicts between these two groups of
integral part of their view of themselves. They do not people?
see themselves as separate from the natural environment
but as part of it. Rather than owning land or living off
the land, they believe that they live with the land and Source 3.8 Many modern Aborigines are moving back to their traditional
homelands to reconnect with their ancestors and their beliefs.
are responsible for looking after it. Their perception of
liveability was based on the principle that the land was
much more than just a resource to be used. Aboriginal
people refer to their land, and their connection to it, as
Country.
Part of the reason that Country is such an important
concept to Indigenous Australians is because their
Dreaming stories, their way of life and their ancestors
are all part of their homelands. When an Indigenous
Australian is in their Country, their spirits and their
ancestors keep living through them. In fact, they see
the Country as a living individual. Many Indigenous
Australians choose to live in their traditional homelands

Where modern Australians live
In much the same way as the early Indigenous Australians
did, modern Australians also make choices about where
they live based on how liveable they perceive a place to be.
Today, however, many things have changed. In the distant
past, people chose where to live based on whether the
place gave them access to the basics necessary for survival,
such as water and food. Today, modern technology and
infrastructure make food and water available right across
Australia, even in parts of the country, such as the desert,
that would have previously been uninhabitable. As a result,
the factors that influence where modern Australians live
have changed. Today, many Australians make decisions
about where to live based on a series of lifestyle factors.
Factors that influence where

modern Australians live
Source 3.9 Local shopping centres are an attractive feature to many
A person’s perceptions of liveability often depend on people.
his or her needs, wants or preferences. These needs
and wants are changing all the time and are often roads help people to get around with ease. Access to
dependent on what stage of life a person is at. Age has a health care is also important, but even more so for people
big influence on what a person wants from where they who need specialist care. Families with children often
live. Young adults, for example, often want access to want access to good schools, childcare and playgrounds.
educational opportunities and jobs, while retired people Local shopping centres providing access to shops,
will not be so concerned about these things. The type banking and other professional services, as well as cafés
of household a person is a part of is also significant, as and restaurants also play an important role in where
families have different needs to single people. people settle.
Despite these differences, many of the factors that
people take into consideration when deciding where to Access to jobs
live remain constant. A range of these are discussed below. People often move to a place because it offers them the
best opportunities for employment, and generally the
Housing bigger the place, the more jobs there are. Many young
Suitable housing is a key consideration for people. On people who have grown up in small country towns
a basic level, people make decisions about where they end up moving to cities to find employment. Big cities,
live depending on what they can afford, and the size of however, are not the only places to fi nd employment.
house they need. Personal choice also has a big influence, In recent years, isolated mining towns with very few
whether, for example, someone wants a modern home or facilities and services have grown rapidly because of the
a traditional home, a large garden or a low-maintenance high-paying jobs on offer there.
apartment.
The climate and environment
Access to services Most people in Australia live along the east coast, where
People generally like to live within easy reach of the the climate is more moderate than other parts of the
services they need. Public transport and well-maintained country. Personal preferences, especially when it comes

1 What are some of the factors that modern Australians
take into consideration when deciding where to live?
2 How important are climate and environment in
influencing where people in Australia live?
Apply and analyse

3 For each of the following groups, identity some of the
liveability factors that would be most likely to influence
where they want to live:
a a family with school-age children
b a retired couple
c a surfer in his 20s.
Source 3.10 A mild climate and attractive natural features like 4 Consider the local area in which you live.
beaches can play a key in determining where people live. a What are its key liveability factors?
b What types/groups of people commonly live in your
to climate, are a key factor in determining where people local area?
settle. For example, many older people follow the sun,
sea and a warmer climate in their retirement by moving
to the Gold Coast. Coastal places are very popular with
young and old people alike, but on the other hand,
someone who enjoys snow-skiing might prefer to live
near the mountains.
Cultural connections
Many people choose to live near their family and friends,
and for this reason may stay in the same town or city
suburb for the whole of their lives. Those moving to a
new place, particularly from another country, may be
attracted to a neighbourhood where others from the
same cultural and language backgrounds live. This can
offer a sense of security and familiarity, with local shops
selling products from home, and local services offered in
their native language.
Entertainment
People also make choices about where they live based on
their leisure activities; for example, whether they want
easy access to the outdoors or to museums and theatres
found in city centres. People of different ages often want
different entertainment options. Many younger people
are drawn to the variety of entertainment offered in
big cities such as music venues, nightclubs, concerts,
theatres, shops and big sporting arenas, whereas these
facitilites may be of little use to older people. Source 3.11 Large entertainment events attract big crowds of young
people and play a role in where they choose to live.

The high population growth in south-east Queensland over the
last few decades has led to an increasing demand for housing.
Noosangatta As the suburban areas have spread, there has been a loss of
7500 hectares (75 km2) of bushland and farms each year. The
stunning natural features and easy-going lifestyle that attracted
The warmer climate and stunning natural people to move to the area in the first place are coming under
features of the south-east Queensland coastline threat. A victim of its own success, the area is in danger of
mean this region has many high-rating liveability becoming less liveable.
factors. The region, in fact, has attracted many

skilldrill
Australians, particularly older people from New
South Wales and Victoria, to make the move
north. Just 50 years ago, the Gold Coast and Reading a complex map
Sunshine Coast were small holiday towns. Today, A map is a plan of an area of the Earth’s surface drawn directly
from above. Complex maps, such as the one shown in Source
the area has seen such extensive growth and 3.13, can appear a little confusing at first because they show a
development that the towns and cities along this wide range of features. As with all maps, however, it is important
section of coastline may join together to form a that you read the legend, title, source and scale carefully, so
that you can learn more about the region being shown.
continuous urban area known as a megalopolis.
Follow these steps to help you read and understand a
Some geographers predict that Noosa in the complex map:
north and Coolangatta in the south will one day Step 1 Read the title carefully. Make sure that you
also join to form one vast urban area that some understand what the map shows and the region that is
shown in the map. If you are unsure of the location of the
people have already nicknamed ‘Noosangatta’. region, locate it in your atlas to see where it sits in relation
to other regions or countries.
Step 2 Check the source of the map so that you can
assess the reliability of the information. Maps drawn by
government departments and professional publishers are
generally more reliable than those drawn by individuals and
businesses.
Step 3 Look carefully at the symbols and colours used in the
legend and find an example of each of these on the map.
Look for relationships between these symbols such as
roads and urban areas.
Apply the skill

1 What is the source of the map shown in Source 3.13?
2 Is this a reliable source of information?
3 Use the line scale to estimate the straight line distance from:
• Brisbane to Robina
• Brisbane to Noosa
• Brisbane to Toowoomba.
Source 3.12 An oblique aerial photograph of coastal development

between Noosa and Brisbane

Refer to page 22 for a guide SOUTH-EAST QUEENSLAND: ECOLOGICAL AND URBAN AREAS
to estimating distance.
LEGEND
4 Describe the distribution Areas of ecological significance
Urban areas High General
of existing and future Existing Protected area Strategic rehabilitation area
Future Marine park Marine park
urban areas. Use the
Land and wetland area Land and wetland area Noosa
names of towns and Tewantin
cities as well as compass
directions and geographic P a c i fi c
features such as the Ocean
coast and rivers in your Nambour
Buderim
description.
5 Describe the distribution Caloundra
of protected areas and

the land and wetlands
areas of high ecological Kilcoy
significance.
6 Which areas of high Caboolture
ecological significance are Moreton

Bay
likely to be impacted most
Redcliffe
by the continued growth Esk
of urban areas in this

region? r
ve
Ri
BRISBANE
e
an
isb
Br
Toowoomba Gatton
Ipswich
Gr
Laidley r
Rive
ea
t
er
Brem
er
Riv
Di
vid
ing
Southport
n
ga
Beaudesert
Boonah
Lo
Robina
Ra
Gold Coast
ng
e
Coolangatta
Source 3.13 Source: South-
East Queensland Regional
Plan 2009–2031, Queensland
Department of Infrastructure 0 10 20 km
and Planning.
1 Describe the importance of natural features such as rivers, 3 Explore the region shown in Source 3.13 on Google Earth.
mountains and coasts in affecting the location and shape Use the ‘Historical Imagery’ tool to find examples of places
of cities. Use evidence from the map for your description. that have undergone great changes in the last ten years.
2 Is it likely that the city of Toowoomba will join the
Noosangatta megalopolis? Give reasons for your answer.

3.2 Why are some places more liveable than others?
Living in large cities

Most Australians choose to live in large capital cities. the needs of the residents. Industries are also attracted to
The greatest growth in capital cities usually takes place the cheaper land and rents of the outer suburbs.
around the outer edges of metropolitan areas. New
suburbs appear on what was once farmland along the Case study: Blacktown, New South
rural–urban fringe. As new housing estates are built on
the farmland or bushland adjoining the suburbs, other Wales
services are attracted to these new suburbs to service the The suburb of Blacktown is on the fringe of the
growing population. Schools, shopping centres, medical metropolitan area in western Sydney. It is one of the
centres and sporting facilities become established to meet fastest-growing areas in Australia. At the 2011 census, the
BLACKTOWN: 1997 (LEFT) AND 2012 (RIGHT)
RD
AN R N S
DE
BOULEVA
BU
NF I D E
A
IEL S
AR
P
D TR
k
Cree
EW
S T EE
GREENVI
RE T
ET
THE PONDS
DRIVE
THE
SCHOFIELDS PONDS
Creek
LINE
ESTUARY CRES BRAEMON
P o n ds
T
RIDGE
AVENUE
Terra Sancta
WATERF A
E
College DRIV
ROAD
ROAD
John
MEA
KEIRLE R
L
KEIRLE R
Second
St Joseph’s Palmer
AD
OA D
CRESCEN
OAD
PEBBLE
RIVERBA N K
Ponds
NDER C
F YF E R O
Primary School BLACKTOWN Primary
HAM BLEDON
BOU
HAMBLEDON
School
LEVARD
T
RE SCENT
BELLI
BLAC K TOWN CI N G ER ST JETTY ST
ULEVARD
TY
ROAD
ROAD
RIVE
ET
STRE
E D
KELLYVILLE
THE PONDS BO
KELLYVILLE
ELIN
DRIFT
RIDGE
nd
CENT
RI DG
S e co
ES
STA
CONRAD
CONRAD
LEVY CR
NH
ROAD
CI OP
TY STANHOPE PARKWAY E
AD
VICEROY AV PA
FYFE RO
ENU RK
AVE E WA
NDRA AVE N MOSAIC AVE Y
FYFE
NUE UE NU
CALANDRA
CALA
SHM IR
KASHMIR A KA AV E
VE E
E
E
AV
AV
BARNIER DRIVE BARNIER DRIVE US

ACRESC
M
M A LL A R D
CO
BIN
BIN
T
CLINTON ST R EET E CLINTON ST REE VY
OD
BA
BA
DRIV
E NT
OR
OR
BALI C BALI C
RNI
RNI
PA G O
NT
E
G
D R I VE D R I VE
PA
SC
ER AVENUE
ER DRIVE
ER DRIVE
DA
OV ER AVENUE
RE
CRES C
PAGO OV
ROAD
DR
CEN T DA
ROAD
GL
E
UE Barnier
IV
GL
UE PATERSON
AYL EN
Barnier V EN Mary
WAR AV Primary Quakers Hill PARKLEA AY A Primary RESERVE
MIHKELSON D School Parish Primary MIHKELSON LW A RD School
Immaculate PARKLEA
School PARKLEA Primary School PARKLEA
RESERVE RESERVE
M ROA PRISON M ROA PRISON
RNHA RNHA
N
QUAKERS QUAKERS
TO
TO
D D
DO
DO
FA FA
RB
RB
LE
LE
MB
MB
E RT
E RT
HILL A V ENUE HILL A V ENUE

HA
HA
LEGEND
Major road CITY Direction to city centre Park or reserve Prison

Suburban street PARKLEA Suburb name Service station Picnic area
Traffic light BLACKTOWN Local Government name Telephone Place of worship
Roundabout Lake or dam Playground

Scale 1:30 000
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 m School

area had a population of over 43 000. This population is
growing rapidly and it is now one of Australia’s largest
suburbs. This is due to a range of factors, including the
overall growth of Sydney, the relatively cheap land and the
building of major roads, such as the Western Motorway,
and other services. Source 3.14 shows the change in an
area in the north of Blacktown between 1997 and 2012.
There are a number of schools in the region along
with other amenities, such as public pools, libraries and a
university. Blacktown also has numerous shopping areas,
including large shopping centres, shopping strips along
major roads and its own central business district (CBD).
Blacktown is linked to other parts of Sydney, including
its CBD, by a road and rail network. In common with
other regions of Australia with a rapidly growing
population, Blacktown struggles at times to meet the
demands of all its residents. It can be very difficult to
Source 3.16 Blacktown has a large population of refugees and
find rental accommodation, and some public facilities, migrants. These girls are being introduced to AFL football at
such as hospitals, have experienced problems in dealing Blacktown Olympic Park.
with a large, growing and diverse population.
Many residents of the western suburbs work closer to
the centre of the city and use private vehicles to travel Check your learning 3.4
to and from work. This puts hundreds of thousands of
cars on the road during the morning and afternoon peak Remember and understand
periods, causing traffic jams and long delays. The road 1 Where does the greatest growth in capital cities
system struggles to cope with this heavy demand; at peak generally occur?
hour, the average speed on the freeways and tollways slows
2 What change takes place as suburbs spread to the
from 100 kilometres per hour to less than 30 kilometres rural–urban fringe?
per hour. These problems are only set to become worse
3 Why are some industries attracted to the outer
in the next few decades when the population of western suburban areas?
Sydney is expected to reach 4 million.
Apply and analyse
4 What problems do town planners in Blacktown face?
Evaluate and create

5 a Using Source 3.14, construct a sketch map of
Blacktown in 1997. Show the main roads and label
the schools and prison. Shade in green the area of
the map used for housing. These are the areas with
the short, curving streets.
b On your sketch map add the changes that had
occurred by 2012. Shade in red the new housing
areas and label any new schools and main roads.
c Describe the changes that occurred in this area
between 1997 and 2012.
d How do you think this area will change in the next
15 years?
Source 3.15 An oblique aerial photograph of Blacktown looking
towards the Sydney CBD

Living in rural areas
Many parts of Australia are used to raise animals and Case study: Western District dairy
grow crops for food. The type of farming carried out in
different areas is generally determined by climate and the region Victoria
availability of water. Farms vary from small properties The largest industry in rural Victoria is dairy farming.
used to grow crops, such as grapes or vegetables, to huge There are more than 1 million dairy cows in the state
stations the size of European countries where cattle and they produce more than 6 billion litres of milk
are raised. a year. There are three main dairy farming regions
Living on a farm can be very different from living in in Victoria – in the north near Echuca; south-east of
a city. It can be more difficult to access services, such as Melbourne; and in the Western District centred on the
schools, shops and doctors. The population of many rural city of Warrnambool.
areas is declining as people move to cities for better job Source 3.17 is a map of the Western District dairy
opportunities and a wider range of education options. farming region. On the map each town is shown in the
There are also many advantages to living on a farm. Farms centre of a circle. The size of each circle is determined by
are often family-run businesses and this gives farmers the the number of people living in the town. The bigger the
opportunity to be their own boss. There is also less air population, the bigger the circle. This makes it easy to
pollution, noise and traffic in rural areas. In recent years, see where the larger towns and cities are located in this
advances in information and communication technology region and allows us to see a pattern in this distribution.
have reduced the disadvantages of living in a rural place. These circles are called proportional circles.
Near the small town of Condah, in the western
VICTORIA: WESTERN DAIRY REGION
district of Victoria, lies the dairy farm of Sam and Kristy
Casterton Coleraine Cheetham. In common with many farms in Australia,
Dunkeld this dairy farm is a family-run business.
Hamilton The farm has grown over the years as the family has
bought more land. Several workers are employed to help
milk the cows twice a day and carry out other farm jobs,
Branxholme Penshurst such as mending fences and looking after the grazing
paddocks. These workers and their families also live on
Condah
Cheetham’s farm the Cheetham’s farm.
Macarthur The Cheetham’s farm is located close to several small
Heywood towns and some distance from larger towns and cities.
The small towns of Condah and Branxholme have very
few shops and the Cheethams only visit these places
Koroit for basic items, such as bread. The closest supermarket
Portland is in Heywood, 24 kilometres away, as is the closest
Port Fairy
Warrnambool
bank. Heywood has a population of 1300, which is large
LEGEND enough to support a wider range of retail shops and other
Population Dairy farming area 0 10 20 km
services than the smaller towns. These include a doctor,
35 000
Highway vet and several schools.
Major road Adelaide
10 000 Larger towns include Hamilton and Portland, and
Melbourne
2500 Warrnambool is the closest regional city. These places
1000
Area of map have a wide range of shops and other services, such as
large hospitals and secondary schools. They need only
Source 3.17 Source: Oxford University Press visit Victoria’s capital city a few times a year for major

services, such as an international airport or specialised
health care. They also travel to Melbourne for sport and
entertainment as most large events of this type are not
held in regional areas.
Towns and cities in rural areas tend to be located a
certain distance apart. This is determined by the size of
the population and the services available in that town
or city. Large towns (such as Warrnambool, Portland
and Hamilton) offer a large range of goods and services
and are spaced well apart. They need to draw in people
from a bigger distance to support services they offer.
Small towns, such as Condah, only have a few shops and
services to support the local community.
Source 3.20 Branxholme’s main shopping street

1 How does living in a rural area differ from living in
a city?
2 What are Victoria’s three main dairy farming regions?
3 What different jobs are done on the Cheetham farm?
4 Where would the Cheetham family go to buy each of
the following?
a A loaf of bread
b A packet of breakfast cereal
c A pair of jeans
d A new television
5 Look at Source 3.20. What services and supplies do
Source 3.18 Heywood’s main shopping street you think might be available in Branxholme?
Apply and analyse

a List the three largest towns in the region.
b What is the approximate population of the largest
town?
c Why do you think there are lots of small towns and
only a few large towns?
d Why are proportional circles useful on a map?
Evaluate and create

7 List one good and one service that you think would
only be available in the very largest towns in the region.
8 List one good and one service that people in the
region might need to travel to Geelong or Melbourne
to purchase.
Source 3.19 Warrnambool’s main shopping street

Living in coastal areas
Eighty-five per cent of all Australians live within 50
kilometres of the coast. As a result, nine of our 10 largest
cities sit on the coast. As well as huge cities such as
Sydney and Melbourne, there are hundreds of smaller
communities dotted along our coastline. Outside the
capital cities, these coastal communities tend to be the
fastest growing regions in each state. In Queensland, it’s
the Gold Coast and the Sunshine Coast, and in Victoria,
it’s the Surf Coast.
Coastal towns and cities are growing in size and
population across Australia due to a range of factors.
Many people decide to move to the coast because they
want a more relaxed lifestyle near natural features such as
beaches, bays and other landforms. Geographers refer to
this trend as a ‘sea change’.
Case study: Torquay, Victoria

Torquay lies on Victoria’s Surf Coast about 100 kilometres
south-west of Melbourne. It has long been a popular
holiday destination, particularly during the warmer
VICTORIA: THE BELLARINE PENNISULA
Source 3.22 The main surf beach at Torquay in Victoria
Geelo
ay
ew
Geelong -Bacchus Marsh Rd
Lara Fre
M es
ng-Ba
id nc
la
nd Pri summer months. On summer weekends, the population
llan Rd
Bannockburn Port Phillip

Hig Bay of the town can double, as people travel from Melbourne
hwa
y
Bell Park
Corio to take advantage of the beaches and relaxed lifestyle
Hamil Corio Portarlington
ton High
way Bay of this coastal town. As well as the holiday-makers, the
Clifton
Indented Head
number of permanent residents is also growing. In 2006,
Rd
Springs
Geelong Bellarine
n
to
Moolap Geelong_
ng
Highton Leopold B
Porta rli Peninsula
Drysdale
the town’s population was about 8000. By 2025, the
St Leonards
Ba rw
e
Princes Highway
Reedy lla
rin
e
population of Torquay is expected to be three times that
on H
Lake
Lake Hi Swan
gh
Bay Swan number. As with any change, there are both benefits and
ea d
Connewarre wa
s y
Moriac Rd Ocean Island costs to this population increase.
Grove
Road
Queenscliff Coastal towns close to large cities attract sea changers,

Barwon Point Point Nepean
Breamlea because they offer the option of living in the coastal
Anglesea
Heads Londsdale
Bellbrae Torquay
town and commuting to work in the city. Torquay’s
Jan Juc Bass Strait
Anglesea proximity to Melbourne makes it a popular choice for
Heath Reserve Bells Beach
this reason and a new ring road around Geelong has
d
oa
R
ce a
n Anglesea
0 5 10 15 km reduced the journey to the Melbourne CBD from Torquay
tO
ea
to about 90 minutes.
Gr
LEGEND
Urban area Major road Area of map Torquay also attracts many retirees. In some cases,
Parkland or Other road
forest reserve Railway after retirement people are moving permanently into
holiday homes they already own, and in other cases they
Source 3.21 Source: Oxford University Press are building new homes to live in. As more Australians

reach retirement age, it is expected that the demand for
new homes and services such as health care, education
and roads will increase dramatically in the sea-change
Bellbrae Torquay
towns like Torquay.
While real estate agents and builders welcome the new
residents, not everyone feels the same way. Some people
are concerned that the once small town of Torquay will Jan Juc
become exactly the type of suburban development the

sea changers are trying to escape.
Farmland, sand dunes and caravan parks are being
redeveloped as retirement villages and housing estates.
New businesses such as large hardware stores and food Bells Beach
outlets are threatening the survival of smaller, well- 0 1 2 km
km
established local businesses. Changes like this often cause

conflict in the local community. Source 3.23 A satellite image of Torquay and surrounding areas

Remember and understand 6 Explain the following statement: ‘Some people are
concerned that the once small town of Torquay will
1 How does living in a coastal area differ from living in a
become exactly the type of suburban development the
city?
sea changers are trying to escape.’ Why might some
2 What has made it possible for residents in Torquay to
people feel this way?
enjoy both coastal and city life?
3 What is a sea change? Evaluate and create
4 What is Torquay’s population expected to be in 2025? 7 a Draw a sketch map of Source 3.23. Shade in the
area covered by housing. In a different colour, shade
Apply and analyse those areas that you think may be developed for
5 Examine Source 3.21. housing in the next few years. Provide a key and title
a What are the largest towns on the Bellarine for your map.
Peninsula? b Give reasons for the land you select for new housing
b Where do you think people on the Bellarine Peninsula in part a. What type of land did you select? What type
would go to shop at department stores or purchase of land did you not select? Why?
expensive items such as cars?
c How far is Torquay from Geelong?
Source 3.24 New homes cover the hills behind the Torquay Golf Club.

Living in remote places
Most Australians live in large cities on the coast, with very few people Yuendumu
living in the centre of the continent. Much of the interior of Australia Average 3 pm temperature Rainfall
45 450
is desert or semi-desert, with large distances between towns and
40 400
settlements. Geographers refer to these areas as remote because people
living in these areas have difficulty accessing some goods and services. 35 350
Providing basic services (such as roads, food, water, telephone and 30 300
Temperature (°C)
Internet access) to remote communities can be difficult and expensive.
Rainfall (mm)
25 250
A high proportion of Indigenous Australians live in regional and 20 200
remote areas – almost half of the population compared with just 15 150
13 per cent of the total population. For many Indigenous Australians 10 100
this decision is based on a deep connection to the land that began
5 50
thousands of years ago.
0 0
JFMAMJJASOND
Month
Living in the desert Source 3.26 Yuendumu climate graph
Australia is the second-driest continent in the world, after Antarctica.

Seventy per cent of our continent receives less than 500 millimetres of Case study: Yuendumu
rainfall each year. This low rainfall has produced large deserts across
much of inland Australia. Deserts are some of the harshest places on One desert community is based in the
Earth. The people who live in desert communities must overcome many town of Yuendumu, located 290 kilometres
challenges. from Alice Springs in the Northern
Territory. Not only is it located in the
Tanami Desert, it is also one of the most
remote places in the world. It is so remote
that few locals have ever seen the sea.
The Warlpiri people

The Warlpiri people of Yuendumu do
not see land as something to be owned.
Instead, they believe that they belong to
the land. This deep sense of connection
to a particular place can be very difficult
for non-Indigenous Australians to
understand. In the same way, Warlpiri
people find a system of land ownership
difficult to understand.
The Warlpiri system of family and
relationships is complex. A crucial part
of any Warlpiri child’s education is to
learn about this system. It helps them to
Source 3.25 The Yuendumu Pool opened in 2008. Children can only swim here if they
understand the natural and social world
regularly go to school. and a person’s place within it. This system
binds the Warlpiri people to each other
and to the land.

Solar power station LEGEND
About one-third of the town’s electricity is generated by
solar dishes, which collect and store the Sun’s energy. Scale 1:11000
Sewerage plant metres 0 100 200 300 400 metres
In 1999, the whole town was Rubbish dump

connected to a sewage-treatment (closed)
plant, which replaced individual

septic tanks at each house. There is one school (the
Community Education
Centre) which caters for
The Yuendumu airstrip provides 120 to 200 students. Some
access to planes from Alice lessons are in English while
Springs, including flights from the West
others are in Warlpiri.
Camp
Royal Flying Doctors Service.
West Camp
Oval
Yu Swimming Telstra The Yuendumu Mining
e nd
um Men’s Safe House pool Housing Association Company is one of the town’s
u Basketball Power station
Ai
rs Oval courts major employers. It operates
tr i
p Social club
Council workshops shale and gravel mines.
Store
Women’s
Church School East
TV station Centre
Camp
Training centre Council Town dam
Youth centre Central Land Council Office
Health centre Police station
CDEP
The drive from Alice Mining BMX Men’s Museum
company Art centre track
Springs takes three to
four hours and is largely
on sealed highways, but
the last 100 kilometres to
Al
or so is unsealed, ic
e The Yuendumu Art Centre Water is accessed from a series
Sp
making it difficult to drive r in
gs supports a thriving community of over 600 of bores 10 kilometres from the
29 town. From there the water is
on after heavy rain. 0
km
artists and is an important hub for social activity
and gives a sense of pride in the region. pumped to the town dam.
Source 3.27 Yuendumu satellite image
Problems and challenges

Living in Yuendumu presents many challenges. The
isolation from other places is the most obvious of these,
however in recent years sealed roads, the airstrip,
telephones, television and the Internet have helped to
connect Yuendumu to the outside world. Many older
people in the community, however, worry that better
transport and communication will break down the
customs of the Warlpiri people.
As with other remote Aboriginal communities, health
problems, such as eye diseases, are common. Substance
abuse among young people, particularly petrol-sniffing,
was once a serious problem but a strong community
Source 3.28 The solar power station provides 50 per cent of
response has largely brought an end to this practice.
daytime electricity needs to Yuendumu and enables significant
This involved providing young people with a better range reduction in the diesel fuel used in power generators in the
of activities and making substance abuse unacceptable. community.

Living in the Pilbara Case study: Tom Price,
Australia is a mineral-rich country. We have the world’s largest deposits Western Australia
of brown coal, mineral sands, nickel, uranium, zinc and lead. We also
In many ways Tom Price is a typical
rank in the top six in the world for reserves of other minerals, such as
mining town. It is home to about 2700
bauxite, black coal, diamonds, copper, gold and iron ore. Iron ore is used
people, almost all of whom are involved,
to produce steel, which is an important part of many industries around
directly or indirectly, in the mining
the world. Some of the world’s largest and richest iron ore deposits are in
industry. Of the workers in the town over
an area of Western Australia known as the Pilbara.
the age of 15, almost 50 per cent work in
Some mining workers live in towns in the Pilbara close to the mines
the mines. Half of these workers categorise
where they work, such as Tom Price, Newman and Paraburdoo. These
their jobs as machinery operators or
towns can be hard places in which to live as they tend to be very
drivers.
isolated. Their remote location means that some goods and services can
The children who attend one of the
be difficult to access. The perception of these towns as less liveable than
three local schools almost all have at least
other centres in Australia means that workers are offered very attractive
one parent employed at the mine. The
salaries and conditions to come and work in the remote Pilbara region.
local high school works in partnership
Many miners prefer to live a FIFO (‘fly in, fly out’) lifestyle. This means
with the international mining company
that they live in large cities, such as Perth, for two weeks and then fly
that owns and operates the mine, Rio
to the mines to work for two weeks. While this type of routine may suit
Tinto, to educate students about jobs
single workers, married workers generally find that this places a strain on
in mining. The supermarket, milk bars,
their families.
service stations, vets, chemists, doctors,
hardware store and carpet cleaner all rely
AUSTRALIA: MINERAL, URANIUM AND COAL RESOURCES
on the income from miners to keep their
businesses running. While this is great for
INDIAN U U PACIFIC the town when the demand for iron ore is
U
OCEAN U
OCEAN high, it can cause problems when demand
falls. Industries and places that rely on
U selling one resource, such as a particular
U mineral, are sometimes referred to as
N o r t h e rn
Coyote being in a ‘boom or bust’ cycle.
C
Te rri t o r y C Another problem facing the residents
BOWEN BASIN
Tom Price U Tropic of Capricorn C
Queensland CC
C
of Tom Price is a shortage of homes.
We s t e rn C
C
During boom times, new workers
Au s t ra l i a South C C
CC and people looking for work at the
C
U Australia
U nearby mine arrive regularly and need
C
U U accommodation. This demand for
U
U HUNTER VALLEY
U housing means that house prices go up
C
C Collie quickly, making it difficult for young
N ew S o u t h Wa l e s
adults in the town to buy a house. In the
LEGEND LATROBE
Resources C VALLEY Pilbara mining town of Newman, for
Bauxite Victoria example, houses tripled in price between
(aluminium) Lithium Coal basin
Copper Manganese C Coal C 2004 and 2008.
Diamonds Mineral sands C Coal seam gas C
C
Gold Nickel U Uranium
Iron ore Silver
Ta s m a n i a
Lead and zinc Tin 0 400 800 km

skilldrill Male Age (years) Female
80–84
75–79
70–74
Understanding population pyramids 65–69
60–64
55–59
Population pyramids are bar graphs that show the percentage of males 50–54
45–49
and females of different ages in a population. They help geographers 40–44
35–39
compare different groups within a population and also allow them to 30–34
identify trends and patterns of change (for example, in a city or country). 25–29
20–24
Follow these steps in order to understand population pyramids: 15–19
10–14
Step 1 Be sure to read the title of the population pyramid carefully. This 5–9
0–4
will tell you exactly what population is being studied. Also look at the 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
labels running along the bottom (percentage or total population) and Percentage of the total population
through the middle of the pyramid (age groups).
Source 3.31 Population pyramid for the town of
Step 2 Population pyramids are organised so that the younger age groups Tom Price Western Australia
are at the bottom and the older age groups are at the top. Percentages
(or numbers) of men are always shown on the left-hand side and
percentages (or numbers) of females are shown on the right-hand side. Check your learning 3.7
Step 3 To compare the percentage of males and females in the same
age groups, read across the rows. The scale on the male side begins Remember and understand
at zero and increases from right to left. The scale on the female side 1 What services are difficult to supply to
begins at zero and increases from left to right. remote areas?
Step 4 To compare the percentage of only males or females, look up and 2 Why don’t many people live in the
down the columns. centre of Australia?
Apply the skill 3 Why don’t the local Warlpiri people
just move to a different area with more
1 Using Source 3.31, complete the following tasks:
services?
a What percentage of the population in Tom Price is girls aged 10–14?
4 How many people live in the town of
b Are there more men or women aged 35 to 39 in Tom Price?
Tom Price and what work do they do?
c Which is the largest single group in Tom Price?
5 Why do some people choose FIFO?
d Is there a greater percentage of males or females in Tom Price? Why
might this be the case? Apply and analyse
e Which group in Tom Price is the smallest? Try to estimate what 6 Use the information provided in
percentage of the total population is made up by this group. Source 3.27 to create a table listing all
of the services available in Yuendumu.
List each of the services under
the following headings: water and
sanitation; transport; power; industry;
education; and recreation.
7 How does the land tie the people of
Tom Price and Yuendumu to their
remote locations?
Source 3.30 Tom Price iron ore mine in Western Australia chapter 3 living in australia 133
skilldrill
Living on Preparing fieldwork

Macquarie Island sketches
Fieldwork sketching helps geographers
Macquarie Island is one of the most remote places on record and label important aspects of the
landscapes they are investigating. It is a skill
Earth. It is located in the Southern Ocean, approximately that you will need to practise before taking
halfway between Australia and Antarctica. Macquarie Island part in any field trips.
is an Australian territory and home to about 40 scientists Apply the skill
in summer and about 20 in winter. They live and work in Imagine you are on a field trip to Macquarie
the research station on the northern tip of the island. At the Island and that the scene in Source 3.32 is in
front of you. Follow these steps to create a
station there are facilities such as buildings in which to sleep field sketch of the scene and use the map to
and eat, a diesel power station, a greenhouse for growing help you label the key features.
vegetables, helicopter pads and even a brewery. From here Step 1 Boundaries and border: Establish the
boundaries of your landscape and draw a
the scientists explore the island and try to find out more
border of the correct shape.
about the island itself and the animals and birds that live Step 2 Sketch outlines: With a graphite
there. pencil, lightly sketch the main landscape
lines. If there is a horizon in the scene put
this about one-third from the top of the
Source 3.32 Oblique aerial view of the scientific base on Macquarie Island frame.
Step 3 Details: Keeping in mind the features
on which you want to focus, add detail
to your sketch. Label those parts of the
scene that you consider to be most
important.
Step 4 Shade: Add shading, which helps
to establish depth in your sketch and to
show the shape of objects.
Step 5 Colour: Add some colour if you wish.
Do not try to copy every subtle colour of
nature; just give a hint of the right colour.
Step 6 Finishing touches: Label your sketch
with the location and date.

MACQUARIE ISLAND SCIENTIFIC STATION (INSET: MACQUARIE ISLAND’S LOCATION)
AUSTRALIA PACIFIC
Tasmania
OCEAN
Hobart NEW Gym
Hasselborough Bay 70
l
Cosray Rocks ZEALAND Incinerator s Hil
Scientific
building
re les 60
Station Paint store Wi
to
50
Macquarie Main store 40
Macquarie Island New sealers 30
Island Hasselborough
Multipurpose building House
SOUTHERN Seismic hut 20
Carpentry workshop Mess
OCEAN Field store Cumpston’s Cottage 10
0 10 km Surgery
Plumbing workshop Hydro-
Garden Cove
le ponics
ic Circ Fire hut
Sauna
rct Fire pump house
nt a
Electricity distribution hut Southern Aurora
A ANTARCTICA Tanks
Casey Station 0 500 1000 km Emergency Pump house/brewery
power house
Flag poles Main power house
Fuel settling tank
30
Anemometer Hut Hill
20
10
mast ANARESAT Garden Bay
radome Emergency/
Biology ham radio hut
building Communications building 10
Australian Regional
GPS network receiver Balloon building Tide gauges
Clean air Solvent store Meteorological office
laboratory Meteorological tech. office/hose reel store Hayter
Meteorological Nissen hut store Rock
Science building
Ozone hut Buckles Bay
Mechanical workshop
LEGEND
Riometer enclosure Vehicle Boat shed
Magnetic Road Track Helipad
shed Flammable liquid store
variometer building Riometer hut Bare earth/rock Fence Antenna
Flammable gas store
Proton processsing Compressed gas store Contour
magnetometer hut Vegetation (interval 10 m) Mast
Fast riometer Fuel farm
Magnetic 0 25 50 m Beach Cliff Building
absolute hut ANARE micro pulsations
Extend your understanding 6 What difficulties might the scientists experience travelling to
their work sites?
1 Why is Macquarie Island considered remote? 7 Macquarie Station is used for scientific research but is also
2 Use the scale on Source 3.32 (inset) to estimate the a home to a team of scientists and researchers.
distance from Hobart to Macquarie Island. a Find three features of the station that show that this is a
3 Consider the challenges faced by those living in remote place where people live.
places. b Make a list of the buildings that are used for science
a What challenges do you think the scientists on and research.
Macquarie Island would face? c What do the names of these buildings tell you about the
b In what ways are these challenges similar to those type of research that is undertaken on the island?
faced by people living in a remote region on the 8 Compare the oblique aerial photograph of the station
Australian mainland? In what ways are they different? (Source 3.32) with the map (Source 3.33).
4 How do you think people on Macquarie Island access a What is the large circular object in the centre of the
supplies? photograph?
5 How do you think modern communication technology, b What colour is the hydroponics building? What is
such as satellites and the Internet, help to overcome some hydroponics and why is it important in this place?
of the challenges faced by scientists on Macquarie Island? c In which direction was the photographer facing?

3.3 How do people connect to different places?
Connecting through communities

A community is a group of people who share something A group of people who share the same goals and
in common. It may be the place in which they live, objectives often join together to form communities of
their religion, their interests or hobbies, their ethnicity, purpose. They are able to achieve much more if they
their school or their language. Every person on Earth is work together than if they work as individuals. One
a member of one or more communities, some by choice of Australia’s largest communities of purpose is Surf
and some just by being who they are. To make sense Life Saving Australia (SLSA), which has over 150 000
of all the world’s communities, geographers take into members, virtually all of whom are volunteers. The
account the features that all members of a community shared vision of SLSA members is ‘to save lives, create
share. One way to classify these features uses the five Ps great Australians and build better communities’.
shown in Source 3.34.
Types of communities
Past Place Perspective Purpose Practice

Communities of Communities of Communities of Communities of Communities of
past are made up of place are made up of perspective are made purpose are made up practice are made up
people who share people who live in the up of people who of people who share of people who have
similar histories, such same area, such as a share similar beliefs similar goals and activities in common,
as family, language neighbourhood, region, and values, such as visions, such as being such as the work they
and ethnic groups. town or country. members of religious members of a particular do, or the hobbies they
War veterans are a Indigenous Australians communities or volunteer organisation, enjoy. Health workers
community of past as are members of a political parties. The such as Surf Life such as nurses and
are the separate ethnic community of place, Australian Greens and Saving Australia or doctors belong to a
groups that make as are the residents Roman Catholics are volunteer fire brigades. community of practice,
up the population of of individual towns, both communities of Communities of as do members of a
Australia, for example such as Broken Hill perspective. purpose are often book club or sporting
Greek Australians and Broome. involved in improving group.
or Vietnamese the lives of people
Australians. other than themselves.
Source 3.34 Classifying communities

1 What type of community is a school?
Apply and analyse

2 Explain why SLSA can be considered to be a community of purpose.
3 Name three other communities of purpose.
4 Classify each of these groups under one of the five types of
communities:
a the Labor Party
b employees of BHP Billiton
c residents of Yamba in New South Wales
d a Scout group
e your family.
5 The surf lifesavers in Source 3.35 are members of a community of
Source 3.35 Surf lifesavers making one of the

purpose. Why is it likely that they are also members of a community
12 000 rescues carried out in 2011 – they are an of place?
example of community of purpose.
skilldrill
Drawing a concept map My communities
A concept map is a visual tool used to show the links

between different ideas or pieces of information. Each football club friends
idea (or piece of information) is usually represented in a
practice practice
circle or box and the relationship between two ideas is
shown by a line or arrow connecting them. Words on the
local community school community
line or arrow explain the relationship between the two
ideas. Concept maps can be hand drawn or prepared practice practice
using computer software.
skateboarders place practice
To draw a concept map, follow these steps: band
Step 1 Draw and name the focus, central idea or main
problem you are trying to explore. In the example in
Source 3.36, this is ‘My communities’. My communities
Step 2 Build the concept map by adding ideas related to
the central idea.
Step 3 Add a title to help the reader quickly understand past Chinese
your concept map. school
Apply the skill practice
1 Construct your own concept map to show the Chinese community

communities you are connected to. Place your name
in the centre box. Add the types of communities to perspective
the connecting lines. Choose from the five types of
church
communities shown in Source 3.34, such as place. Source 3.36 An example of a concept map

Community identity
Case study: Melbourne’s
Indian community
People who share similar histories (such
as family, language and ethnic groups)
are communities of past. Melbourne
has Australia’s second largest Asian
population, including Australia’s largest
Indian and Sri Lankan communities.
The Indian community has influenced
the character of Melbourne by sharing
its culture, clothing, festivals, beliefs,
celebrations and food.
Often communities of past, such as
the Indian community, share the same
religious and spiritual beliefs, so they
are also an example of communities
of perspective. Hinduism is the world’s
third largest religion and one of its
oldest. About 1 billion people today are
Hindus and about 98 per cent of them
live in India. As Indians migrate to other
countries, such as Australia and New
Zealand, the number of Hindus in those
countries also increases. Today there are
more than 40 000 Hindus in Melbourne
and Hinduism has become the city’s
fastest growing religion.
Belonging to a religious community
Source 3.37 Shri Shiva Vishnu Hindu temple in Carrum Downs on the outskirts of Melbourne
is a vital part of many people’s identity.
As a multicultural country there are a
Country of birth of settlers
wide range of religious communities
% of settlers to Victoria % of settlers to Australia
in Australia and, despite a few isolated India
examples of intolerance, religions here China
happily co-exist. This is not always the United Kingdom
case overseas; in some countries, religion Sri Lanka
is often the basis of conflict and war. Philippines
Malaysia
Vietnam
Afghanistan
South Africa
Iraq
Source 3.38 A bar graph comparing the
percentage of overseas settlers to Victoria and 0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14% 16% 18% 20%
Australia by country of birth (2006–2011). Percentage of total settlement compared to national

Reading compound column graphs Remember and understand

A compound column graph divides each column into its different parts. Suggest two ways in which the
This allows us to easily see patterns in the information. For example, in Indian community have influenced the
Source 3.39 the columns show religious affiliations in selected years. character of Carrum Downs.
The columns are divided to show the different religions, such as Anglican
2 Look at Source 3.38. What
or Catholic.
percentage of settlers in Victoria were
To interpret Source 3.39 and other compound graphs follow these steps: from India? How does this compare
Step 1 Read the title carefully so that you understand what is being shown with settlers from other countries?
on the graph. 3 Settlers from China are the next
Step 2 Look closely at each scale. In this graph you will notice that the biggest group of migrants moving
vertical axis shows percentages rather than numbers. to Victoria. What impact would
Step 3 Look closely at the legend and colours so that you understand the you expect this group to have on
divisions within each of the columns. communities in Victoria?
Step 4 Look for major patterns. In this graph, there has been an obvious 4 The Hindu community of Melbourne is
decline in the percentage of Australians who are Anglicans, and an a community of perspective. Explain
increase in the percentage of people who practice no religion. what this means.
Apply the skill Apply and analyse

1 Study Source 3.39. Which of these statements are true and which 5 Carefully study the compound column
are false? graph (Source 3.39).
a Most Australians are Christians. a Describe the changes over
b In 1921 most Australians were Anglicans. time in the religions followed by
Australians.
c In 2011, there were more people with no religion than there were
b Why do you think these changes
Catholics.
have occurred?
d Up to the 1970s virtually all Australians were Christians.
c Based on the pattern shown in
100 the compound column graph, do
you think Christianity will cease to
Self-describing religious affiliation %
be the dominant type of religion

80
followed in Australia? If so, when
do you think this will occur?
60
40
20
0
1901
1911
1921
1933
1947
1954
1961
1966
1971
1976
1981
1986
1991
1996
2001
2006
2011
Census year
Anglican Other Christian No religion
Catholic Other religions Not stated/inadequately described
Source 3.39 A compound column graph comparing the percentage of Australians

following various religions (1901–2011)

Indigenous communities
Indigenous Australian communities share an ethnic Case study: Thursday Island
background, have strong family ties and centuries of
shared history and beliefs. These factors make them communities
an example of a community of the past. Indigenous Thursday Island lies in a cluster of Islands in the Torres
Australian communities are found throughout Australia Strait just off Cape York, the northernmost tip of
and tend to have strong spiritual connections to the Australia. Thursday Island has the largest population of
land. These factors also make them an example of a all the Torres Strait islands, and is where most of the local
community of place. government functions for the islands are located. As the
There are two distinct groups of Indigenous administrative centre, Thursday Island’s 2500 people have
Australians. The largest group are Aborigines from access to excellent facilities, including several schools, a
mainland Australia and Tasmania. The second group TAFE college, a hospital, a childcare centre, a library, a
are native to the Torres Strait Islands, the islands sports stadium with a swimming pool, parks and gardens.
between Australia and Papua New Guinea. Although There is little fresh water on the island so a pipeline
they are more closely linked (in terms of ethnic origins) brings water from nearby Horn Island. Daily flights from
to the Melanesian people of Papua New Guinea than Cairns to Horn Island and then a short ferry ride to
with Aboriginal Australians, Torres Strait Islanders are Thursday Island reduce the isolation of life on the island.
Australian citizens. The border between Australia and With year-round warm temperatures and easy access
Papua New Guinea means that Thursday Island (along to tropical reefs, the beach is the main focus of most
with many other islands in the Torres Strait) is considered leisure activities for children on Thursday Island. The
part of Queensland, not part of Papua New Guinea. islanders are keen fishermen and the warm waters
support a great variety of marine life. Many islanders
are also passionate about sports, with NRL player Sam
Thaiday and basketballer Patrick Mills, both of Torres
Strait Islander descent, being particular favourites.
Characteristics of the population Thursday Island

Australia
72.3%
Indigenous population
2.3%
Population 31.4%
under 15 years 19.8%
1.2%
Born overseas
22.2%
Only English spoken 40%

at home
78.5%
Employed in local 14.1%

government 1.4%
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percentage
Source 3.40 Thursday Island children play on the beach of their Source 3.41 A bar graph comparing some key population statistics
island home. on Thursday Island with mainland Australia

THURSDAY ISLAND: TOPOGRAPHICAL MAP
Hammond Island
LEGEND Esplanade
Thursday Island Aplin Pass Waiben
Native forest/scrub
Open area 40
60
Rose Hill 64 m
Government facilities
31
r
voi
50
Urban area Queensland 40 ser
30 Re
Fringing reef 10 n
ma
Mil 60
d
Road Roa
A plin
50
Reservoir
Contour with value
100
Loban Road
20 Road
(interval 10 metres) ine 40 60
30
e
nt ad
ad
50
Milman Street
A p li n R o
100
ra Milman Hill 104 m
lan
Spot height (metres) Thursday Island

a
Qu
Thursday Island
Cook Esp
20
High School
lan oru
Wind turbine
90
et Thursday Island
di
20
Step
P
tr e
St a
50 Primary School 80
rS
re
et
et Stre
m
e re
hen S
ze Summers Street 70
Na St 60 Summers Street
k
ar Hargrave Stree 60
Cl
Hastings Street
t
treet
TAFE
et
50 Hargrave
Blackall Street
Thursday Street
30 40 30
30 John Street Island et
Campus John Street re 10
e St
t
t re
g las
10°35’S rS u
te Douglas Stree Do
Aub u r y
Green Hill 57 m h e s t
C et
tre
Normanby Pa a sS
u gl e
Sound
ra
20 Do ra
d
de
Pe
10 Pa
Main Jetty
ar
ri a Engineers Jetty
l
o
ct
St
Vi Port Kennedy
re
10
et
Thursday Island
Ellis Channel
Scale 1:20 000
Hospital
metres 0 200 400 600 metres

1 Explain why Torres Strait Islanders have strong connections to Papua
New Guinea even though they are Australian.
2 What community services are located on Thursday Island?
Apply and analyse

a Which of these statistics do you find most surprising? Why?
b Explain why so many Thursday Islanders work in local government.
c Write a 50-word paragraph comparing key characteristics of the
population on Thursday Island with the wider Australian poulation.
a What are the advantages of the location of the main urban area on
Thursday Island? What are the disadvantages?
Source 3.43 An oblique aerial photograph of b Where would you have chosen to build the urban centre?
Thursday Island showing the Thursday Island
Hospital in the foreground (left) and Hammond c What is the name of the highest point on Thursday Island? How
Island in the background. many metres above sea level is it?

Liveability in communities
A community of place refers to a group of people with
a common interest or goal. This common interest
may be linked to where they live, work or spend a
large part of their time. The word community can be
used to describe groups like neighbourhoods, towns, 1 What is a community of place?
workplaces, schools, sports clubs, church groups, or 2 How is the liveability of a community measured?
very large groups like members of the same religion, or
Apply and analyse
citizens of the same country.
People connect with places where they feel included 3 Use Source 3.47 to provide a grid reference for:
and safe. They connect through community services a Recreation facility c Source of employment
(such as schools, hospitals and libraries), job opportunities b Transport hub d Education facility
(such as the type and amount of work available) and 4 Altona and Altona North are largely populated by
entertainment and recreation (such as concerts, sporting families. What evidence can you find using Source 3.47
events and festivals). that the local community is made up of many families.
Community services Job opportunities Entertainment and

We are all part of a broad community Local communities provide employment recreation
based on where we live. This may be opportunities or good access to places of
a suburb in a city, a town or a small work, training and education. Businesses Leisure facilities such as basketball
settlement, but it can even be as big as and industries, as well as providing courts and skate parks are provided and
a whole country. Governments and local services for the community, also provide maintained by local councils. Special
councils supply a range of services to jobs. Some examples of businesses areas are also set aside for recreation,
these communities, such as schools, found in many local communities such as parklands and sporting fields.
hospitals, libraries, transport, parks and include shops, hairdressers, plumbers, These areas allow residents to socialise
rubbish removal. banks and solicitors. An industry may and exercise outdoors. In addition
be a one-person operation or a large to these recreation areas, special
Different communities require different
manufacturing business that employs conservation zones are set up by
services. For example, a community
hundreds of people. Industrial areas councils to ensure that native plants and
with a younger population might require
are usually grouped together. Industries wildlife are protected.
more schools and facilities such as
skate parks. An older community might generally require large areas of flat land
require greater access to health care and and access to power, transport and
retirement villages. parts.
Source 3.44 Altona P-9 College, E9 on the Source 3.45 The Toyota car factory in Source 3.46 The Altona Youth Centre, G10
map opposite Altona North, G2 on the map opposite on the map opposite

Source 3.47 Street directory map of Altona Source: Melway

Building safe communities
The most liveable cities are those where people feel safe Safer community design
– not only for themselves, but also for their families and
their property. Fear of crime can affect quality of life, A key step towards improving local safety has been
reducing social interaction between people and forcing making public areas more visible. This has been achieved
people to avoid certain places. Every year the Property by different methods such as designing buildings to
Council of Australia surveys local residents across Australia face public space, removing bushes to give a clear line of
about 17 different liveability factors. Each year the results sight, improving lighting and introducing surveillance
clearly show that safety and security is the most important cameras. These strategies help reduce the numbers of
liveability factor for residents in our cities and towns. crimes by making places, and therefore any criminal
Safety in the community is not just about crime rates, activity, easier to see.
but also about how safe people feel in their community.
The compound column graph in Source 3.48 shows the
percentage of Australians (in all states and territories)
who feel at risk from a range of different crimes and anti-
social behaviours taking place in their communities. (For
more information on compound column graphs refer to
section GT.2 of ‘The geographer’s toolkit’.) For example,
32 per cent of people surveyed in the Northern Territory
feel threatened by people hanging around in groups,
whereas in the ACT, it’s only 11 per cent.
Governments and local councils are always trying
to improve the design of local environments to create
safer places and encourage community-based activities.
Surveys of local areas assist authorities to identify the key
issues and map problem areas. With this information, Source 3.49 Dark alleyways and parks are places where crimes can
they can then work to find solutions to these problems. go undetected. These areas are generally avoided by local residents.
No issues reported
31
40 41 44 41 38 42 43 41 Other
22
12 Intentional damage to property
13 13 11 13 14 17 13 other than graffiti
19 18 11 20 22 10 16 17
24
Percentage of people
11 Graffiti
14 17 14
who feel at risk
13 14 15 32 15
18 16 People using or dealing drugs
21 19 18 14 16 19
33 11 Noisy neighbours
20 16 18 23 20
21 18 14
34 People hanging around in groups
18 20 17 20 20 15 20
21
12 16 15 Offensive language or behaviour
16 16 44 12 17
19 10 13 13
12 12 9 13 Rowdy behaviour
14
36 35 27 32 Public drunkeness
34 33 36 34
33
34 People being insulted, pestered,
39 40 39 33 or intimidated in the street
32 33 36 35 35
Dangerous driving
NSW VIC Qld SA WA Tas NT ACT Australia Noisy driving
State and Territory
Source 3.48 A compound column graph showing the percentage of people who feel at risk from crime and anti-social behaviour across
Australia (by state), 2011. Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics

Community policing
In recent decades, the police have developed community
programs to create stronger ties between the general
community and the police. The goal here is to involve
members of the community in keeping their own streets
safe. The most successful of these programs has been
Neighbourhood Watch. The police work with local
communities to educate communities on safety and
security issues and to encourage people to look out for,
and report, any suspicious behaviour. The program also
encourages community members to get to know each
other, share safety concerns and support each other to
stay safe.
Helping at risk groups

Many government and not-for-profit groups work within
local communities to provide outreach services for the
most vulnerable members of the community. These
services include things such as temporary and permanent
housing, food trucks for the homeless and poor, support
services for victims of domestic violence, rehabilitation
programs for alcoholics and drug addicts, drop-in centres
for disadvantaged youths, and home services such as Source 3.51 Soup kitchens and food vans provide meals for the
Meals on Wheels for the elderly. These services help to homeless.
protect and care for those in our communities who need
it most. Check your learning 3.12
1 Why do you think safety is the most important liveability
factor for communities across Australia?
2 What example is given of police working with the
community to reduce crime and increase feelings of
safety?
3 How does increased visibility in streets and public
spaces help to prevent crime? What strategies help to
increase visibility?
Apply and analyse

a What crime issues were most reported in the
survey?
b In which categories did the Northern Territory score
the highest? What strategies might police introduce
to try to reduce this behaviour?
Source 3.50 Neighbourhood Watch (along with other community c In what state is graffiti considered to be the biggest
policing programs) has been used to reduce crime in local problem? Why might this be the case?
communities and create stronger ties between the police and
members of their communities.

skilldrill
Change in Casey
Drawing overlay maps from
To deal with increasing populations, cities often
street maps
establish new suburbs on their urban–rural
One of the best ways to show how a place has changed over
fringes. Housing estates that are built on the time is to draw an overlay map of the area. An overlay map
edges of cities attract young families by offering allows you to show a place at two different times so that you
cheaper land and affordable houses. As the can see any changes that have occurred over time.
To construct an overlay map from the street maps of Narre
population grows in a new suburb, services are
Warren showing changes between 1985 and 2007, follow
attracted to the area as well. Schools, shopping these steps:
centres, medical centres and sporting facilities Step 1 Draw a base map of Narre Warren in 1985 by tracing
open to meet the needs of the new community. the important features from the 1985 street map (Source
3.53). Show the two main roads and the extent of the
As these services become more established, Fountain Gate Regional Shopping Centre. Design a legend
the opportunities for people to interact and feel showing residential areas, recreation areas, education and
like members of the community increase. vacant land and shade these areas on your map. Finish
your map with BOLTSS.
Step 2 Attach a piece of tracing paper to your base map
using sticky tape along one edge like a hinge. This allows
you to lift it up to easily see the map below. This top map is
known as the overlay map.
Step 3 Use the same legend on the overlay map as you used
on the base map to shade in the main land uses as shown
in the 2007 street map (Source 3.54). You will need to give
this map a different title, but as it has the same border,
orientation, legend, scale and source as the base map you
do not need to repeat these on the overlay map. Make
sure that your overlay title does not cover any part of the
base map title.
Apply the skill

1 Using the steps outlined above, construct an overlay map
from the street maps of Narre Warren (Sources 3.53 and
3.54).
Source 3.52 An aerial photograph of Narre Warren in the

municipality of Casey on the outskirts of Melbourne (2007).

NARRE WARREN, 1985
1 Look carefully at the street directory maps

(Sources 3.53 and 3.54).
a What type of land use increased the
most between 1985 and 2007?
b What land use decreased the most?
c What happened to the shopping centre
in this time?
d Describe the spatial change in the
area east of Narre Warren North Road
between 1985 and 2007.
2 Find the Fountain Gate Primary School in
1985 (Source 3.53). It had recently moved
here when this map was drawn.
a What does a new primary school
suggest about families moving to the
area?
0 400 800 m b What new services had been added
north of the school by 2007?
Source 3.53 Source: Melway c Why do you think these new services
were required?
NARRE WARREN, 2007 d Describe the distribution of schools in
Narre Warren in 2007.
3 Source 3.52 is a vertical aerial photograph
of a place in Narre Warren.
a Use clues in the photograph to identify
the key features.
b What clues suggest this photograph
was taken after 2007?
4 What are some of the factors bringing
change to this community?
5 Describe the changes to transport links in
this community between 1985 and 2007.
0 400 800 m
Source 3.54 Source: Melway

Liveable
cities
As we have learned, there are a range of
factors that make places more or less liveable.
Liveability is generally measured by factors that
provide quality of life, such as access to fresh
water, food, housing, transport, health care,
education and a safe and stable environment.
Each year, the results of a number of studies
are released rating cities all over the world in
order of liveability. In 2012, the capital city
of Bangladesh, Dhaka, was rated as the
world’s least liveable city. It scored poorly
in health care, public transport, crime and
sanitation. Melbourne, Australia was rated the
world’s most liveable city.
4.1 4.2
What makes a city liveable? Where are the world’s most and
1 What does this photograph tell you about the availability least liveable cities?
of services (such as water, housing and education) in
1 What do you think is meant by the word liveability?
Dhaka?
2 Many European, North American and Australian cities
2 In Bangladesh there is widespread poverty and
tend to be rated highly in terms of liveability, whereas
government corruption. How might this make it difficult
many Asian and African cities tend to be rated poorly.
to provide services such as water and public transport?
Why do you think this is the case?

and bathing.
4.3
How can we make cities
4
chapter
Source 4.1 A young boy living in a slum in the Bangladeshi capital, Dhaka, uses a toilet perched over a river that is also used for drinking
more liveable?
1 In the 2013 survey, Melbourne was rated the world’s
most liveable city, but some parts of Melbourne are
rated much higher in terms of liveability than others.
Why do you think this is the case?
2 Think of a town or city you know well; what services
and facilities could make this town or city more liveable?
chapter 4 liveable cities 149
4.1 What makes a city liveable?
Measuring liveability
The liveability of a place is generally measured by a factors are people’s spiritual connections and sentimental
number of different factors relating to quality of life. attachments to a place (see Source 4.2).
People’s views about the liveability of a place can vary Each year, a number of different companies review
depending on their age, income, cultural background, the liveability of cities around the world in terms of
lifestyle choices, values and beliefs. their objective factors, ranking them from the most to
The factors that influence people’s ideas on liveability the least liveable. The most well-known of these surveys
can be measured in two ways: by objective factors and is conducted by an organisation called the Economist
subjective factors. Objective factors are things that can Intelligence Unit (EIU), which publishes an annual list of
be measured and expressed as numbers, such as the cost rankings. They rank cities based on a set of criteria using
of housing, the climate, the number of hospitals and objective factors. Other organisations, such as Mercer
schools, the availability of public transport, and the level and the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
of crime. Subjective factors are things that are personal, Development (OECD), also produce regular reports, with
emotional and spiritual, and that cannot be easily the OECD, also incorporating more subjective factors
measured or expressed as numbers. Examples of these into their surveys.
LIVEABILITY Objective factors

There are many different objective factors that affect
Objective factors (measurable factors) liveability. The most important are introduced briefly
below, then covered in more detail later in this section of
Climate the chapter.
Environmental quality Climate

Climate is one of the most important factors affecting
Infrastructure the liveability of a place. Although different people like
different types of weather, most people agree that a mild
Safety and stability climate without extremes of heat or cold is ideal. Places
with mild (temperate) climates often score highly in
Access to health care and education terms of liveability. The amount of rainfall is also key
when it comes to climate. Too little or too much rain has
Subjective factors (personal and emotional factors) a negative effect on the liveability of a place.
Personal likes and dislikes

Environmental quality
The environment is another key factor that determines
Feelings of connection to friends and family how liveable a place is. Environmental quality can refer
to a number of characteristics relating to the natural or
Traditions and spiritual connections built environment, such as clean water and clean air. It
can also be a measure of other things such as the level of
Source 4.2 Liveability can be measured by objective and subjective pollution, rubbish or noise in an environment.
factors

Infrastructure
The availability of services and facilities (such as roads,
public transport, emergency services, post offices, water,
sewerage treatment plants, airports, housing, sporting and
entertainment facilites, electricity and communications)
helps make a place more or less liveable. Together these
services and facilities are referred to as infrastructure.
Safety and stability

Safety and stability are two of the most important factors
linked to the liveability of a place. More than most other
things, people value feeling safe and stable in their homes.
Australian cities are regarded as some of the most liveable
places in the world for this reason. Safety and stability are
measured by taking into account crime statistics and other
information collected by the government. Many of the Source 4.3 A young schoolgirl looks through a hole in the damaged
world’s least liveable cities are found in war-torn countries wall of her school in Gaza City following Israeli bombings in 2012.
Feeling safe is a key factor that affects the liveability of places.
such as Iraq and Afghanistan, where crime rates are very
high and there are very few police to enforce the law.
For this reason, many refugees flee to countries such as Subjective factors
Australia in search of safety and stability. Unlike objective factors, subjective factors cannot be easily
measured and compared. They are linked to personal
Assess to health care and education likes and dislikes, and feelings of connection to family,
In general, people living in the world’s most liveable friends and cultural groups. They are also linked to
cities have access to good health care services, including beliefs, traditions and spiritual connections to places.
doctors, public and private hospitals, specialist clinics and Organisations such as the OECD are now conducting
over-the-counter medication. They also have access to a life-satisfaction surveys in order to take some of these
range of schools and other education facilities, such as subjective factors into account when rating the liveability
training centres and universities. In many of these cities, of different places. These surveys try to take into account
including those in Australia, a school education is not how happy or sad people feel, and look for the factors in
only compulsory but is also free. Cities in Canada, the their lives and environments that cause these feelings.
USA, Australia and Western Europe generally rank highly This information is then taken into account alongside
in both health care and education. African cities are the more objective measures in order to give a more complete
lowest ranked in the world in terms of these services. picture of liveability.

1 How do companies measure the liveability of places 4 Safety is a key liveability measure in all communities.
around the world? a What do you think are the most important safety
2 What are the objective measures of liveability for issues for people living in large Australian cities?
countries? Why are these important? b What do you think are the most important safety
3 What are subjective measures of liveability and how are issues for people living in Gaza City (see Source 4.3).
they measured? c What safety issues are similar and which are different?

Climate
The climate of a place has an important impact on its Reliable rainfall, low humidity and little likelihood of
liveability. Different climates suit different people, but it is weather-related disasters, such as cyclones and floods, are
generally agreed that mild temperatures without extremes also seen as being desirable. These factors increase the
of heat or cold help to make a place more liveable. liveability of a place
skilldrill
Comparing climate graphs throughout the year state this. Use temperature
figures in your description of the temperature pattern.
Climate graphs show the maximum and minimum Step 3 Describe the climate of the other location that you
temperatures as line graphs using the scale on the have chosen for comparison using the same method.
left-hand vertical axis, and rainfall as a bar graph using Step 4 Point out the obvious differences in the climates of
the scale on the right-hand vertical axis. The months the two locations.
are shown on the horizontal axis. By comparing climate
Step 5 Try to explain these differences. Some of the most
graphs, geographers can better understand the differences
likely explanations are given below:
between climates and the reasons for these differences.
• Places nearer to the Equator are warmer than places
Step 1 Select climate graphs for two locations for
closer to the poles. They also tend to be wetter with
comparison.
rainfall occurring throughout the year.
Step 2 Describe the climate of one of these locations. • Places near or beside oceans have milder climates
Include the following elements of climate: with fewer extremes than places in the centre of large
• The rainfall pattern: Mention whether rainfall is land masses.
consistent throughout the year or whether there are • Places at high altitude are colder than places at sea
clear wet and dry seasons. In particular, mention the level. They are often wetter as well.
highest rainfall month and any periods with little or no
Step 6 Point out any similarities between the two locations.
rainfall.
• The temperature pattern: Mention periods of warmer Apply the skill
temperatures and colder temperatures, if these 1 Using the steps outlined above, compare the climate of
occur. If there is a more consistent, even temperature two cities shown in Source 4.4.
1 Acceptable humidity 2 Tolerable humidity 3 Uncomfortable 4 Undesirable humidity 5 Intolerable humidity

and temperature: and temperature: humidity and temperature: and temperature: and temperature:
Paris Adelaide Kathmandu Dubai Phnom Penh
Maximum temperature Rainfall Maximum temperature Rainfall Maximum temperature Rainfall Maximum temperature Rainfall Maximum temperature Rainfall
Minimum temperature Minimum temperature Minimum temperature Minimum temperature Minimum temperature
40 400 40 400 40 400 45 400 40 400
35 350 35 350 35 350 40 350 35 350
30 300 30 300 30 300 35 300 30 300
25 250 25 250 25 250 30 250 25 250

Temperature (°C)
Temperature (°C)
Temperature (°C)
Temperature (°C)
Temperature (°C)
Rainfall (mm)
Rainfall (mm)
Rainfall (mm)
Rainfall (mm)
Rainfall (mm)
20 200 20 200 20 200 25 200 20 200
15 150 15 150 15 150 20 150 15 150
10 100 10 100 10 100 15 100 10 100
5 50 5 50 5 50 10 50 5 50
0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0
J F M A M J J A SO N D J F M A M J J A SO N D J F M A M J J A SO N D J F M A M J J A SO N D J F M A M J J A SO N D
Month Month Month Month Month
152 oxford big ideas geography 7: australian curriculum Source 4.4 Climate graphs for locations with different climates
WORLD: CLIMATE ZONES
A R CT I C O CE A N
Arctic Circle
EUROPE N O RT H
1 Paris
AS I A AMERICA
ATLANTIC
3 PACI F I C O CE A N O CE AN
Kathmandu
Tropic of Cancer Dubai
4
AF R IC A
Phnom Penh
5
Equator
AT L ANTIC
INDIAN S O U TH
OCEAN
OCEAN AMERIC A
Tropic of Capricorn
AU S T R A L I A
Adelaide
2
0 1500 3000 km
LEGEND
Polar: extremely cold all year; nearly all snow and Highlands: cool to cold occuring in mountains and Tropical wet and dry: hot all year;
ice; less than 250 mm precipitation per year high plateaus; snow cover increases with altitude wet summers, dry winters
Cold wet: cold winters, cool to hot Subtropical wet: warm; Tropical wet: hot; wet
summers; moderate rain all year rain all year for most of the year
Cold dry winter: cold dry winters, cool Subtropical, dry winter: warm
to hot summers; moderate rain all year all year; dry winter Humidity and temperature rating
Cold semi-desert: hot in summer, cold in Subtropical dry summer: warm 1 Acceptable 4 Undesirable
winter; 250 mm to 500 mm rain per year all year; dry summer 2 Tolerable 5 Intolerable
Cold desert: hot in summer, cold in winter; Hot semi-desert: hot all year; 3 Uncomfortable
less than 250 mm rain per year 250 mm to 500 mm rain per year
Mild wet: mild; Hot desert: hot all year; less
rain all year than 250 mm rain per year

Remember and understand b What type of climate does this city experience?
c What types of climate are experienced by the
1 Name the city that is described as having acceptable
cities that have acceptable levels of humidity and
temperature and humidity.
temperature?
2 What is the connection between climate and liveability?
Evaluate and create
Apply and analyse
6 How do people adapt to living in places with
3 Why do you think Kathmandu’s climate has been undesirable climates?
described as uncomfortable?
7 What features of the natural environment other than
4 Which city has tolerable rather than acceptable weather? climate may affect a city’s liveability?
5 Look carefully at Sources 4.4 and 4.5.
a Which city has intolerable humidity and temperature?

Environmental quality
The quality of air, water and parklands in cities is pollution still accounts for 2.3 per cent of all deaths
an important part of liveability for both health and in Australia. Motor vehicles are the main source of air
aesthetic reasons. Air quality, in particular, can have a pollution. Although unleaded petrol and hybrid cars that
big impact on health. run partly on electricity are helping to reduce pollution
Air pollution tends to be worse in large cities where from motor vehicles, these have been offset by the
factories, power stations and motor vehicles spew harmful ever increasing numbers of cars on the road. Walking,
gases into the air. The polluted air can sometimes be riding a bike or using public transport remain the most
trapped close to the Earth’s surface as smog, or thrown environmentally friendly ways to get around.
high into the atmosphere where it may contribute to a
layer of gases responsible for global warming. Bike or walking 0.0
Increasing numbers of people and cars on our roads Extra person on existing public transport 0.003
Fuel–efficient car: 4 people 0.042
mean we need to take action to improve the quality of the
Average car: 4 people 0.08
air we breathe. Air quality in Australian cities is good by Large 4WD: 4 people 0.11
world standards, but can vary. In Sydney, Melbourne and Fuel–efficient car: driver only 0.17
Brisbane, the number of days per year where pollution Average car: driver only 0.32
exceeds the National Environment Protection Measures Large 4WD: driver only 0.44
standard is generally less than 10. Some years it can be 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
much higher, however, particularly when air quality is Greenhouse gases
(kilograms per person per kilometre)
negatively affected by other events such as bushfi res.
Australian governments have now introduced laws Source 4.7 Greenhouse gas emissions from different forms of
to deal with air and noise pollution, however urban air transport
Sun
carbon dioxide Sun’s heat trapped
from burning by a layer of gases
fossil fuel
Sun’s heat
gases from
erupting
volcano
water vapour from
carbon dioxide cooling towers
from aeroplane
Air pollutants mixed with
moisture fall to Earth as acid
rain, which can kill trees.
carbon dioxide carbon monoxide
from burning methane from from cars and trucks
forest animals methane from
rubbish dump
Source 4.6 Sources of air pollution

WORLD: MOST POLLUTED CITIES
ARCT IC OCEAN
Arctic Circle
EEUROPE
RO
OPE
PE
NORTH
NORT
NO
ORT
O RT
TH
ASIA
AS
SIA AMERICA
AME
A ERICCA
Shenyang
Tianjin
Zhengzhou AT L A NT I C
Cairo New Delhi Chongqing PACI FI C OCEAN OCEAN
Tropicc of
of Cancer
Cancer
a Kanpur Lucknow
Kolkata
AFRICA
AFRI
AF ICCA
Equator
AT L A N T I C IND IAN Jakarta SOUTH

O C EA N O CE AN AMERICA
A
Tropic of Capricorn
AUSTRALIA
AUS
LEGEND
Severely polluted air
Severely polluted city
0 1500 3000 km
Case study: Hong Kong Check your learning 4.3

The city of Hong Kong in China is home
to 7 million people. The liveability of Remember and understand
Hong Kong is under threat from crippling 1 Look carefully at Source 4.6.
pollution, three times the safe level a List the causes of pollution in cities.
set by the World Health Organization. b List the causes of pollution in rural areas.
Roadside pollution levels in Hong Kong c Why do cities such as Sydney, Los Angeles and Mexico City suffer
are responsible for 90 000 hospital from smog?
admissions and 2800 deaths each year. 2 Look at Source 4.8.
In 2013, a strategy for decreasing a On which continent are most of the top ten polluted cities located?
pollution in Hong Kong was announced b Why do you think pollution is such an issue in these cities?
by electric vehicle maker BYD. The plan
involves replacing Hong Kong’s fleet of
Apply and analyse
diesel buses and LPG taxis with fully 3 Study Source 4.7.
electric vehicles that produce no exhaust a What is the difference in the amount of greenhouse gases released
fumes. Experts suggest that this strategy per person between one person driving a 4WD and four people
will reduce pollution from Hong Kong’s travelling together in a 4WD?
vehicles by around 56 per cent. Replacing b What could governments do to encourage more people to share
the 18 000 LPG taxis and 12 000 diesel their cars as a way of reducing air pollution?
buses with electric taxis and buses c List the ways in which car sharing could potentially improve the
would lead to a reduction in emissions liveability of a city.
equivalent to more than 800 000 private
cars. The plan will reduce costs, lower
vehicle emissions and improve air quality.
Infrastructure
Services and facilities (such as roads,
public transport, emergency services,
post offices, water, sewerage, airports,
housing, electricity and communications)
help make a place more or less liveable.
Together these services and facilities are
referred to as infrastructure.
The world’s best

infrastructure: Singapore
Singapore is considered to have some
of the best infrastructure in the world.
Singapore has been recognised for its
excellent roads, and for producing one
of the world’s busiest and most efficient
ports. A first-class airport acts as a central
Asian hub for tens of millions of travellers
every year. Most Singaporeans live in
high-rise apartment blocks in a form of
public housing available to the majority of
the population. These buildings are clean,
modern and well serviced.
Source 4.9 Singapore’s public transport system is considered one of the best in
With its reliable electricity supply,
the world.
Singapore has developed as a centre for
advancement in technology and now
boasts one of the best communication
networks, with fast mobile and wireless
Internet and communication services
available everywhere.
Singapore also has a ready supply of
fresh drinking water, a good sewerage
system and, thanks to the Restroom
Association of Singapore, the cleanest
public toilets. Singapore can be
particularly proud of its public transport
with buses, taxis and two train networks
covering the whole country. The use of
public transport is encouraged – over
50 per cent of workers in Singapore
travel to work on public transport.
Source 4.10 The road network in Singapore allows commuters to move around the
city easily.

The world’s worst infrastructure:
Dhaka
The capital of Bangladesh, Dhaka, is considered to have
the worst infrastructure in the world. It rates poorly
in the quality of its telecommunications, water and
housing, but even worse in terms of transport. Both its
road network and public transport are considered to be
intolerable. This is due to a number of factors. Dhaka
is a city of 16 million people and is growing at a rate of
4.2 per cent a year. This adds about 670 000 people to
the city a year. By world standards, this represents rapid Source 4.11 The rail system in Bangladesh is rundown and chaotic.
growth. Unlike other cities in Asia, the reason for Dhaka’s
growth is increased poverty not increased prosperity.
Poor rural migrants flood into the city, placing the
existing infrastructure under great strain. For many of
the rural poor who move to Dhaka, pulling a rickshaw is
their first job (see Source 4.12).
Only about one-quarter of Dhaka’s population is
connected to the sewerage system. The rest use open
toilets in the street or slums where they live. Only
two-thirds are connected to a reliable water supply.
Dhaka has the highest population density of any of the
world’s megacities with about 20 000 people crammed
into every square kilometre of land. This leaves little
room for roads, rail lines, car parks, bus terminals and
other elements of an effective transport system. There
are very few forms of public transport and these are
largely inefficient and poorly organised. People moving
around Dhaka rely on a limited bus service and bicycle
rickshaws. There is no train service within Dhaka, only
trains betwen Dhaka and other centres in Bangladesh
Source 4.12 More than 80 per cent of households in Dhaka do not own a
(see Source 4.11). car or motorbike and instead rely on rickshaws for moving around the city.

Remember and understand 5 Why do you think the infrastructure in Singapore is so
reliable?
1 What is meant by the word infrastructure?
6 Make a list of all the forms of infrastructure mentioned in
2 How does an efficient and reliable infrastructure add to
this spread. Rank these forms of infrastructure from the
a city’s liveability?
one you consider to be the most important to the one
Apply and analyse you consider to be the least important.
7 Compare the infrastructure of the city or town closest
3 Compare the photographs of the road systems in
to you with the infrastructure in Singapore. What are the
Singapore and Dhaka (Source 4.10 and 4.12). What are
differences and similarities?
some of the differences and some of the similarities?
8 Is it possible to live in a city and not rely on or use any
4 What are some of the factors that have resulted in such
of its infrastructure?
poor infrastructure in Dhaka?

Safety and stability
Like people everywhere, Australians want to feel safe. crimes, such as murder. Some North American
Even though it is tempting to believe everything that is cities, such as Washington DC and New Orleans, are
presented in the media, if you did, you would probably considered to have low rates of personal safety, as are
think that Australian cities are in the grip of a crime some cities in South America and South Africa.
wave and have become unsafe. While it is true that many
crimes are committed in Australia, by world standards it is AR
A RROWS
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S FIR
IREED
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A VA
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In a 2011 survey, the stability and safety of 140 world cities
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Yaa m
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safest city was found to be Luxembourg in Europe. The
world’s most dangerous city was found to be Baghdad BOMB
BO MB FE
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DR AM
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AST
TOOPO
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and Mogadishu – the level of personal safety is classified fivvee hoou urrss.
as intolerable. United Nations aid workers who are posted GOON
GO
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OND
DIIWI
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NDI C
CRRIM
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ASSSA
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Goooon
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more
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s.
their place of work. Other cities that are considered very
unsafe or unstable are those with very high rates of violent
Source 4.14 Local news headlines in Australia can sometimes
give the impression that Australia is a dangerous place.
Motor vehicle theft Unlawful entry with intent Other theft

4000
Property crimes (rate per 100 000 persons)
3000
2000
1000
0
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
Year
Source 4.13 Luxembourg – the world’s safest city Source 4.15 Property crimes in Australia, 1996–2010

WORLD: MURDER RATES AND SAFEST AND MOST DANGEROUS CITIES
A R CT I C O CE A N
Arctic Circle
Stockholm Helsinki
EUROPE
Luxembourg
ASIA NORTH
Bern Vienna
Zurich AMERICA
Geneva
Washington DC
Kabul Swat Valley
Baghdad ATLANTIC
PACI F I C O CE A N
Tropic of Cancer O CE AN
Guatemala City
AFRICA
Caracas
LEGEND Medellin
Equator Mogadishu Singapore Number of murders per
100 000 people per year
AT L ANTIC Over 20 SOUTH
OC EAN INDIAN 10 to 20
AMERICA
Tropic of Capricorn
OCEAN 5 to 10 Rio de Janeiro
Johannesburg AUSTRALIA 2 to 5
1 to 2
Auckland 0 to 1
Wellington No data available
10 safest cities
0 1500 3000 km
10 most dangerous cities

1 Why are safety and stability important factors in determining a city’s
liveability?
2 Rank the following factors in order of what makes a place most liveable
for you: safe, easy to get around, good health care, good work and
education opportunities, affordable, diverse, sustainable, attractive.
3 In which regions of the world are the safest cities?
4 In which regions are the world’s least safe cities?
5 What makes some cities safer than others?
Apply and analyse

6 Collect reports of crime from your local newspaper. What impression do
these reports give of safety in your community?
7 Use an online resource in your state or territory to research crime in
your local area. For example:
• Victoria Police – My Place (VIC) • Crime and Justice (QLD)
• Crime Mapper (SA) • Western Australia Police (WA)
• Hotspot Maps (NSW)
Do media reports of crimes in your community match the reality as

Source 4.17 Baghdad – the world’s most shown in the data?
dangerous city
Access to health care
and education
Citizens of the world’s most liveable cities have access to
good health care services, including doctors, public and
private hospitals, specialist clinics and over-the-counter
drugs. They also have access to a range of schools and
other education facilities, such as training centres and
universities. In many of these cities, including those
in Australia, education is not only compulsory but is
also free.
The cities in Canada, the USA, Australia and Western
Europe rank highly in both health care and education,
while African cities are the lowest ranked in the world in
terms of these services.
The situation in the developing world

When examining the access to health and education in Source 4.18 A modern operating theatre at a hospital in the USA.
developing countries it is easy to think that nothing can
be done to improve the situation. Yet there have been
some significant improvements in recent years.
The number of mothers who die while giving birth
each year, for example, has almost halved since 1990.
The main reasons are thought to be: improved care in
hospitals and birth clinics; better education of girls and
women; and better access to health care professionals,
such as maternal nurses and doctors. Though the current
rate still means that 800 women a day die while giving
birth, the improvements in the last two decades give
hope that this rate will decline even further.
Worldwide, 89 per cent of all primary school aged
children now attend school. Although 67 million
children worldwide are not at school, this is a vast
improvement on 1999 when the number of children
not enrolled in primary school was 106 million. The
countries that have made the greatest improvements in
this area are the poorest countries of sub-Saharan Africa.
In many of these countries, such as Rwanda and Mali, it
is believed that abolishing school fees has been the main
factor behind this improvement.
Source 4.19 These girls in Brazzaville, Democratic Republic

of Congo, are enjoying the benefits of a free education.

AFRICA, SOUTH AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA AND AUSTRALIA: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX
63/73/74 Beijing
Tianjin 67/67/75
Algiers Tunis 71/67/66 Tokyo 100/100/95
33/25/39 Osaka 100/100/95
Tripoli 63/67/63
71/83/70 58/75/59 67/58/75 Suzhou Shanghai 63/75/72
50/58/58 Cairo Kuwait
67/92/74 New Delhi
63/58/56 Al Khobar Bahrain 63/67/71 Kathmandu 46/58/47
67/58/60 Riyadh Dubai Karachi 46/67/41 Taipei 83/100/82
Abu Dhabi Muscat Shenzhen 63/67/73
67/58/59 Jeddah 75/75/75 63/83/73 S outh A s i a
M id dl e E a s t Mumbai
54/67/56
Dakar 42/50/56 Su b - Sah ar an Af r ica Manila 58/67/62
63/100/66 Bangkok
Phnom Penh 38/58/51
Lagos 33/33/39 42/67/47 Colombo S outh-E a s t A s i a

Abidjan Douala 25/33/43 63/92/74 Kuala Lumpur
46/50/50
88/83/89 Singapore
Nairobi 42/67/53
LEGEND
Human Development Index 46/67/55 Jakarta 38/50/39
Over 0.85 Port Moresby
0.76 to 0.85
33/42/52 Lusaka 0.66 to 0.75
Harare 21/67/37 0.56 to 0.65
0.46 to 0.55
0.36 to 0.45
Pretoria 58/83/68 A us t r al i a 100/92/94
58/83/69 Johannesburg Under 0.36 Brisbane
No data available
av
100/100/96 Perth 100/100/96
care/education/
Health care/educ Sydney
overall city score (out of 100) 100/100/96 Adelaide
0 800 1600 km 58/83/68 Melbourne
100/100/98
Region border
bo

1 What improvements have been made in health care and education in
developing countries?
2 What changes have led to these improvements?
Apply and analyse

3 Why do you think educating girls is a key part of lowering the maternal
death rate?
4 Examine Source 4.20. The map shows health care and education
scores in selected cities in Africa, Asia and Australia. The map also
shows each country shaded according to the Human Development
Index (HDI). This uses measures of life expectancy, literacy and gross
domestic product (GDP) to show the living standards in each country.
a In which region is HDI the lowest?
b How do cities in this region score for health care and education?
c In which region is HDI the highest?
d How do cities in this region score for health care and education?
e Write a short paragraph describing the connection between living
standards (as shown in the HDI), health care and education in the
cities of the regions shown on the map.

4.1 bigideas: broadsheet conditions. There is a range of ways for people in the Mawson
Station community to communicate with friends, family
Life on Mawson and colleagues in other places. Orbiting satellites provide a

reliable Internet connection as well as radio and telephone
connections to the ANARESAT dome.
Station The community lives in the Domestic Building (also
known as the ‘Red Shed’). When blizzard days stop fieldwork,
the Red Shed provides many opportunities for expeditioners
Australia maintains three stations in Antarctica to pass the time. It has indoor climbing, a home theatre, a
and one on Macquarie Island in the Southern photographic dark room, a library and several communal
sitting areas. There is a small gym, as well as sports
Ocean. The oldest of these is Mawson Station,
equipment for volleyball and badminton and a range of cross-
located on Horseshoe Bay in one of the few country ski equipment. A spa and sauna are also available.
relatively ice-free places in Antarctica. The small
community of scientists at Mawson Station face
skilldrill
many challenges in the least liveable climate on
Earth.
Analysing a map
Understanding the information provided by maps is a key skill
for every geographer. Here are some basic steps to follow
Because of its isolation from other places, it can be
each time you begin to analyse a new map:
challenging to provide a liveable environment at Mawson
Station. Electricity comes from a diesel generator and two Step 1 Read the title carefully as this will tell you exactly what
wind turbines. Much of the electricity generated is used to the map is showing.
provide heating, mainly to melt ice for water and to heat the Step 2 Look carefully at the legend and map labels to identify
water and buildings. Sewage is treated on site and scientists individual features on the map.
who are away from the station return to the station carrying Step 3 Use the orientation arrow to work out in which
all solid human waste with them where it is incinerated. direction the map is facing. Once you have established
Vegetables are grown in a special heated hydroponics room where north is, you will be able to work out the remaining
in which they can grow without soil. The station has a small cardinal points.
operating theatre and a dentist’s suite to treat most medical
Source 4.21 Oblique aerial view of Mawson

Station, Antarctica

Step 4 Look carefully at the map scale. This MAWSON STATION
will help you estimate how far distances S O U T H E R N O C E AN
shown on the map are on the ground.
You can then use this scale to estimate ULF Magnetometers
distances between places on the map. Hump

East Island
Step 5 If the map you are using shows a Arm
small area (i.e. a large-scale map), it may 67°36’00”S

Hangar
Horseshoe
be helpful to look at another map showing Harbour Helipads
a larger area (i.e. a small-scale map). This Fuel farm

Transmitter building
Wharf
will help you locate the area shown. For
Waste treatment plant
more information relating to maps, refer to West
Fuel farm Balloon building
Arm Operations
section GT.2 in ‘The geographer’s toolkit’. Main power house
Fuel tanks
Gas storage platform
Store Hydroponics
Apply the skill Carpentry workshop Wind turbine

Science building
Workshop
1 Examine the map of Mawson Station in Magnetic variometer
building
Source 4.22. Emergency vehicle shelter Domestic building
Explosives hut ANARESAT raydome
a Which buildings are clustered Magnetic absolute
building
Aeronomy
together? Why do you think they are 5
Tank house
Cosmic ray building Clean air laboratory

clustered in this way?
b Two buildings are located away from Water supply building
67°36’20”S
other buildings. For each of these,
10
estimate the distance to the nearest
30
15
other building and explain why you 45 50
25
35
40
20
think it is located where it is: 62°51’40”E 62°52’00”E 62°52’20”E 62°52’40”E 62°53’00”E
• explosives hut LEGEND

Station limits Crevasse field Contour
• hangar (used to store aircraft) 50 (interval 5 metres)
Lake Road
c What are the two main types of Buildings
0 100 200 m
transport used to bring supplies to
the station? Source 4.22 Source: Oxford Atlas
2 Examine the oblique aerial image of the
station. Do you think this photograph was
taken in summer or winter?
Give two reasons for your answer.
3 Compare the map with the photograph 1 Use the Internet to gather information about the climate at Mawson
(Source 4.21). Station. Select the best description of the climate at Mawson Station when
a In which direction was the photographer referring to its liveability: acceptable, tolerable, uncomfortable, undesirable,
facing when this image was taken? intolerable. Justify your response.
b What is the round building on the right 2 Mawson Station is essentially a scientific community. Why do you think
of the photograph? plumbers, electricians, builders and diesel mechanics are also needed?
c What colour is each of these 3 Rank the following factors in order of what makes Mawson Station most
buildings: domestic building, store liveable: safety, easy to get around, good health care, good work and
and operations? Why do you think the education opportunities, affordability, diversity, sustainability, attractiveness.
buildings are different colours? 4 What are some challenges faced by people who live at Mawson Station?
d What do you think is stored in the How do they overcome these challenges?
tanks with the word ‘Mawson’ written 5 How liveable would Mawson Station be for you? What would be the
on them? Why do you think they are advantages and disadvantages of living in this place? Discuss your answer
located next to the wharf? with a classmate.

4.2 Where are the world’s most and least liveable cities?
The world’s most liveable cities

It is difficult to compare one city to another as people These liveability rankings are useful for geographers
who live in one city tend to favour their own city. This as they give us the opportunity to compare places and to
can make it difficult for others who are considering consider what makes one place more liveable than another.
moving to a new location to find out what it is really Importantly, it also allows us to make better decisions about
like to live there. In response to this problem, a number improving the liveability of cities around the world. The
of companies research the world’s biggest cities and following map uses the scores from the annual survey by
rank them from the most liveable to the least liveable. the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) of 140 of the world’s
These companies vary in what they study and measure, cities. In its survey the EIU gives each city a score based on
and so their liveability rankings differ. For example, its: stability (such as crime and terrorism threats); health
one company may emphasise personal safety in their care; culture and environment (such as climate, shopping
study, while another may put a greater emphasis on the and religious freedom); education; and infrastructure (such
climate of a place. This means their scores and rankings as roads, public transport and water).
will differ.
WORLD: LIVEABILITY RATING, 2012
A RC T I C O C E A N
Arctic Circle
EUROPE
Oslo
Moscow
London Luxembourg
ASIA Vancouver NORTH
Paris Vienna AMERICA Toronto
Rome Tashkent Beijing Detroit New York
Algiers San Francisco Washington DC
Tehran Tokyo
Tripoli Los Angeles ATLANTIC
Cairo New Delhi Shanghai PA C I F I C O C E A N
Tropic of Cancer
Karachi O C E AN
Muscat Dhaka Hong Kong
Mexico City
Dakar Bangkok
AFRICA
Abidjan Lagos
Douala Bogota
Equator Singapore
Nairobi LEGEND
ATLANTIC Jakarta Liveability rating SOUTH
Port Moresby Lima
I N DI AN Over 80 (There are few, if any challenges AMERICA
O CEAN
to living standards)
Harare OC E AN
Tropic of Capricorn 71 to 80 (Day-to-day living is fine, but Rio de Janeiro
Johannesburg AUSTRALIA Brisbane some aspects of life may entail problems)
Perth 61 to 70 (Negative factors have an
Adelaide Sydney impact on day-to-day living) Buenos Aires
Melbourne Auckland
Wellington 51 to 60 (Liveability is substantially
constrained)
Under 50 (Most aspects of living are
0 1500 3000 km
severely restricted)

Case study: Vancouver,
Canada
The Canadian city of Vancouver is usually
near the top of any list of the world’s
most liveable cities and was placed fi rst
in one influential survey in 2011. In a
2012 survey, it was the only city in the
top ten to receive a perfect score for its
culture and environment. The culture and
environment category included climate,
levels of corruption and censorship,
religious freedom, sporting and cultural
facilities, and shopping. The city also
received a perfect score for its health care
and education.
Because cities are given a new
score every year, the rankings of their
liveability can change with little
perceivable change to living conditions
in that city. Vancouver, for example, has
slipped from the most liveable city to the
third most liveable and is now ranked
below Melbourne and Vienna. This is
largely because its infrastructure score fell
Source 4.24 Residential housing and a marina in downtown Vancouver
as a result of increased traffic congestion
in the city.

Remember and understand 4 Of the top 10 most liveable cities virtually all had perfect
scores in education and health care but only one,
1 Why can it be difficult to compare the liveability in
Vancouver, had a perfect ‘culture and environment’
different cities?
score. Why do you think only a few cities would score
2 Why is Vancouver considered to be less liveable in
perfectly for their culture and environment?
recent years?
Create and evaluate
Apply and analyse
5 Some people are critical of comparing cities in this way
3 Examine Source 4.23 carefully. and believe that it is unfair to the people who live there.
a Compare the liveability of the cities shown in Africa Why do you think people would feel this way?
with those shown in Western Europe.
6 As well as companies looking to move employees to a
b Describe three patterns that you observe on this map.
new city and geographers, who else would find liveability
c Select one of these patterns and give an explanation rankings of the world’s cities useful?
for it.

Vienna: a liveable city
Vienna, the capital of Austria, usually scores highly in One of the features of Vienna that makes it liveable is
any survey of the world’s most liveable cities. In 2011, the number of parks and other green spaces for people to
it was rated by one agency as the second most liveable enjoy. More than half the metropolitan area of Vienna is
city and by another as the city with the highest quality made up of these green spaces. This gives each resident of
of living in the world. It has topped this second list for the city about 120 square metres of open space in which
three years in a row. to socialise and exercise. (The World Health Organization
suggests that at least 9 square metres of open space
Infrastructure and safety should be available to every city dweller.) Serious crime is
rare and employment levels are high, creating a safe and
Vienna has excellent infrastructure, which has been stable environment for the city’s residents.
designed to meet the changing needs of the city while
ensuring sutainability (see ‘key concept: sustainability’).
Vienna features particularly strongly in terms of its
Health care and education
public transport and public housing. The city provides Vienna has a wide range of hospitals offering different
affordable public transport and has invested in an types of treatment and a high level of hospital care, and
extensive bicycle network to keep traffic congestion in every worker in Vienna has health insurance. Education
the streets low. Vienna has a large public housing system through the school system is provided to every child free
that provides high-quality housing for the majority of charge.
of the Viennese population. This has kept housing
affordable for everyone.
Source 4.25 Vienna is known for its shopping and safe public spaces.

keyconcept: sustainability
Sustainability and
liveability in Vienna
Vienna is leading the world in the
reduction of the greenhouse gases that
are changing the global climate. In 1999
Source 4.27 Vienna has a well-developed public transport network that includes
they began a program that encouraged
buses, trains and trams.
companies to change the way they used
energy and water and also the ways in
which they disposed of their waste. The
aim was to reduce gases by 2.6 million
tonnes a year by 2010. The program
was so successful that the target was
achieved four years early and new targets
have been set for 2010–20. More than
9000 individual projects have been put
into place to reduce greenhouse gases
since 1999. These have resulted in some
impressive reductions: more than 100 000
fewer tonnes of solid waste, 42 000
fewer tonnes of greenhouse gases and
more than 1 million fewer cubic metres
of drinking water used. This has resulted
in less water and air pollution in Vienna,
making it even more liveable than before.
For more information on the key
concept of sustainability, refer to section
Source 4.28 An amusement park in Prater Park near the centre of Vienna
GT.1 of ‘The geographer’s toolkit’.

Remember and understand 4 In what ways do open spaces
make cities more liveable?
1 What are some of the features
5 How is open space used in
of Vienna that make it very
your community?
liveable?
2 How is Vienna becoming Evaluate and create
more liveable? 6 Imagine that you are designing
Apply and analyse a brochure advertising Vienna
as the city with the world’s best
3 The exterior of the waste
quality of life.
incinerator in Source 4.26 was
a Which of the photographs of
designed by an artist.
Vienna would you use in the
a What does this tell you about
brochure and why?
Source 4.26 In this Viennese building, solid the people of Vienna?
b Which ones would you not
waste is incinerated to produce heat and b What do you think of the
electricity, which is used to power a nearby use? Why not?
exterior of this building?
hospital.

The world’s least liveable cities
While cities in Europe, Canada and
Australia dominate the top of lists of
the world’s most liveable cities, Asian
and African cities tend to dominate the
bottom of these lists. It is important to
remember, however, that these lists are
made by companies in wealthy countries
to provide their workers with a guide to
lifestyles in cities around the world. The
lists therefore tend to measure aspects of
each city that most interest those workers
rather than the experiences of the people
who live there.
In 2012, one of these companies
published the following list of the 10
least liveable cities. It was taken from a
list of 140 cities around the world. While
the same 10 cities were also ranked as
the least liveable in 2011, their order and
overall ratings had changed. Most notable
was the improvement in Harare’s score
and ranking. Rated as the least liveable
in 2011, improvements in stability meant
that it moved above the cities of Lagos,
Port Moresby and Dhaka in 2012. A city’s
stability is a measure of crime, terror and
conflict. The world’s least liveable cities
tend to be the least stable and least safe. Source 4.30 Housing area near the Port Moresby harbour
Country City Rank Overall rating Stability Health care Culture and Education Infrastructure
(100 = ideal) environment
Cote d’Ivoire Abidjan 131 45.9 30 45.8 54.2 50.0 53.6
Iran Tehran 132 45.8 50 62.5 35.9 50.0 33.9
Cameroon Douala 133 43.3 60 25.0 45.6 33.3 42.9
Libya Tripoli 134 42.8 50 41.7 35.4 41.7 44.6
Pakistan Karachi 135 40.9 20 45.8 38.7 66.7 51.8
Algeria Algiers 136 40.9 40 45.8 42.6 50.0 30.4
Zimbabwe Harare 137 39.4 30 20.8 55.8 66.7 35.7
Nigeria Lagos 138 39.0 25 33.3 52.3 33.3 48.2
Papua New Port 139 38.9 30 37.5 44.2 50.0 39.3
Guinea Moresby
Bangladesh Dhaka 140 38.7 50 29.2 43.3 41.7 26.8
Source 4.29 Liveability scores for the 10 least liveable cities

Case study: Port Moresby,
Papua New Guinea
Port Moresby, the capital of Papua New Guinea, is
often ranked as one of the world’s least liveable cities.
This is largely due to high crime rates and a lack of
safety experienced by many residents and visitors.
In many developing countries, such as Papua
New Guinea, large numbers of people move from
rural areas to the cities hoping for a better life. They
are attracted by the possibility of a steady job or the
chance for their children to attend high school. This
puts a strain on the city’s infrastructure and services
such as hospitals, schools and the police force.
In Port Moresby, many of the young men who
have arrived in the city have not been able to fi nd
jobs. They join crime gangs to survive, to earn money
to buy food and to gain a sense of belonging. The
most notorious of these gangs is the Raskols (from the
English word rascals). Other gangs have names such
as Mafia or Ook (Devils). These gangs are responsible
for much of the violent crime in Port Moresby, such
as robberies, car jackings, beatings, murders and rape.
Armed battles between the Raskols and the police
are common, creating a dangerous environment.
Many wealthier people in Port Moresby have
responded to the dangers by building fences of razor
wire and hiring armed security guards. The poorer
people, having no access to these defences, have Source 4.31 A Raskol gang member guards a stockpile of food
instead armed themselves with clubs and machetes. and fuel.

Remember and understand 4 Refer back to Source 4.23. Locate each of the 10 least
liveable cities on this map. Investigate which of these
1 Why do people move to cities such as Port Moresby?
10 cities is not in Asia or Africa.
2 How can this movement affect a city’s liveability?
Create and evaluate
Apply and analyse
5 Draw a geographic sketch of Source 4.30. Add these
3 Examine Source 4.29, showing the rankings and scores labels to your sketch: central business district, poor
of the world’s 10 least liveable cities. housing standards, lack of sewerage, lack of electricity,
a Why do cities move up or down this list over time? houses built on stilts over the water, better quality
b Which city is the least stable? Suggest a reason for housing.
this. 6 What do Sources 4.30 and 4.31 tell you about
c Of these cities, Tehran has by far the best health inequalities in wealth in Port Moresby?
care score. In what areas does it perform particularly
poorly?

Harare: a least liveable city
Harare, the capital of Zimbabwe, was the fourth lowest it was to restore order in the city but many others believe
ranked city in terms of liveability in 2012. Harare is a that it was done to intimidate his political opponents.
city of great contrasts. Many people live prosperous, It is estimated that about 700 000 people were made
healthy lives there. They have good jobs, access to good homeless or lost their jobs. As well as homes, the slum
health care and their children attend some of Africa’s clearance program destroyed schools, shops, workplaces
best schools. But this is not the reality for most Harare and pharmacies. Many people are reluctant to rebuild
residents, many of whom live in extreme poverty. their homes in case this happens again.
A recent report that measured the liveability of 140 of
Infrastructure and safety the world’s cities described Harare’s level of petty crime,
its threat of civil unrest or conflict, its public health care
Only 40 per cent of Harare residents have access to safe
and its quality of public transport as intolerable. It also
drinking water; most of the remaining 60 per cent collect
rated very poorly in other important areas, such as the
their water from Lake Chivero, Harare’s main water source.
amount of violent crime, the threat of military conflict
The lake is also the place where the city’s untreated sewage
and the provision of electricity and water.
is dumped as the treatment plant is unable to cope with
For most of Harare’s 3 million residents, daily life is
the rapid expansion of the city’s population.
a series of struggles. They struggle to find enough clean
Perhaps one of the greatest struggles facing many
water to drink and with which to wash and they struggle
people in Harare is the struggle to find a secure home. In
to find enough food. They struggle to find work to earn
2005, the country’s president, Robert Mugabe, ordered
money and they struggle to give their children a quality
the destruction of slums throughout the city. He claimed
education.
Source 4.32 These boys are collecting water from a puddle

in a Harare street.

Health care and
education
Harare ranked the lowest for health care
of all the cities surveyed. Many struggle
with disease and illness. Fourteen in every
100 adult Zimbabweans have HIV/AIDS,
the fifth highest rate in the world. Poor
sanitation and unsafe water supplies have
led to outbreaks of cholera and typhoid in
Harare, which have further strained the
health services in the city and affected
the ability of people to work.
A lack of government funding has
Source 4.33 Untreated sewage flows into a Harare street from an overflowing pipe.
made it difficult for hospitals and doctors
to provide care for sick patients. The
public health care system has collapsed
and many common medical services are
no longer available – patients cannot get
prescriptions or drugs, hospitals have run
out of medical supplies, and equipment
has become unusable. The hospitals have
had to stop performing operations and
the wards are empty because the hospitals
are unable to care for patients or even
provide them with meals.
The only health care still available is
in private clinics which only the rich can
afford. Poor patients are left without care
and are dying as a result.
Source 4.34 This cholera victim is being taken to a clinic in Harare.

Remember and understand Create and evaluate
1 Why is Harare considered to be one of the least liveable 4 Make a list of the problems faced by many Harare
cities? residents. Rank them from the one that is the easiest to
2 Explain the link between Source 4.33 and Source 4.34. solve to the one that is hardest. Write a few sentences
explaining why you have ranked them in this way.
Apply and analyse 5 For the problem you considered the easiest to solve,
3 The boys in Source 4.32 are collecting water from the describe a possible solution. Why do you think this
street. Discuss with a partner some problems that these problem has not been solved in Harare?
boys may face every day and use your discussion to
describe a day in their lives.

Australia’s liveable cities
In the 2012 Global Liveability Survey, Melbourne was How do Melbourne’s residents
rated as the world’s most liveable city. Adelaide (6),
Sydney (7) and Perth (9) were also ranked in the top ten. view their city?
Australian cities usually score well in liveability studies In a different survey, Melbourne residents were asked
because they generally have open spaces for recreation, about the liveability of their city. The results are shown
relatively low crime rates, low population densities and in Source 4.36. While the city performed poorly in
good education and health care. Large cities in a wealthy affordability, public transport and road network, it
country, such as Australia, also have a wide range of scored well among residents for culture, environment
goods and services available to the people who live there. and education.
The infrastructure in large Australian cities includes:
schools and universities; efficient transport networks;
clean water delivered to homes and businesses through
a vast network of dams, treatment plants and pipes; and Source 4.36 Results of a survey of Melburnians of the liveability of
electricity supplied through a system of overhead and Melbourne, 2012: best performing attributes
underground wires and cables.

There is a vibrant cultural entertainment scene 38 49 10 2
There is a wide range of recreational outdoor environments 26 60 12 21

Source 4.35 The suburb of South Yarra near the
The natural environment is attractive 15 62 19 4
Melbourne CBD – the most liveable suburb in the
most liveable city in the world There are good schools and other educational facilities 17 59 18 6
Attribute
The look and design of the city is attractive 14 53 28 51
There are good health care services 13 53 20 12 2
There are good employment and economic opportunities 9 56 23 11 2
There is a good balance of different housing types 9 53 26 9 2
There is a diverse range of people who get along well 12 50 26 10 21
0 25 50 75 100
Percentage
Strongly agree Agree Neither agree nor disagree Disagree Strongly disagree

Remember and understand Liveability category Examples from Grid
Sydney reference
1 What Australian cities featured in the top 10 most
liveable cities in 2012? Availability of public St Vincent’s Hospital F3
health care
2 Why do Australian cities feature highly in these surveys?
Recreation: sports Sydney Football Stadium
3 What features of their city do Melburnians like the
best? How do these features help to make the city Recreation: culture E4
more liveable? Availability of consumer Paddys Market
4 What features of their city do Melburnians not like? goods and services
Apply and analyse Religious freedom E4
Availability of schools
5 Look at the oblique aerial view of Melbourne (Source
4.35). What features shown in this photograph might Availability of higher University of Sydney
education
suggest that Melbourne is a liveable city?
6 Examine the map of central Sydney (Source 4.37). Then Quality of road network
copy and complete the following table. Try to add more Quality of public
than one example to each category. transport
SYDNEY: CBD AND INNER SUBURBS
Mall
y Pyrmont Grosvenor
ST RE ET
s
oo
PH IL IP ST
Ba
R
White Place ST
ne
in
BR ID GE
TO
Point Park
Ba ool
ma
Bay Sydney LEGEND
Jo
Darling
y
Darling
YORK STREE
Do
Conservatorium
IBU
Ba
om
RI E ST
Harbour Harbour
y
of Music
PO
Parkland; Sports ground
llo
ns
Passenger
TR
ST RE ET
o
sto
Terminal
INT
Bay
Wo
Glebe
DIS
Royal Botanic HUNT

PI
5 Significant site
D
hn
CLARENCE
Th
E
M AC Q UA
Island
RR
R
EE
OA
Gardens
Jo
ont
ST
ST
R State
PIT T
A
ST Motorway or freeway
AD
T
FR
M
Library
KE NT ST
Pyrm
ST
AN
A
RO
CA
WM Mall M A NSW
AR
Major road
SUSSEX STR
King Street R T IN HI Finger

BO
RD
Wharf PL Parliament Wharf
WH
HA
CBD
LL
House POTTS Other road

STREET
Star City Maritime Elizabeth

The
RR
K IN G POINT
Y
WE Casino Museum ST ER Bay

ER
W ES TE RN
PYRMONT
GEORGE
E X P SSWAY
STE Sydney
ST
LL Art CO W P Railway; Station

IS
RE ET
RN
T
Sydney Hospital G A Gallery
ET
ST
Elizabeth ST R E E
RE
AG H
Anzac Aquarium Pitt St

EET
T of NSW
AY STRE
Mall/major
Point walkway
T
STREET
T
Bridge Mall R
STREE
Pyrm A Domain
ST R E E
Y
Bridgont ELIZABETH
ST
KET ST
M U RR A
MAR
CA ST LE RE
Macleay
H
e St Mary’s Feature of interest

RE
BAY Point
EL IZ AB ET
Harbourside Queen Cathedral E L IZ A
RD
ET
4
MACLE
Rushcutters
RD
Blackwattle
DI
Sydney WOOLLOOMOOLOO BE T
IA
Cockle Victoria Hyde

STREET
H BAY
HAM
Fish Market Bay

ST
Bay Building
RO V IC TO R
Bay ST Park
T
D RUITT
NG
Phillip
H
RI
STREE
Convention
D
PARK
AC
Park
BU
A
T Centre Town
BROUG
E STREET
D O W LI
RO
RE Hall Fitzroy
BE
Darling
E
ES
ST
TO
WILLIA
AV
Gardens
AD
TH E M STR
Harbour
COLLEGE
FORB
EW
R
SY St Andrew’s
D
D EET
R I Australian RUSHCUTTERS
A
FO BR Exhibition Cathedral Anzac War
N
WA R
O
T Centre Museum CR BAY 0 200 400 m

ST
N
Y R
N Memorial AI
S T RE ET
G E K IN
CROW
WA
O LIVERP
R Tumbalong Kings N D G S CR
JO
R R M Wentworth OOL O
S T REE T SS ROAD
Park
FE PY STREE NEW S
TT
Cross
T
NE
Park Chinese T O OU
RS
TH
LE
Gardens X AVE
AV
FO HE
S
HU
ST
E T Greyhound
G R DARLINGHURST R AH AD
ET
3 RE OULB E
ST
Track Entertainment D
GL
NG
U E
ILD
T RN V RD
OM
S Centre B U RT A
STRE
Chinatown M
ST
ULTIMO Paddys ON S White City

EB
ST O
RLI
S
NE
D TR T C ET
W
GLEBE S T A RE E
BETH
AR S T R
Park
E
RO ET S TMarket HAYMARKET ET EE
DA
U R E R B T
HU T A S
ND
H
G TR RT Capitol R I St Vincent’s N RO
ST
LE S Powerhouse CAM
BAY
CA AD
E LI Z A
PBEL T O Hospital
RGE
LY Theatre
OW
PO MA L
E
BE Museum
IC
T
ST
OR
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A B C D E F G H
chapter 4 liveable places 173

Liveable suburbs MELBOURNE: KEY MAP SHOWING GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES
Craigieburn
River
Greenvale Reservoir
In a 2011 study, each of Melbourne’s 4
Ca
Me Hume
Hurstbridge
Chum Creek
lde
Plenty
Melbourne
rri Creek
Epping
r
314 suburbs was rated in terms of its Airport Yarra Glen
Melton Melton
Highway Fre Broadmeadows
Thomastown Diamond Creek
liveability. The study used available data, Ko
ew
ay ad Greensborough
Sugarloaf
Reservoir
ro Sydenham
Ro
r Essendon
Bundoora r
much of it from the census, to score We oit Keilor Eltham Rive Coldstream
ng
Cree Airport a
ste
Ri
k Preston Y a rr
rn r
n
Fre St Albans s t e
Highway
Coburg Warrandyte Lilydale
each suburb on 14 key indicators. These ewa
Essendon Heidelberg ay
Wandin
e
y W North
hw
included factors such as the access to Deer Park Sunshine Fitzroy
Doncaster
h
ig
H Mooroolbark
DANDEN
Kew Nunawading da Ringwood
Derrimut
shops, schools, restaurants and public Footscray CBD Box Hill Maro o Croydon Montrose
RANGES
3 Truganina Hawthorn
We
Forest Bayswater
transport as well as crime rates, open Port
Laverton Newport Melbourne Burwood Hill
rrib
Highway Silvan
Hoppers Toorak
ee
St Kilda Reservoir
Altona Glen
ONG
space and traffic congestion. The study Crossing
Altona
Williamstown Caulfield Chadstone Waverley Ferntree
Gully Monbulk
Werribee ay Bay
found the inner-city suburb of South
M
ew Brighton BentleighOakleigh
on
F re P rin
Point Cook Rowville Belgrave
as
ce
h
Fr
Yarra to be the most liveable suburb in n ce
s Moorabbin s ee Emerald
Pr i Sandringham w
Hi
Lysterfield
Ne
Springvale ay
River
g
the most liveable city in the world. Lake
hw
pe
Moorabbin
ay
an
Airport Dandenong Cardinia
Hig
Black Rock
South Yarra scored highly because of Hallam Reservoir
ek
h wa
Mordialloc Harkaway
Cre
its closeness to the city centre and the
y
Narre Berwick
ng
Edithvale Warren
no
beach as well as its good public transport Port n de Lyndhurst
Sou
Chelsea Da
Corio Bay Patterson Pakenham
th
and shopping. Unlike many other suburbs Carrum Lakes
Phillip Carrum Cranbourne
close to city centres, it also has a large Portarlington Seaford Downs
Gi
pp
Indented Head
sla
amount of open spaces. Living in South Bellarine Bay Frankston Lyndhurst
nd
2 South
Peninsula
Yarra, however, has its drawbacks. The
Hi
St Leonards Langwarrin Koo Wee Rup
gh
Drysdale Mount Eliza
wa
Pearcedale
study found that residents of South Yarra Tooradin
y
Mornington ay Cannons Creek
Swan hw Somerville
have to tolerate terrible traffic jams and Bay Swan Balcombe H
ig Quail
Island
Island Bay Tyabb
Nepean
extremely high house prices. Point Queenscliff Mud Mount Martha
Western Port Bay
Lonsdale Islands
The suburb of Hallam, on Melbourne’s Point Lonsdale Hastings
Point Nepean Devilbend Fairhaven French Island
outskirts, was rated as the least liveable. Portsea Dromana Reservoir
National Park
Sorrento Crib Point
A number of different factors contributed Rosebud
French Island
Rye McCrae Balnarring
to this outcome. Although Hallam Mornington
Somers Tankerton
B a s s S tLrEaGi tE N D
has a large number of open spaces, it Peninsula Corinella
Urban area Major road
Coronet
lacks access to schools, cultural events, 1 Industrial area
Other road Bay
Railway Cowes
shopping and tree coverage compared Parkland or Airport Phillip Island
forest reserve 0 5 10 15 km
to a more established suburb. It also rated
A B C D
poorly in terms of its distance from the
city centre and the ocean.
Source 4.38 Hallam – Melbourne’s least liveable suburb.

MELBOURNE: CHOROPLETH MAP MELBOURNE: CHOROPLETH MAP
SHOWING ACCESS TO TRAINS SHOWING ACCESS TO RESTAURANTS Check your learning 4.12
1 What pattern do you notice on the
map showing access to trains (Source
4.40)? Describe this pattern using the
names of specific places.
2 What feature on the key map (4.39)
Port Phillip Bay Port Phillip Bay

helps to explain this pattern?
LEGEND
Access to trains
LEGEND
Access to restaurants
Apply and analyse
(by suburb) (by suburb)
Closer More 3 Examine Source 4.39.
a How has Port Phillip Bay affected
Further Less the shape of Melbourne?
No data available No data available
0 10 20 km 0 10 20 km
b What influence have major roads
had on the shape of the outer
Source 4.40 Source 4.41
suburbs?
4 These maps of Melbourne show that
liveability is not the same for everyone
skilldrill in a city. Who would find these maps
useful?
Explaining patterns on maps
Geographers look for patterns on maps such as Sources MELBOURNE: CHOROPLETH MAP SCORING EACH OF THE 314
4.40–4.42 and then try to explain the patterns they see. SUBURBS ON ITS LIVEABILITY
By following these steps you will move from describing

features of a map to explaining them. South Yarra (1)
Step 1 Look for an obvious pattern in the map you are

exploring. This may be a cluster of similar features in a
small region or a line of features. In the map showing
the liveability of Melbourne’s suburbs (Source 4.42,
lighter colours (less liveable) tend to be near the fringes
of the city whereas darker colours (more liveable) are
nearer to the centre.
Step 2 Describe the pattern using names of specific
places in your description. Port Phillip Bay
Step 3 Look for clues that explain the pattern you have
LEGEND
described. There may be clues in other maps or in Overall rank:
the way the map has been drawn. In the case of the 1 (most liveable)
to 314 (least liveable)
liveability map, the explanation for higher liveability in (by suburb)
Over 300
inner suburbs may be that there tends to be many
251 to 300
Hallam (314)
restaurants, shops and train stations there. These 201 to 250
factors were all taken into account in determining the 151 to 200
101 to 150
liveability of each suburb. 51 to 100
1 to 50
Apply the skill No data available 0 10 20 km
1 Explain the pattern in Source 4.41 showing access to
restaurants in Melbourne’s suburbs.

skilldrill
The liveability of Completing a map survey

your local area There are several pieces of information that
you can collect to assess the liveability of your
local area. The first of these is a map survey.
Liveability applies not only to countries and To complete a map survey of your local
cities but also to smaller local areas. Some area, follow these steps:
areas are more liveable than others because of Step 1 Locate a map of your local area. This
could be from a street directory or from
the infrastructure that is available or because of a website, such as Google Maps. Decide
their culture and environment. on the limits of your local area. This could
be a suburb if you live in a large city or
the whole town if you live in a smaller rural
BRISBANE: CBD AND INNER SUBURBS
town. In this example, the student lives in
KELVIN
KE
ELLVIN
VN HE
HERS
E TONN
HERSTON
PBELL S
ST
T MO
inner Brisbane and has chosen an area
OA
O'CON
BOWEN BRIDGE RO
Royal
R l Brisbane
Bi b
ET
GROVE
G ROOV
VEE NELL
LL
E T
1.5 kilometres from where she lives.
N
HERSTO and Womens’ TC
CE PE
R EE
KE
E LLLL STRE
T
T ON Hospital LI
ER
LVI
ROAD RO T
AD S
BR O
N
T VI QUT
RNA Exhibition
Grounds
on Step 2 Mark the limit of your local area on
5
OKE
(Kelvin Grove)
ove)
GRO
CT
ST
W
Victoria Park E LLO your map.

AM
RI ON
NUE K
Exhibition
AC
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OV
A
RR AR
S ST
Golf Course T
E VE
KH
V E RO
EC
TC TE M
IC
A
SP
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W
R
NU Step 3 Examine this area closely and
PA
O
PR
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RK
AV GR
COM
T
AD
M
HRIS
BLAMEY ST CH count each of the following pieces of

E
GILC
McCaskie
ke BR CO
ST
TRRE
EEET
ET KE ST
Parkk U N ERE infrastructure within it:
MUSK
N N ST R
RO A
N SW
ST
A
T
Victoria IG
Brunswick NC
SCOTT S
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T
• police stations
D
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• hospitals
AN
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all
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UR
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Brisbane Girls
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ER
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RA
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ST
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HA
ST
FORTES
N
PETRIE TCE
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• churches
AN
BOUND
HALE
KH
N
AM ARY ST BR
KE
REET
E
TE ST UN
AC
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COUN
ST
SW • sporting grounds
RR
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3 H ET IC
TE
HARD
AX RE W
T
TO SPRING EN K
ST
A
Roma Street St John’s

TESS
HE
N HILL
Parkland
O
T Cathedral Story TE
RR
• parks
ST
Holy Spirit
RB
Bridge AC
RE
Northside
TU
St Andrew’s
STRE
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ET
rp
rp Street Hospital T Church
EE
ST
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ay
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R
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ET
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um
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• schools.
BE
R
CR
ROMA House
BA
STRE Central
RT
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ET Anzac Riverside
K
D
ST
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HIGHWAY
Square Markets
AN
Apply the skill
ED
ST
G
ST
W
King George
MAIN ST
AR
LA
St Stephen’s
G
William City Square

EO
2 E CBD
Cathedral
Mer
Merivale
M er Jolly NO 1 Using the steps outlined above, complete
RG
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Hall ID
ST
M
Bridge
B
Bridg
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E
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Pier
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BRADFIELD
a map survey of your local area.

LL
UE AB ST
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GOMA Kurilpa
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Between I Z
Q
Q L E
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TT
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Bridge L
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2 Describe the infrastructure of this area in a

HO
State Casino
AR
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Library Victoria Y ST
GRIF
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P
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SID
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DR Bridge M ET ET carefully worded paragraph.

E
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Art
Art Gallery
Ga
Gal
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ST
AD
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1.5 km radius
L circle Stores A E CAI
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PR
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ST AL K
KANGA
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ts Complex
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omp
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0 POINT 400 m
MA
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Cultural Parliament
P l The
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House
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ME
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Bank Other road Mall/major walkway
ST
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ground L N E T freeway Cliffs

fs
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skilldrill
Completing a street survey

Another useful way to collect information about the liveability of your local area
is to undertake a street survey as part of some fieldwork. In a street survey
you are assessing the quality of the housing and other features of a street or
several streets.
To complete a street survey in your local area, follow these steps:
Step 1 Choose a street with at least 30 properties and a length of at least 100
metres.
Step 2 Use a street survey form like the one shown in Source 4.44 to score
your chosen street on a scale of 0 to 3 in a range of categories.
Apply the skill

1 Using the steps outlined above, complete a street survey in your local area.
2 In what parts of the survey did the street score well? In what areas did it
score poorly?
3 What could be done to improve this street?
Street name: Suburb:

SCALE
Traffic Free of parked vehicles 3 2 1 0 Cluttered with parked vehicles
Source 4.45 Spring Hill is an inner-city suburb
Low volume of traffic High volume of traffic
Safe for children Dangerous for children
of Brisbane. It contains a mix of residential and
commercial land uses.
Gardens Variety of plants No plants
Neatly maintained Overgrown
Houses Well maintained Run down Extend your understanding
Variety of housing All houses the same style
styles
Variety of building All houses built from the same
styles material 1 What health care facilities are available to
Vegetation Trees shade half No trees residents of Spring Hill?
of road
Street furniture Inconspicuous Conspicuous 2 What education facilities are available to
(signs, electricity
poles, seats etc.)
Improve the area Detract from the area residents of Spring Hill?
Street lighting Well lit Poorly lit 3 As an inner-city area, Spring Hill is well
Litter, vandalism No litter, vandalism Much litter, vandalism served with public transport. What
and graffiti or graffiti and graffiti
evidence can you find for this?
Access to Shops within Shops not within
facilities walking distance walking distance
4 Comment on the availability of roads in this
Parks within Parks not within
walking distance walking distance area.
Primary school within Primary school not within
walking distance walking distance 5 Brisbane did not score as highly as
Footpaths, roads
and kerbing
Clearly defined Undefined Melbourne or Sydney in a recent survey
Good condition Poor condition
Maintained nature strips No nature strips of liveable cities. In what measures of
Other land uses No offensive land uses Offensive land uses liveability do you think it scored lower than
these other cities?
Column score
Total score
Source 4.44 Street survey

4.3 How can we make cities more liveable?
Strategies for improving liveability

Over time, cities change and grow and the needs of In developing strategies to improve the liveability
people living in cities also change. To maintain and of our cities, planners must first identify the problems
improve the liveability of a city, the services and and their underlying causes, identify the impact on
facilities provided by governments and councils need liveability, and then come up with strategies to try to
to be regularly reviewed. Experts within government, overcome the problems. Source 4.46 shows some of the
universities, private business and community liveability issues currently facing people in Australian
organisations, including geographers, are needed to cities along with some of the strategies that have been
identify problems in our cities and offer solutions. suggested to cope with them.
The problem and underlying cause The impacts on liveability Some strategies for solving the
problem
Traffic congestion As cities grow, people Traffic congestion results in people spending Strategies include building new roads which
need to travel further to work and school. less time at home and more time in their cars; take road-users around rather than through
Higher rates of car ownership see more increases levels of air and noise pollution; the city; increasing public transport options to
cars on the road, leaving the road network increases levels of stress and frustration for encourage people to leave their cars at home;
struggling to cope. drivers leading to increasedd incidents
inc
cid
iden ts of
ents of road
road
d encouraging
encouragi alternative
ing alt modes
lternatitive mod des off ttransport,
ransport,t ffor
or
rage. example,
exam
ex ampl
ple
e, bbuilding
uild
ui ldin
ingg bike
bike paths
pat hs for
aths for cyclists.
cyc
yclilist
stss.
Social inequalities As cities grow, some Social inequalities can result in homelessness, Strategies include ensuring access to
people within the community are left without unemployment and poverty; leaves some opportunities through good education facilities
work and are unable to access services such people with a senssense
se of aalienation
lilien
enat ion from tthe
atio and public transport; assessing needs
as schools, health care and housing. community;
comm
co mmun
mm unititity;
un have
y; can hav
ave particularly
e a pa
p rttic
rtiicul
ular
lar
arly negative
lyy n egat
eg ativ
tive
e and providing support through community
iimpact
p ct on
mpa on young
youn
yo ng people.
pe
p eop
plle
e. services; providing facilities for young people
where they can get together and receive the
help they need.

The problem and underlying cause The impacts on liveability Some strategies for solving the
problem
Environmental issues As cities grow, they Environmental issues include air pollution from Strategies for sustainable use of the
have a greater impact on the environment. increased energy usage, land contamination environment include recycling rubbish
Water resources are used up, pollution from landfill, water shortages and damaged materials; restricting water use; developing
increases and more and more energy is waterways. buildings and cars to be more energy efficient;
required to service the greater population. and using renewable energy sources.
Urban sprawl As cities grow, more and more Urban sprawl reduces the amounts of Strategies include increasing the density of
housing is required at an affordable price. productive farmland near cities; threatens the housing in established suburbs closer to
Housing estates on the outskirts of cities push habitats of native plant and animal species; the CBD with more multi-storey dwellings;
further and further outwards. creates greater dependency on cars, which protecting native habitats with bushland
in turn increases levels of air pollution and corridors and by planting more native
traffic congestion. New housing developments trees in urban areas; ensuring public
can suffer from a lack of community services transport services are provided to all new
providing
p g poor
p liveabilityy for their residents. developments and establishing satellite
business centres outside the CBD to
encourage local employment and services for
those living on city fringes.
Source 4.46 Some issues faced by modern city dwellers and some strategies for improving liveability.

1 How does traffic congestion reduce the liveability of a 3 Which urban issues described here affect people in the
city? city in which you live (or in a city you know well)?
2 What is an alternative to urban sprawl when a city needs 4 What would you describe as the biggest issue faced by
to increase its housing supply? people in that city?
5 Select one of the problems described in Source 4.46 and
come up with a list of strategies of your own that you
think could be used to reduce the problem and improve
liveability.

Improving transportation
Australians are among the most car-addicted people in Strategies for improving
the world. About 90 per cent of all journeys made in
Australia are made by car, with trains, trams, buses and transportation
bicycles accounting for the remaining 10 per cent. As the Here are some solutions that planners around the world
number of people in cities grows, so too does the number are experimenting with to improve traffic flows:
of cars. Many urban roads are struggling to cope. Road
• Change the roads
congestion, particularly during morning and evening
– Build more ring roads and bypasses that take traffic
peak times, is threatening the liveability of many of our
around the city centre and other busy places.
large cities.
– Change the traffic flow in the inner city by
In 2010, federal Infrastructure Minister Anthony
introducing a one-way system for most of the roads.
Albanese described the problem like this: ‘Urban
congestion contributes to traffic delays, increased – Make the main roads smarter by installing:
greenhouse gas emissions, higher vehicle running costs overhead signs advising of variable speed limits;
and more accidents. It is a tragedy that many parents signs that use GPS satellites to provide drivers with
spend more time travelling to and from work, than at traffic information; traffic lights on entry ramps;
home with their kids. Relieve urban congestion and we monitoring systems in the road surface to detect
improve our quality of life.’ He estimated that traffic traffic incidents and congestion; overhead closed
congestion will cost Australian cities $20 billion a year by circuit television monitors; and traffic signals that
2020 unless the problem is addressed. give priority to public transport.
• Get people off the roads
– Introduce a ‘park and ride’ system where drivers
park their cars on the edge of the central business
district (CBD) and then travel to the CBD by bus or
train.
– Ban cars from the CBD.
– Charge car drivers a toll when they enter the city
centre.
– Develop a better public transport system that
encourages people to get out of their cars into
trams, trains, buses and ferries. The world’s best
public transport systems involve all these modes
working together on a single ticket and with an
integrated timetable rather than as individual
pieces of different puzzles.
– Encourage people to walk or cycle by building
more footpaths and bike lanes and promoting the
health benefits of walking and cycling.
• Keep doing what we’re doing
– Build more multi-storey car parks in the city centre
– Build more roads to carry the increased traffic
– Increase motoring taxes to pay for new roads
Source 4.47 Traffic on the Westgate Bridge leading to the Princes through increases in petrol prices
Freeway in Melbourne
– Encourage private companies to build toll roads.
180 oxford big ideas geography 7: australian curriculum 4.3 bigideas: broadsheet 4.2
N
0 300 m
Source 4.48 Graphic representation of the paths taken by 380 taxis in a single day in London. Bright splashes of light show paths taken by
many taxis while darker areas have seen few, if any, taxis.

Remember and understand b Which solutions do you think are most likely to make
congestion worse rather than better? Explain your
1 What does the graphic representation of London taxis response.
(Source 4.48) reveal about transport flows in large cities?
2 What are the causes of traffic congestion? Evaluate and create
3 What problems does traffic congestion cause for people 5 As the planner responsible for traffic congestion in your
and cities? city, you have chosen one of these solutions to put into
place. Design an advertising campaign that explains this
Apply and analyse
solution to drivers and the general public. Remember to
4 Here we have described many possible solutions to explain it clearly and simply and to point out the benefits
traffic congestion. of this solution for drivers and for all the residents in
a Which do you believe are the three solutions most the city. You may choose to create a poster, brochure,
likely to relieve congestion? Explain your response. bumper sticker or short TV or radio ad explaining
your campaign.

Improving liveability for young
people
When trying to improve the liveability of a town or
city, planners need to take into account the varying
needs of people of different ages. The needs of children
and young people are obviously very different from
the needs of older retired people. Each of these groups,
however, benefit from having special attention paid to
their particular needs. Here we will look specifically
at strategies for improving the liveability of places for
children and young people.
Strategies for young people

The views of young people need to be taken into account
when planning for more liveable cities. Some of the key
liveability factors relevant to a younger population are:
• Public transport
Young people are the community group most likely
Source 4.49 Venues designed for young people can increase youth
to be dependent on public transport services. Public participation in the community.
transport needs to be safe and reliable to encourage
young people to use it. Public transport routes also adapt to meet the needs of this new technology by
need to be designed to meet the needs of young providing fast Internet and Wi-Fi.
people with services regularly going past local schools, • A wide range of recreational environments for
shops, entertainment and sports facilities. young people
• An attractive and healthy natural environment One of the keys to improving liveability for young
When cities experience environmental issues such people is providing good public spaces. Public spaces
as air pollution, those often the worst affected are should be designed to cater for their specific needs
children, and negative impacts to their health can and interests. These include sportsgrounds and
last a lifetime. With housing density increasing, facilities such as skate parks and skating rinks, and
the need for green spaces is increasing. Access to entertainment facilities including cafés, cinemas and
public parks and playgrounds provides healthy music venues. Community festivals and events can
natural environments for children who are living in also be organised to include activities specifically
housing without gardens. These playgrounds also designed to interest young people.
provide opportunities for children to develop their • Services for young people at risk
coordination and physical strength while enabling Vulnerable young people who are at risk from abusive
them to make friends and socialise. family members, homelessness or substance abuse
• Good schools and other educational facilities need special attention to ensure that they are not
Schools need to have teaching spaces that offer the disadvantaged by their circumstances and can reach
flexibility for group work and individual work and their potential. Community services can provide
also provide good outdoor spaces. As students use support through counselling and mentoring, or by
more technology in the classroom, schools need to helping to arrange alternative accommodation.

Case study: ‘Our Youth – Our The local council and the contractor, Convic Skateparks,
provided information on the various options available
Future’, Western Australia and collected feedback from the community through
In 2012, the Western Australian government released workshops and online surveys. The new youth plaza has
a set of goals designed to improve the lives of young an area designed for skateboarders and BMX riders. Other
people. Western Australia has Australia’s fastest growing features being considered are a basketball half-court,
youth population. People aged between 12 and 25 years table tennis tables, a stage area for youth concerts and
living in Western Australia make up about 20 per cent of children’s play areas.
the state’s total population.
The Western Australian government is working with
communities and consulting with young people to
improve liveability in the areas that matter most to them.
Through policies, services and community programs 1 What are three liveability issues that affect young
they aim to: people?
• increase young people’s participation in community 2 How does a skatepark provide a more liveable
life through sport and recreation, culture and arts, and community for some young people?
volunteering 3 What facility or service would you like to see in your
• provide opportunities for young people to learn life local community to make it more liveable for you?
skills and prepare for their working future Apply and analyse
• create environments that appeal to young people and
4 Consider the case study from Western Australia above.
encourage healthy lifestyles.
a What vision does the Western Australian
The Esplanade Youth Plaza government have for young people?

b Provide one example of a service or a place that
One example of a community space created specifically you think would make a local community a more
to appeal to young people and improve liveability is the liveable place. What would be the expected
plan for a youth plaza on Fremantle’s Esplanade Reserve. outcome from your plan?
Source 4.50 Skate parks are a great way to make open spaces more appealing to young people.

Improving sustainability
The quality of the environment has a big effect on the have cleaner air than was the case at the beginning of
liveability of a place. Cities consume large amounts of this century. This is largely due to new technologies in
natural resources, such as water and energy. They also such things as power stations and the phasing out of old
produce substances that are harmful to the environment, technologies such as less efficient cars that pollute more.
such as greenhouse gases, as well as solid waste, such as There have also been changes in behaviour that
sewage and rubbish. Rapidly growing cities in developing have been encouraged by governments. City dwellers,
countries are struggling to deal with these and other for example, now take for granted that recyclable
environmental issues. material is not waste and should be separated out in the
In the last decade, Australian cities have become weekly rubbish collection. Local restrictions on the use
more sustainable by reducing their impact on the of water in households have also helped to make our
environment in many significant ways. We now use less cities more sustainable. But there is still much more
energy, produce less rubbish, consume less water and that can be done.
Use landfill sites to Encourage greater Reduce water consumption by individuals and communities
generate electricity recycling of with water pricing, water restrictions and community programs,
from biogas and plastics and paper. such as replacement of high-flow showerheads.
biomass.
Instigate city-wide
Encourage program to treat
the reuse and Waste Water waste water to a
conversion of old drinkable level.
buildings rather than
demolishing them to
build new ones.
Design and build
homes that collect,
use, treat, recycle
Use cleaner energy,
and reuse water.
such as solar and
wind power. Making our cities
more sustainable
Reduce energy
Reduce car use use by using more
and distance of car efficient cars and
journeys. Increase Air Energy appliances.
public transport
use, walking and
cycling.
Generate electricity
from renewable
Prevent urban sprawl as more sources, such as solar,
Construct buildings with open central compact cities use less energy for wind and geothermal
spaces and aerodynamic roofs. transport than large, sprawling cities. energy.
Source 4.51 Concept map showing strategies for a more sustainable city

keyconcept: sustainability Check your learning 4.16
Clearing the air in Launceston Remember and understand

1 Why did Launceston have such poor
The city of Launceston in northern Tasmania was once one of Australia’s
air quality?
most polluted cities. This was due to a combination of natural processes
2 How did the people of Launceston
and human activities. About two-thirds of households in the early 1990s
used wood fires to heat their homes and this produced large quantities improve their air quality?
of smoke, particularly during winter. Launceston’s location in a valley Apply and analyse
meant that the smoke was trapped and people’s health began to suffer.
3 Solutions to some of the
Researchers linked Launceston’s smoke to high rates of asthma and lung
environmental problems faced by city
disease and likened it to the effects of tobacco smoking.
dwellers can be easy to find but hard
In 1997 there were 50 days in which Launceston’s air exceeded the
to put into place. Give some examples
national standard for the amount of pollution. By 2008, this had fallen to
of solutions that have been difficult to
only one day a year. This was due not to wood heaters but to a nearby
put into place.
bushfire. This dramatic
4 Select one of the four environmental
change is largely because
issues shown in Source 4.51.
of a government scheme
a Explain why this is an issue in
where Launceston
cities.
residents were given $500
b Which of the three solutions given
to change their home
heating from wood fires do you think has the best chance
of helping to address the issue?
to other methods, such
c Can you think of two more
as a gas fire or electric
heater. More than 2000 solutions? Share these with your
classmates and use the discussion
residents have so far taken
to describe how cities can be
advantage of the scheme
made more sustainable.
and thousands of others
have changed their heating
methods because of the a Describe the change in air pollution
publicity generated. in Launceston from 1997 to 2008.

b Give a possible reason for the
For more information
sudden increase in pollution in
on the key concept of
2003.
sustainability, refer to
section GT.1 of ‘The Evaluate and create
geographer’s toolkit’. Source 4.52 The hills that surround Launceston
6 Cities are one of the main causes
trapped wood smoke, making it one of the
world’s most polluted cities. of global climate change as much of
the gas that traps heat comes from
50 burning fossil fuels in cities. In a small
standard for particulate matter (air pollution)
Number of days exceeding the national
group discuss how cities can lead the

40
way in reducing the emission of these
gases.
30
20
10
0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Year
Source 4.53 Air pollution in Launceston, 1997–2008

Improving spaces for wildlife
When planning to improve the liveability of places for Year Dog Cars Disease Other Total
people, it is important to also consider the impacts this attacks deaths
has on the habitats of native wildlife. Koalas are one of 2001 114 324 303 488 1 229
Australia’s most loved native animals, but despite this
2002 103 342 245 454 1 144
their future in many parts of Australia is very uncertain.
As bushland on the edges of our towns and cities is 2003 94 342 180 558 1 174
cleared for farms and houses, koalas are losing their 2004 68 333 238 529 1 168
habitats. Improving the liveability of these places for 2005 60 234 262 410 966
people is having negative effects on the liveability of the
2006 69 280 193 513 1 055
same places for koalas.
2007 68 287 179 678 1 212
Habitats suitable for koalas are made up of trees that
serve three main functions: 2008 58 296 256 532 1 142
• food – koalas rely on certain types of native gum trees 2009 76 248 210 738 1 272
for the food they eat; these only grow in certain parts 2010 67 246 131 655 1 099
of the country
Totals 872 3 243 2 647 5 998 12 760
• shelter – as well as providing food, trees provide koalas
with protection from the weather and predators, such Source 4.55 Recorded deaths of koalas in south-eastern
as domestic dogs Queensland (including causes) (Source: Queensland Department
of Environment and Resource Management, 2011)
• corridors – these are spaces that link the areas of
bushland where koalas live; they allow koalas to
move between trees; the more small trees and shrubs
Strategies to protect koalas
there are growing in these corridors, the easier it is There are a number of strategies that we can implement
for koalas to move about without coming down to to protect koalas and their habitat, despite the expansion
ground level where it is dangerous for them. of urban areas. The first, and most effective, strategy is
Over 80 per cent of the total habitat in Australia that to protect key koala habitats (and corridors) from future
was once suitable for koalas has now been cleared. Much urban development. Conservationists are constantly
of the remaining 20 per cent is also under threat from lobbying councils and governments in order to protect
people. Because it is difficult to get accurate numbers of areas like this. In many cases, however, cities and suburbs
koala populations at any one time, geographers divide have already been built over koala habitat.
possible koala habitats into areas where populations are
most common to least common. This gives them a good
idea of where they most need to focus their efforts to
conserve koala populations (see Source 4.56).
As well as losing their habitat, koalas face many
dangers due to the expansion of our cities. Each year,
many koalas are hit by cars as they move between
sections of bushland. Many others are attacked and
killed by domestic dogs. The recorded deaths of koalas in
south-eastern Queensland over a 10-year period can be
seen in Source 4.55.
Source 4.54 Koalas often return to trees they consider their territory
even if the tree is now in somebody’s front yard.

In these cases, there are a number of actions that can be
taken to protect koala populations in the area:
• preserve and protect existing eucalyptus trees and
plant additional trees
• plant trees and shrubs (such as wattles) for koalas to
use as shelter
• protect koala corridors and plant smaller trees and
shrubs in these areas
• erect koala-friendly fencing that koalas can easily
climb over, through or under, allowing them to move
around their habitat
• erect road signs warning of koalas, and lower speed
limits on roads used by koalas to cross between areas Source 4.57 A young koala hit by a car is bundled into a blanket by
a member of the Moreton Bay Koala Rescue team north of Brisbane.
of bushland
• keep domestic dogs separated from koalas by erecting Check your learning 4.17
fenced enclosures (called dog runs).
1 As new homes and farms are built on the edges of our
EASTERN AUSTRALIA: KOALA HABITAT AND POPULATIONS
cities, how are koala habitats affected?
2 How much of the koala’s original habitat in Australia
LEGEND has been destroyed?
Areas where koala 3 What are the three ways in which koalas use trees
populations are common
and shrubs in their habitats?
Areas where koala
populations are likely 4 List three strategies that can be used to help protect
Areas where koala

koalas and their habitats.
populations are possible
Cairns Apply and analyse
Townsville a Where do koala habitats and populations tend
to be?
Hughenden
Mackay b What connection is there between the capital cities
Q uee n s l a n d on the map and koala habitats?
Longreach
Emerald
6 Using the data provided in Source 4.55 determine:
Rockhampton
a the total number of koalas killed by cars in south-
Bundaberg eastern Queensland between 2001 and 2010.
Charleville b What percentage is this of the total number of
Noosa
koalas that died over the same period?
Brisbane
c The leading cause of death among koalas is shown
S o uth Ballina as ‘Other’. Provide three causes of death you think
Bourke would be included in this category.
A us tra lia Coffs Harbour
Ne w S o u t h Tamworth
Wa l e s Evaluate and create
Dubbo
Parkes Newcastle 7 Prepare a media campaign to raise community
Mildura Sydney awareness about the dangers facing koalas in
Adelaide Wagga Wagga
Canberra Australia. You may choose to prepare a poster or a
Echuca Albury multimedia presentation warning people of the dangers
Merimbula
Victoria facing koalas or provide some key strategies that
Melbourne
people can implement to protect koalas living near
their homes. Create a catchy slogan for people to
0 250 500 km
remember your campaign.

skilldrill
Hamburg – a Interpreting oblique aerial images
green city The photograph and illustrated plan provided are both
what geographers call oblique aerial images. Oblique aerial
images are taken on an angle from a high point. They can
The city of Hamburg in Germany is one of the be taken looking down from a hill or mountain, or from an
aircraft or hot-air balloon. Oblique aerial images are useful for
most environmentally friendly cities in the world.
geographers because they can show a much larger area than
Green spaces, parks, woodlands and nature photographs taken from ground level (known as ground-level
reserves make up 16.7 per cent of the urban images) because the view is not interrupted by trees, houses
or mountains. They are also useful because all of the features
area and renewable energy accounts for 17 per
shown in them are easily recognisable. This is not always the
cent of the city’s power usage. Hamburg is one case with images taken from directly above (known as vertical
of the 20 most liveable cities in the world and, in images or ‘plan view’ images).
2011, was named European Green Capital. When interpreting oblique aerial images, it is important to be
aware of the following points:
• Oblique aerial images allow you to see the height and width of
Hamburg is currently building an inner-city development called
features on the ground. As a result it is possible to get an idea
HafenCity in the location of the old port warehouses. HafenCity
of the steepness of the ground or the height of a building.
will provide housing for 12 000 residents and jobs for around
45 000 people. It will create 10.5 kilometres of new waterfront • A major disadvantage of an oblique aerial image is that
and 26 hectares of public parks, squares and promenades. scale is inconsistent. This means that distances in the
The HafenCity community will use 30 per cent less power foreground and distances in the background cannot be
thanks to environmentally-friendly design and materials and calculated using the same scale. If you want to make a map
wind and solar-power technologies. Many rooftops will be or take accurate measurements of distance, you should not
covered in greenery to slow stormwater runoff and reduce use oblique aerial images. Use vertical images instead that
heat from the development. show the area in plan view.
Background
Middle Ground
Foreground
Source 4.58 An oblique aerial photograph of the HafenCity development in Hamburg, Germany. It will be Europe’s largest
inner-city development project.

Apply the skill 2 When do the developers estimate the project will be
completed?
1 Examine the photograph of HafenCity shown in Source 3 How many homes will HafenCity contain once the project
4.58. is complete?
a Are the buildings in HafenCity (in the foreground) 4 Find some images of the HafenCity site before it was
generally lower or higher than those in the background? developed and compare them with Source 4.59.
How can you tell?
a In what ways has the HafenCity site changed since
b Would the width of the channel behind HafenCity be development began?
easier to measure on a plan or oblique view?
b How has the HafenCity development improved the
liveability of the city of Hamburg?
Extend your understanding c HafenCity has been designed to be highly sustainable
– using environmentally friendly building materials and
wind and solar power. Using Source 4.51, suggest
Conduct some research on the Internet to find out more about
three more ideas that could be introduced to improve
the HafenCity development in Hamburg.
the sustainability of HafenCity.
1 In what year was the project first announced?
Source 4.59 A compuer-generated plan of HafenCity from an oblique aerial view

glossary
A civil unrest disturbances in a city
characterised by protests against the
developed country an industrialised
country with a well-developed economy
government or ruling structures capable of supporting its own people
aerial photograph a photograph taken
at some distance above (for example, climate the average weather – developing country a less
from an aeroplane) particularly rainfall and temperature economically developed country that
alphanumeric grid a row of numbers – experienced in a particular area over a has some difficulties in supporting its
and a row of letters on adjacent sides of period of time (usually 30 years) own people
a map or other image providing an easy climate change the generally accepted direction a way of orienting a map,
way to locate particular features idea that the Earth’s climate is warming usually shown by the use of compass
amenity something that makes living and will continue to warm due to points, such as north
someplace attractive (e.g. public pollution and overpopulation distance the amount of space between
transportation, good roads, a park) climate graph a combination bar and two objects or places, generally
annotated visual display (AVD) a line graph that shows the rainfall and measured by using the scale on a map
way of presenting the final results of a temperature of a given place; also distribution the way in which things
research project, incorporating images, known as a climograph are arranged on the Earth’s surface; the
graphs, notes and explanations in a column graph a graph showing pattern formed by the way objects or
poster-style format information as a series of vertical columns places are distributed across a space
aquifer layers of rock or soil in the compass an instrument with a magnetic dot distribution map a map using
ground that hold water or that water needle that points to the north; used dots or other shapes to show the
can pass through for navigation location of a particular feature
compass bearings a precise way of
B giving compass directions, such as 135º E
south-east
bar graph a graph that shows eastings the gridlines that run vertically
compound column graph a column
information as a series of horizontal bars on a topographical map
graph that has subdivided columns for
barometer an instrument used to further comparison of groups effluent contaminated water that flows
measure atmospheric pressure out of a treatment plant, sewage system,
concept map a diagram or chart used
industrial site, etc.
BOLTSS a mnemonic (memory device) to organise thoughts and ideas to show
for remembering the essentials of a their relationship environment a key concept in
map: border, orientation, legend, title, geography: a specific place on Earth
condensation the process that takes
scale and source and all the things, both living and non-
place when a gas cools and forms
living, that are there
bore (also called an Artesian well) a a liquid; for example, water vapour
drilled well that brings water up from becoming water droplets Equator an imaginary line that runs
deep in the ground around the middle of the Earth
consumption the use of a resource
separating the Northern Hemisphere
C continuous resource a resource, such
as the Sun, that will never run out no
from the Southern Hemisphere
ethnicity the background, nationality
matter how much we use it or culture of a person or group of
cardinal points the four main
directions shown on a compass; north, contour lines lines drawn on a map that people
south, east and west connect points at the same height to evaporation the process by which a
show the height and steepness of land liquid (such as water) is converted to a gas
change a key concept in geography: the
dynamic nature of all processes on
Earth, whether slow or fast, small or D exception in geography, a feature that
falls outside a usual pattern or does not
large follow an observed pattern
delta a fertile area of land that forms at
choropleth map a map that shows
particular data or characteristics,
the mouth of a river
desalination the process of removing
F
such as population density, by using
different shades of the same colour or salt from sea water feature a distinctive landform or
different colours to show variations desert area that receives less than 250 mm characteristic of the landscape, either
(e.g. light green to dark green) of rain every year; can be hot or cold naturally occurring or made by humans

fieldwork geographical study that takes for individual countries in order to criteria such as access to schools and
place outside the classroom at the site compare and rank them work, climate, safety, etc.
of inquiry hydroponics a method of growing longitude imaginary lines running
FIFO fly-in, fly-out; used to describe the plants without using soil north–south around the Earth’s surface,
lifestyle of workers who live far away from the North Pole to the South Pole,
from their place of employment (such I used to work out location and direction
as a mine)
floodplain low-lying land next to a river ice cap a permanent layer of ice over the M
or stream that is regularly flooded by ground, such as found at the North and
water South Poles magnetic north the physical place on
iceberg a large mass of ice that has Earth, near the North Pole, to which a
flow map a map that shows movement
broken away from a glacier or ice sheet magnetised needle points
(such as people or goods) from one
place to another and is floating in open water map a simplified plan of an area shown
infiltration the process of water seeping from directly above
fossil fuel fuel made from the
decomposed remains of plant and through the earth megacity a city with a population of
animals that lived millions of years ago infrastructure the facilities and more than 10 million people
(e.g. coal, oil) services necessary for any community, meteorologist a scientist who studies
city or country to function (e.g. the atmosphere, particularly the
G buildings, electricity, roads, airports
and water supply)
forecasting of weather
metropolitan a term used to describe a
geographical inquiry the stages interconnection a key concept in major city or urban area
that geographers follow to guide their geography: the relationship between all monsoon weather or climate produced
investigations things, both living and non-living, and by major wind systems that change
all processes, both natural and human direction seasonally; in northern
geothermal energy energy that comes
from the internal heat of the Earth internally displaced person (IDP) a Australia, the north-western and south-
person who has been forced to relocate easterly winds that produce the rainy
GIS Geographic Information System;
within his or her own country season between December and February
a software application designed to
capture, store, manipulate, analyse, irrigation the watering of crops in some
manage and present all kinds of way other than by precipitation N
geographical information
glacier a large frozen mass or river of ice K natural resource a resource that occurs
in nature (e.g. water, minerals, trees,
that slowly moves down a mountain or livestock)
valley in response to gravity key inquiry question a question that
helps geographers to plan and focus non-renewable resource a resource
greenhouse gas a gas (e.g. carbon their geographical inquiries that cannot be regenerated once it is
dioxide, methane) which is partially used up (e.g. oil, coal)
captured in the Earth’s atmosphere
preventing some of the Earth’s warmth
L northings the gridlines that run
horizontally on a topographical map
from escaping into space
land use map a map that shows what
gross domestic product (GDP) the
total value of a country’s goods and
segments of land are used for (e.g.
residential, commercial, agricultural)
O
services latitude imaginary lines running overlay map a map on some type of
east–west around the Earth’s surface, transparent paper or layer that is placed
H parallel to the Equator, used to work over a base map, used to show the
out location and direction relationship between features or events
headwaters the starting point of a river, legend (also called a key) a guide to the on the Earth’s surface
the source symbols and shading used on a map or
HIV/AIDS human immunodeficiency other image P
virus infection/acquired levee a raised area between low-lying
immunodeficiency syndrome; an land and a body of water, built to photosynthesis the process by which
illness that disrupts a person’s normal prevent flooding plants convert sunlight into energy for
immune system, making him or her new growth
line graph a graph that displays data as
susceptible to many other diseases physical map a map that shows the
a line
Human Development Index (HDI) a locations and names of physical
liveability a measure of what a place is features of the Earth, such as
set of statistics used to indicate life
like to live in according to particular mountains and rivers
expectancy, education and income
glossary 191
pie graph a graphical way of presenting run-off water that does not penetrate trend a general direction in which
data; a circle is divided up into segments the ground but flows on the surface something is developing or changing
to represent the distribution of data towards rivers, lakes and seas (e.g. the trend in population in
place a key concept in geography: a part rural–urban fringe the area where Australia is positive)
of the Earth’s surface that is identified cities end and country or farming areas tropics the area of the world between
and given meaning by people begin the Tropic of Capricorn and the Tropic
plan view a way of showing something of Cancer
as if the viewer is looking down on it S tsunami a giant ocean wave caused by
from above; a bird’s-eye view sanitation measures designed to an underwater earthquake
political map a map that shows the ensure good health in a community by
locations and names of built features preventing human contact with health
hazards (such as sewage)
U
of the Earth, such as country borders,
cities, roads, dams and railways scale a key concept in geography: the unsustainable not capable of being
population density a mesurement of level at which a geographical inquiry continued without long-term effects on
the number of individuals per unit area takes place – personal, local, regional, the environment
(e.g. 1500 people per square kilometre) national or global urban infill the filling in of unused
population pyramid a graph that scale (mapping) a system that spaces in the centre of a city
displays the percentage of males and indicates how the distances on a map urban sprawl the growth of a city onto
females in a region by age-group as represented in the real world (e.g. productive farming land on the city
written scale, line scale, ratio scale) fringes
precipitation the process of water in
its various forms (rain, snow, hail, etc.) secondary data data used for a
falling to the ground geographical inquiry that was not
collected by the geographer conducting
V
primary data data for a geographical
the inquiry (e.g. textbooks, atlases and vertical aerial photograph
inquiry that was collected in the field
government websites) a photograph taken from directly
by a geographer conducting the inquiry
(e.g. survey data, hand-drawn maps or six-figure grid reference a system above the landscape or feature being
photographs) used to locate exact points on a photographed, usually from an aeroplane
topographic map or satellite, giving a plan view
Q slum a settlement within a city where the

inhabitants have inadequate housing
virtual water the volume of fresh water
used to produce the product, measured
qualitative data any information that and poor access to basic services at the place where the product was
can be recorded in words; for example, space a key concept in geography: the actually produced
Uluru is very large way things are arranged on the Earth’s voluntary migrant a person who is free
surface to choose where and when they move
quantitative data any information spatial pattern the distribution of
that can be recorded as numbers; for features on the Earth’s surface that may W
example, Uluru is 3.6 kilometres long form particular patterns, such as linear
(in lines), clustered or radial (like spokes waste-water water that has been used
R on a wheel) by people in domestic or industrial
sustainability a key concept in settings for washing, cleaning or
refugee a person who moves to another geography: the ongoing capacity of flushing that contains waste products
country because of a natural disaster or Earth to maintain all life water cycle the continuous cycle by
to avoid persecution sustainable capable of being continued which water evaporates from lakes and
region an area on the Earth’s with minimum long-term effects on oceans, condenses into clouds, falls on
surface that makes it different from the environment land as rain, finds its way into rivers
surrounding areas (often after human use) and returns to
remittances money sent home to T the oceans
family by workers who are employed water footprint an indicator of the
away from their home region tailings the waste material left over amount of water (both direct and
renewable resource a resource that from commercial mining operations indirect) that is used to produce the
can regenerate or be regrown (e.g. thematic map a map that shows details goods and services
trees) as opposed to one that cannot be about a particular topic, such as land weather map a map that shows
regenerated (e.g. coal) use or the distribution of resources conditions in the Earth’s atmosphere,
resource anything human or natural that topographic map a map that shows the such as air pressure, wind speed, wind
can be used by people to satisfy a need shape of the land, its relief and landforms direction, and warm and cold fronts

index
A climate change 7, 48, 64–65, 154
climate graphs 27, 62, 70, 130, 152
E
Aborigines see Indigenous Australians eastings 24, 112
coal 8, 75
Adelaide 62, 152, 172 Economist Intelligence Unit 164
coastal areas 128–129
—water and 78 education 120, 130, 151, 160–161, 166, 171,
communities 136–147
aerial photographs 16 182
—identity of 138–139
aesthetic appeal 116–117 effluent 80
—interconnection and 7, 136–137
Africa 66 electricity generation 8, 42–43
—liveability and 142–143
—water in 68–71, 86–87 employment 120, 142
—safety and 144–145
agriculture 52 entertainment 121, 142
—types of 136
air shower 89 environment 182
compass bearings 21
alphanumeric grids 24 —quality of 150, 154–155
compasses 21
Altona 142–143 environmental issues 179
complex maps 19, 122–123
amenities 120, 142, 175 environments 6
concept maps 137
animals as a resource 19 Equator 25
condensation 44–45
annotated visual displays (AVD) 30–31 Esplanade Youth Plaza 183
continuous resources 42–43, 59
Antarctica 6, 48–49, 134–135, 162–166 ethnicity 136
contour lines 19, 112
aquifers 46, 50, 91 evaporation 45
convectional rain 44
Aral Sea 84–85 —rates of 66
‘Country’ 4, 119
area referencing 24 exceptions 28, 32
crime
Australia
—floods in 100–101
—liveability and 114–123, 172–177
—perceptions of 144–145
—rates of 144–145, 158–159 F
crops 5, 19 farming 56–57, 126–127
—place and 118–121 fieldwork 34–38, 134–135
—water use and 56
—population of 25 fieldwork sketches 134–135
cultural connections 121
—rainfall in 62–65, 100 fishing 54, 74, 83, 85, 118
—water in 62–65, 90–93, 95
Australian Capital Territory (ACT) 23 D floodplains 52, 98–99
floods 2, 54–55, 98–112
Ayers Rock see Uluru dams 57–59, 83, 90–91
—causes of 98–99
Darling River 64–65
—effects of 102–105
B data
—analysing and concluding ix, 29–30,
—hotspots for 98
Baghdad 159 —in Australia 100–101, 104–105
36–38
Bangladesh 7, 148–149, 157 —managing 108–109
—collecting and recording ix, 15–27, 30,
barometer 106 —preparing for 106–107
36–38
Barrkmalam 2 flow maps 18, 96–97
—communicating ix, 30–32, 36–38, 109
BHP 60–61 ‘fly in, fly out’ (FIFO) workers 132–133
—evaluating ix, 15–27, 36–38
Blacktown 124–125 food chain 7
—primary 15, 32, 34
blue water 94 forests 43
—qualitative 15
BOLTSS 20, 32 frontal rain 44
—quantitative 15
Bondi Beach 114–115
bores 46, 91
built environments 4, 6
—reflecting and responding ix, 33, 36–38
—representing ix, 15–27, 30, 36 G
—secondary 15 Ganges River 40–41, 80–81
gangs 169
C deltas 52
desalination plants 50–51, 92 geographer’s toolkit 2–38
cardinal points 21 —cost of 92 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 20
Cascata Golf Club 72–73 deserts 42, 66, 130 geographical inquiry 12–33, 35
Casey 146–147, 152 developing countries 86, 160–161 geographical questions viii, 12–14
cave paintings see rock paintings Dhaka 148–149, 157, 168 geographical terminology 32
change 10–11 diagrams 25 geography
—consequences of 10 direction 21, 32 —key concepts of 2–11
child birth 160 disaster management steps 108 —key skills of 2, 12–33
choropleth maps 18, 175 distances 32 geothermal energy 43, 184
cities 2, 124–125 —measuring 22 glaciers 44, 46, 48–49, 53
—liveability and 148–189 distribution 32 global warming see climate change
civil unrest 170–171 dot distribution maps 17 Grantham 110–111
climate 153 droughts 89 graphic representations 16–29
—liveability and 120–121, 150–153 —creating 25–27
index 193
graphs 15, 139 litter 33, 36–37 northings 24, 112
—types of 25–27 liveability 113–189 nuclear power 75
gravity 43 —cities and 148–189
Great Artesian Basin 63
Great Dividing Range 62–63, 101
—factors affecting 116–117, 120–121 O
—improving 178–179 oblique view 141, 162, 188–189
green spaces 166 —least liveable places 157–158, 162–163, observing ix, 12–14, 36–37
green water 94 168–171 oil 8, 42
greenhouse gases 154, 167 —local areas and 174, 176–177 Ok Tedi mine 60–61
—reducing 184 —measuring 150–151, 164, 166, 168, 172 organisation 5
grid referencing 24, 112 —most liveable places 156, 158, 164–167 orientation 20
groundwater 46 —objective factors 150–151 orographic rain 44
—safety and stability and 144–145, 151, ‘Our Youth – Our Future’ 183
H 158–159, 168–170 outreach services 145
HafenCity 188–189 —subjective factors 151 overlay maps 18, 110–111, 146–147
hail 45 —young people and 182–183 oxygen 43
Hallam 174–175 location 5
Hamburg 188–189
Harare 170–171
Longford floods 108–109
longitude 25
P
patterns 5, 28–29, 32, 175
headwaters 104 Luxembourg 159 permeable rock 91
health care 120, 151, 160–161, 166, 171
M
Perth 46, 172
Himalayas 52–53, 80 —water and 50–51
Hinduism 40–41, 80–81, 138–139 Macquarie Island 134–135 physical maps 17
HIV/AIDS 171 magnetic north 21 Pilbara region 132–133
Hong Kong 155 map legends 20, 51 place 4
housing 120 map surveys 176 —liveability and viii, 113–189
Human Development Index 161 maps 16–29, 82, 162–163 —water and 52–55
Hume Weir 57 —creating 16 plan view 16
Hurricane Katrina 99 —types of 17–19 planning ix, 12–14, 36–37
hydroelectric power 8, 58–59, 75, 91 Mawson Station 162–163 plants 43
hydroponics 162 McMurdo research base 6 political maps 17
I
megacities 157 pollution 54, 60–61, 80, 184–185
Mekong Delta 53, 76–77 —liveability and 154–155
ice 42, 48–49 Melbourne population growth 26, 125
icebergs 48 —Indian community in 138–139 population pyramids 27, 133
Igazu Falls 67 —liveability of 172–175 Port Moresby 168–169
impermeable rock 91 meteorologists 406 potable water 68
Indigenous Australians 20, 60, 130–131, microclimates 6 PQE method 28, 47
140–141 migrants 125 precipitation 45
—health and 131 minerals 43, 132–133 primary data 15, 32, 34
—place and 4, 13, 117–119 mining 2, 60–61, 74, 132–133 Prime Meridian 25
—water and 82–83 —boom and bust cycle 132 public transport 156–157, 167, 182, 184
infiltration 45 monsoons 62 —access to 175
infrastructure 151, 156–157, 166, 170 Mount Unzen 5
interconnection 7, 52–53
—communities and 136–137
Murray River 57, 63–64, 78–79 Q
Murray–Darling Basin 56–57, 63–64 qualifying 28
iron ore 132 My Country 65 qualitative data 15
irrigation 52, 56–57, 74
quantitative data 15
J N Queensland floods 104, 110

Namibia 70–71, 93 questioning ix, 12–14, 36–37
Japan 5, 8, 10–11 Narre Warren 146–147
Jim Jim Falls 2–3 natural disasters 99 R
K
natural environments 4, 6 rain 44–45
natural gas 8 —rates of 64–67
Kakadu National Park 2 natural processes 2 —types of 44
Kati Thanda (Lake Eyre) 63, 101 natural resources 8 rainforests 4, 18
key inquiry questions 32 navigation 75 recreation 75, 142, 182
koalas 186–187 Neighbourhood Watch 145 recycling 8
New Orleans floods 99 refugees 125
L New York City 4, 6 regions 32
latitude 25 nomads 96–97, 119 relief agencies 87
Launceston 185 non-renewable resources 42–43 religion 40–41, 136, 138–139
levees 99, 109 ‘Noosangatta’ 122–123 —place and 119

—water and 40–41, 74, 80–81 Torres Strait Islanders see Indigenous weirs 57
remote places 130–131 Australians wells 86–87
renewable resources 42–43, 58–59 Torres Strait Islands 140–141 Western District dairy region (Vic.)
resources 42–43 tourism 2, 13–14, 18, 26 126–127
—types of 42 trade 52, 75 whaling 8
rice 53, 76–77, 94 traffic 125, 154, 178 ‘why of where’ 12
rickshaws 157 —reducing 180–181 wildlife protection 186–187
Rikuzentakata 10–11 transport 52, 156 wind power 8, 43, 184, 188
rivers 52–55, 63, 71, 98–112 —improving 180–181 Wodaabe nomads 96–97
rock paintings 4, 82, 117 —pollution and 154 World Heritage listing 4
runoff 45 trends 28–29, 32
—rates of 66
rural areas 126–127
tsunamis 10–11 Y
Yuendumu 130–131
rural–urban fringe 124 U
Uluru 13–15, 30, 33–35
S uranium 43, 132
sanitation 171 urban sprawl 179, 184, 186–187
satellite images 84
scale 9, 20–23, 32
—types of 21
V
Vancouver 165
‘sea change’ 128 Vienna 166–167
sea levels 48 Vietnam 76–77
secondary data 15, 32 virtual water 56, 94
services 120, 142 volcanoes 2, 5
sewage 80, 93, 156–157, 171
SHEEPT method 28
Shimabara 5
W
Warlpiri people 130–131
simple maps 17–18
Warragamba Dam 90
Singapore 93, 156
water
slums 7, 148–149
—recycling 93, 184
snow 45
—treating 70, 80, 93, 184
snow-making 75
water viii, 39–112, 184
Snowy Mountains Hydroelectric Scheme 58
—access to 46–47, 170–171
social inequality 178
—around the world 66–69, 86–87
soil 43
—as a resource 42–43
solar power 8, 43, 131, 184, 188
—capturing 92–93
soup kitchens 145
—competition for 78–79
sources 20, 30
—diseases and 86, 171
South Yarra 172, 174–175
—domestic use of 74, 88–89
spaces 5
—energy and 8, 42, 58–59
spatial distribution 5
—food and 56–57, 76–77
spatial patterns 32
—for drinking 68–69, 86–87
sport 116, 140, 142
—fresh 46, 48, 68–69, 86–87
street surveys 177
—global distribution of 46–47
Surf Life Saving Australia 136–137
—importance of 74–75
Surfers Paradise 24
—in Australia 62–65, 90–93
sustainability 8, 166–167
—Indigenous Australians and 82–83
—improving 184–185, 188–189
—industrial use of 75
Sydney 16, 62, 114–115, 125, 172–173
—management of 72–81, 83, 86–95
T —pipelines for 92
—religion and 40–41, 74, 80–81
tables 25 —salt 46, 48
tailings 60–61 —scarcity of 86–87, 119
Thailand floods 54–55 —sources of 44–45
thematic maps 19 —storage of 48–49
Three Gorges Dam 58–59 —usage rates of 68–69
Thursday Island 140–141 —uses of 74–75
Tisza River pollution 54 —virtual 56
Tom Price 132–133 water cycle 7, 44–45, 48
Toowoomba 93, 104 water footprint 94–95
topographic maps 19, 25, 112 weather 2
Torquay 128–129 weather maps 19, 106–107
index 195
acknowledgements
The author and the publisher wish to thank the following copyright holders for reproduction of their material.
Cover: Getty Images/Penny Tweedie, front cover; Alamy/Tom Till, back cover. Geography Contents: AAP/Wildlight/The Right Image. Australian
Curriculum: Geography 7— Scope and sequence: Shutterstock/Janelle Lugge. Water in the world Place and liveability: Corbis/Ocean. The
geographer’s toolkit: Corbis/Steve Parish/Steve Parish Publishing, Source GT.1; Getty Images/AFP, GT.2; Corbis/Michael S. Yamashita, GT.3/Chris
Linder/Aurora Photos, GT.4/Paul Dixon/Demotix/Demotix, GT.5; Customs and Border Protection Service, Commonwealth of Australia, GT.6;
iStockphoto/Natasa Tatarin, GT.7 (Africa)/Illustrious, GT.7 (Australia)/DavorLovincic, GT.7 (camping)/Brad Ralph, GT.7 (skate park)/jimmyjames-
bond, GT.7 (world); Satellite image by GeoEye, GT.8; Shutterstock/Maxx-Studio, GT.9; Age Fotostock/Danita Delimont Stock, GT.10; Shutterstock/
Janelle Lugge, GT.12; City2see.com. Aerial Photography Licensed by Sinclair Knight Merz Pty Ltd. Contains Vicmap Information (c) State of Victo-
ria 2002, GT.15; Shutterstock/Sergey Mironov, GT.16 (pins in a map); Lavina Nixon and Channel Nine, GT.24; Alamy/Redfx, GT.28; Copyright
Melway Publishing Pty Ltd 2012. Reproduced with Permission, GT.32; Alamy/John Kershaw, GT.45 (erosion); Director of National Parks (Parks
Australia) www.parksaustralia.gov.au (with illustration) Graphics showing the cross section of Uluru is used with the permission of Director of Na-
tional Parks Australia, GT.45 (natural processes); Courtesy Nobutts. Photo © Oxford University Press/Michelle Shipp, GT.47; Corbis/Diego Lezama
Orezzoli, GT.49; Author supplied, GT.52, GT.53. Chapter 1: Getty Images/Martin Harvey, Source 1.1; Corbis/Bob Krist, 1.8; Fairfax Syndication/
Tony Ashby, 1.10; Science Photo Library/Gary Hincks, 1.13; Corbis/Reza/Webistan, 1.14/Tom Paiva Photography/Blend Images, 1.15/Keren Su,
1.16; Picture Media/Reuters/Goran Tomasevic, 1.17; Corbis/Bronek Kaminski, 1.18; Shutterstock/Ulkastudio, 1.20 (apricots)/Robert Milek, 1.20
(bread)/Diana Taliun, 1.20 (butter)/Louella938, 1.20 (cereal)/ShopArtGallery, 1.20 (jam)/HomeStudio, 1.20 (milk); MDBA/Arthur Mostead, 1.22;
Corbis/David Frazier, 1.24/Du Huaju/Xinhua Press, 1.26; Andrew Marshall, 1.29; NASA/Landsat, 1.30/Landsat, 1.31; Alamy/Hemis/Fred Derwal,
1.33; NASA/Lance/Eosdis Modis Rapid Response Team, 1.34; Newspix/Darren Seiler, 1.36; iStockphoto/ymgerman, 1.38; Getty Images/Peter Wal-
ton Photography, 1.39/John W Banagan, 1.41; Panos/Tim Dirven, 1.43; Age Fotostock/Ton Koene, 1.45; Corbis/Frans Lanting, 1.48; Unit 1 Water
in the world: Corbis/Roger Hutchings/In Pictures. Chapter 2: Landslides Aerial Photography, Source 2.1; Shutterstock/Hoang Tran, 2.3; Science
Photo Library/PLANETOBSERVER, 2.4; Getty Images/Claver Carroll, 2.7; murrayriverphotos.com, 2.9; Courtesy of the State Library of SA.
Mouth of River Murray - Dept. of Environment & Heritage (SA), 1981, 2.10; Corbis/Amit Bhargava, 2.11/Xinhua/Stringer/Xinhua Press, 2.13/Dave
G. Houser, 2.14; Alamy/Frans Lanting Studio, 2.15; Corbis/Steve Parish/Steve Parish Publishing, 2.17; NASA, 2.18; Corbis/Mario Pereda/Demotix,
2.20; Panos/Giacomo Pirozzi, 2.21/Crispin Hughes, 2.22/Mads Nissen, 2.24; John Spooner, 2.27; Getty Images/Peter Harrison, 2.28; Newspix/Der-
ek Moore, 2.31; Government of Singapore, 2.32; Getty Images/Keren Su, 2.33; Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, 2.34;
Alamy/Frans Lemmens, 2.35; Age Fotostock/Philippe Michel, 2.38; Picture Media/Reuters/Tim Wimborne, 2.39 (centre); Alamy/redbrickstock.
com, 2.39 (left); Shutterstock/Ralph Loesche, 2.39 (right); Corbis/Smiley N. Pool/Dallas Morning News, 2.42; Getty Images/Lonely Planet Im-
ages/Peter Unger, 2.44; Newspix/Ian Currie, 2.45; AAP Image/AFP Photo/Mark Ralstom, 2.46/AP Photo/Kevin Frayer, 2.47; Newspix/Kelly Barnes,
2.48/Rob Maccoll, 2.49; Getty Images/AFP, 2.50; AAP Images/AFP Photo/Nicole Alayne Hammermeister, 2.51; Newspix/Rob Maccoll, 2.54; Katie
Davis, 2.55; © Commonwealth of Australia/Bureau of Meteorology. Creative Commons (CC) Attribution 3.0 Australia licence, 2.57; Satellite image
originally processed by the Bureau of Meteorology from the geostationary meteorological satellite MTSAT-2 operated by the Japan Meteorological
Agency, 2.58; Newspix/Chris Hyde, 2.59; ABC Australia/Tim Walker, 2.61; Northern Midlands Council, 2.63. Chapter 3: Corbis/Phillip Hayson/
Steve Parish Publishing, Source 3.1/Koji Aoki, 3.2/Penny Tweedie, 3.4/Dallas and John Heaton/Free Agents Limited, 3.6; Fairfax Syndication/Craig
Siliitoe, 3.3; AAP Image/Penny Tweedie/Wildlight, 3.7; Newspix/Lyndon Mechielsen, 3.8; Fairfax Syndication/Glenn Hunt, 3.9; Shutterstock/Vi-
sun Khankasem, 3.10; Getty Images/Mark Metcalfe, 3.11; Airviewonline, 3.12, 3.15; Newspix/David Marshall, 3.16; Marly Media and Marketing,
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Momentimages/Tetra Images, 3.34 (Australians)/Ludo Kuipers, 3.34 (children); Newspix/Fiona Hamilton, 3.34 (firefighters); Shutterstock/Konstan-
tin Chagin, 3.34 (hospital); Getty Images/David Ramos/Stringer, 3.34 (religion); Newspix/Andrew Seymour, 3.35; Fairfax Syndication/WayneTay-
lor, 3.37; AAP Image/Jordan Baker, 3.40; Oceanwideimages.com/Gary Bell, 3.43; Newsphotos/Robert Mckechnie, 3.44; Fairfax Syndication/Erin
Jonasson, 3.45; iStockphoto/RBFried, 3.46; Copyright Melway Publishing Pty Ltd 2012. Reproduced with Permission, 3.47, 3.53, 3.54; Corbis/
Marianna Massey, 3.49; Newspix/News Ltd, 3.50/Craig Borrow, 3.51; Geoimage, 3.52. Unit 2 Place and liveability: Getty Images/Ken Straiton.
Chapter 4: Corbis/Karen Kasmauski, Source 4.1/Majdi Fathi/Demotix, 4.3; Shutterstock/Kentoh, 4.9; Corbis/Ocean, 4.10/Bayazid Akter/Demotix,
4.11/Karen Kasmauski, 4.12; Getty Images/Richard Elliott, 4.13; Corbis/Patrick Robert/Sygma, 4.17/Chris Crisman, 4.18/Pascal Deloche/Godong,
4.19; Australian Antarctic Division/Gary Dowse, 4.21; Shutterstock/Kwest, 4.24; Age Fotostock/Maria Breuer/imagebro, 4.25; Shutterstock/Jorg
Hackemann, 4.26; Alamy/Rob Crandall, 4.27; Shutterstock/Aleksandar Todorovic, 4.28; Getty Images/Gamma-Rapho, 4.30, 4.31; AAP Image/AP/
Tsvangirayi Mukwazhi, 4.32/AP photo, 4.33; Corbis/Aaron Ufumeli/epa, 4.34; Airviewonline, 4.35, 4.45; Fairfax Syndication/Isamu Sawa, 4.38;
Newspix/Kim Eiszele, 4.46 (cyclist); Corbis/Joel Sartore/National Geographic Society, 4.46 (development); iStockphoto/carolthacker , 4.46 (home-
less); Newspix/Vanessa Hunter, 4.46 (recycling)/Mark Wilson, 4.47; Science Photo Library/Geoeye, 4.48; Newspix/Justin Lloyd, 4.49; Fairfax
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notes
notes 197
notes

notes
notes 199
notes

A young Sikh girl drinks water
from a tap while on a pilgrimage to
Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple)
in the city of Amritsar, Punjab,
north-western India. Harmandir
Sahib is the holiest shrine in
Sikhism and a destination for
pilgrims from all over the world.
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big ideas australian curriculum

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big ideas australian curriculum

Edited by Susan Lee and Katharine Day

unit 1 Water in the world 39

Chapter 2 Valuing and managing water 72

unit 2 Place and liveability 113

Chapter 4 Liveable cities 148

Stunning full-colour photography

Each chapter of Oxford Big Ideas Geography is Living in

Australian Curriculum: Geography – supporting decisions about where

teachers and students as they implement an influence the liveabil

inquiry-based approach to Geography. Connections to family,

Water as a chapter 3 living in

resource we use to satisfy a

of engaging source materials – maps, photographs, 1.3

illustrations – all with supporting questions and resource?

in the photograph using

water from the Ganges

2 How are the people chapter 1 water as

activities. Ganges River as a resource? be used.

The learning sequence in each chapter is clearly

encouraged to activate their prior knowledge and

make predictions at the start of each new topic.

Types of environmental resources

Managing water scarcity

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often we use them, they will ne

Source 2.24 A woman fills a water container from a well in the

The most common solution to water scarcity in African

Evaluate and create

chapter 2 valuing and managing water 87

Geography syllabus content is covered in Fieldwork is any geograph

you have found to

full and sequenced for depth of learning. (primary data). It

Focus on skills Different forms of

and human environm

investigation are presented

reference section – The geographer’s toolkit. This

that the second question

– as an introductory skills unit or a reference section that 34 oxford big ideas

can be revisited throughout the year.

Check your learning question and activity blocks

1.4, rain falls when wet

Check your learning 1.2

The water cycle

Bloom’s Taxonomy – catering for a range of abilities

and learning styles.

Key concepts are 4.2 bigideas

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