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Building Energy Management Systems

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DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-409548-9.10199-X

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From Yang, T., Clements-Croome, D., Marson, M., 2017. Building Energy Management Systems.
In: Abraham, M.A. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Sustainable Technologies. Elsevier, pp.
291–309.
ISBN: 9780128046777
Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Elsevier
 Author's personal copy

Building Energy Management Systems

Tong Yang, Middlesex University, London, United Kingdom
Derek Clements-Croome, University of Reading, Reading, United Kingdom
Matthew Marson, Accenture, London, United Kingdom
Ó 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Introduction

Moore (1993) illustrated and explained how contemporary buildings design could be enriched both esthetically and operationally
by following the fundamental principles of indigenous/primitive architecture in response to climate. By energy-conscious site plan-
ning to use natural unique physical features, microclimate can be modified to reduce or even eliminate the need of artificial condi-
tioning. Passive solar heating and passive cooling strategies incorporating optimal form, local materials, appropriate envelope
fenestration, and thermal mass need to be explored prior to active mechanical measures. Fig. 1 highlights the important role of
the architect in a multidisciplinary design team in order to reduce energy consumption in buildings.
Tiers one and two are the domain of the architect, and proper design decisions at these two levels can reduce the energy
consumption of buildings as much as 80%. All items with an asterisk are part of solar-responsive design (www.heliodons.org).
ECA report (2003) advises policy and decision makers, researchers, architects, designers, and manufacturers on strategies for
achieving a good balance between good indoor air quality (IAQ) and the rational use of energy in buildings. Fig. 2 outlines impact
on energy use in buildings strongly linked to key outdoor climate factors and main indoor environmental characteristics. A building
has to fulfill its own performance not only in the common triple-bottom line of sustainability (social, environmental/ecological,
and financial) but also in usability, capacity, reliability, safety, and comfort. Based on a typical split of business operating costs
(energy 1%, rental 9%, staff costs in salaries and benefits 90%), modest gains on staff health and wellbeing can deliver significant
financial savings (WorldGBC report, 2014).
The trend of urbanization has been highlighted in UN (2014) report that by 2050 nearly 70% of the world’s population will be
living in urban areas. In addition to specific microclimate elements in high-density cities, traffic pollution, noise, and urban heat

Fig. 1 The three-tier approach to the sustainable design of heating, cooling, and lighting (www.heliodons.org).

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Fig. 2 Outdoor climate and indoor climate characteristics strongly influence the energy use of buildings (ECA, 2003).

island effects pose bigger challenges to building design and operation management. Energy-efficient operation and control for
optimal indoor environment in buildings will be essential to take on sustainable built environment challenges.
Depends on buildings type (e.g., domestic, commercial, automobile factory, etc.) and service requirement (lightly or heavily
serviced), the range of building services engineering (BSE) systems varies greatly. The systems can include heating, ventilation,
air conditioning (HVAC), lighting, hot water, electrical and IT networks, fire safety systems, vertical transportation (in high-rise
buildings), and security systems (especially in public buildings), integrated renewable energy systems, rainwater harvesting, and
so on. All these systems need to be controlled interactively and automatically by complex algorithms, which are called building
automation systems (BAS) or building automation and control systems, or integrated/intelligent building energy management
systems (BEMS).

Building Energy Management Systems

Braham (2016) uses his detached two-storey family home located in the Philadelphia suburbs, the Ellis House, as a case study to
explain the application of ecology accounting of buildings. Three renovation process of the house demonstrates improvement on:
– the original 1964 versiondconstruction for a contemporary house in the mid-Atlantic region,
– renovated 2005 versiondwith economic incentives to achieve a substantial reduction in utility use and improvements in
transportation and water consumption, etc.,
– beyond 2016 the virtual net zero energy (NZE) versiondcomply with Passivhaus standards hypothetically by using current,
environmentally ambitious approach.
This living-lab example provides an illustrative range to explore the principles of environmental friendly building design in three
main categories, that is, building-as-shelter building-as-setting for the work of living, building-as-site in urban and economic loca-
tions. The author uses diagrams of energy systems to identify the hierarchical interactions among the different spatial and temporal
scales at which buildings operate, linking building design and operation to the self-organization of natural, technical, social, and
economic systems.
In a recent paper (Domingues et al., 2016), fundamental concepts and requirements of BAS are reviewed. Based on the well-
know ISO and European standards, authors highlight the scope of the functionality for a typical BAS, envisage the interoperability
challenges along with modern technologies, and add the state-of-the-art insights and industry-wide progress into the classic text-
book by Levermore (2000) for the digital and internet of things (IoT) era. Figs. 3 and 4 demonstrate the current control layers/levels
structure and integration of software and hardware in modern BEMS.

Building Services Engineering: Elements, Systems, and Controls

Through the building’s whole life cycle, building services engineers work with other professionals interactively. Fig. 5 (Portman,
2014) presents the possible vertical and horizontal integration with other entities in AEC industry. Building service engineers utilize
their advanced technological knowledge and competent practice skills to offer unbiased opinions, judgments, and decisions. The

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Fig. 3 The layers of control in a BEMS. Adapted from Levermore (2000) and Domingues et al. (2016).

Fig. 4 Illustration of a building automation hardware and software stack. Physical devices are connected to an I/O module, responsible for exposing
them as addressable entities (on the left). The corresponding software representation of the hardware stack, where the I/O module is operated by
a software device driver, exposing each port and each device connected to it (on the right) (Domingues et al., 2016).

spectrum of BSE, summarized by Tymkow et al. (2013), can be seen in Fig. 6. Sustainable BSE design and operation need a holistic
way of thinking to explore multiple layers of interconnections between energy flows, air flows, and water flows, also to ensure use
and reuse of resources flowing through a building and its systems.
Each building services system has its purpose-designed functionality, specific control mechanism responding to stimuli for
defined performance criteria. Typical system schematics of a building automation or energy management system for central air-
conditioning control and a smart home electric power management system of custom power device are depicted in Figs. 7 and
8, respectively.
Commonly known BEMS would have interface with the following systems:
– Heating ventilation air-conditioning (HVAC) systems (e.g., natural, mix-mode ventilation, variable air volume (VAV), and
radiant heating systems)
– Lighting systems (e.g., daylight harvesting)
– Hot and cold water systems
– Drainage systems
– Security/access control (e.g., video surveillance, alarm systems)

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Fig. 5 Vertical and horizontal integration of building service engineers (Portman, 2014).

Fig. 6 The spectrum of building services engineering (Tymkow et al., 2013).

– IT and telephone systems (e.g., internet protocol (IP) network)

– Electrical power systems
– Fire protection systems
– Window opening/closing
– Solar protection (e.g., opening and closing of window blinds)
– Utility metering systems
– Elevators
– Building-integrated renewable energy systems, that is, PV, solar thermal, ground- or air-source heat pump, etc.
The total building performance and diagnostics concept since 1986 (Loftness et al., 2005) highlights six performance mandates
sustainable buildings should have (spatial, thermal, air quality, acoustics, visual, and building integrity) with each mandate
includes four needs (physiological, psychological, sociological, and economic). Table 1 summarizes the key performance criteria.
The framework is set up to improve the building delivery process from conception to completion and to postoccupancy
management.
In addition to the ever changing weather conditions, occupants’ interactive behavior has significant impact on building energy
performance. Hong et al. (2015) use the DNAS (Drivers, Needs, Actions, and Systems) ontology to describe the impact of

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Fig. 7 A typical layout of a building automation or energy management system for central air-conditioning control (Gonzalez, 2007).

Fig. 8 General scheme of the custom power device for a smart home (Arboleya et al., 2015).

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Table 1 Understanding environmental performance for the design of high-performance buildings (Loftness et al., 2005)

Performance criteria specific to certain human senses, in the integrated system

1. Spatial Ergonomic comfort Habitability Way-finding, functional Space conservation
Handicap access Beauty, calm, adjacencies
Functional servicing Excitement, view
2. Thermal No numbness, frost-bite; no Healthy plants, sense of warmth, Flexibility to dress the Energy conservation
drowsiness, heat stroke individual control custom with .
3. Air quality Air purity; no lung problems, Healthy plants, not closed in, stuffy No irritation from Energy conservation
no rashes, cancers No synthetics neighbors
Smoke, smells
4. Acoustic No hearing damage Quiet, soothing; activity, excitement Privacy, communication
Music enjoyment ”alive”
Speech clarity
5. Visual No glare, good task illumination, Orientation, cheerfulness, calm, Status of window, daylit Energy conservation
way-finding, no fatigue intimate, spacious, alive office
“Sense of territory”
6. Building Fire safety; structural strength plus Durability sense of stability Status/appearance Material/labor
integrity stability; weather-tightness, no Image Quality of constant conservation
out-gassing “Craftsmanship”
Performance criteria general to all human senses, in the integrated system
Physical comfort Psychological comfort Privacy Space conservation
Health Mental health Security Material conservation
Safety Psychological safety Community Time conservation
Functional Esthetics Image/status Energy conservation
Appropriateness Delight Money/investment
conservation

Fig. 9 Drivers behind energy-related occupant behavior (Hong et al., 2015).

occupant(s) behavior on building energy consumption. Five stimulating factors (Fig. 9) were identified, (i) building, (ii) occupant,
(iii) environment, (iv) system, and (v) time. Occupant(s) physical or nonphysical needs linked to overall comfort (incl. thermal,
visual, acoustical, IAQ) and wellbeing will trigger their interaction with building services systems, consequently affect the energy
use. This human-building interaction energy behavior loop can be categorized in three thematic areas (see Fig. 10).

Control Strategies for Achieving Optimal BEMS Performance

Hensen and Lamberts (2011) emphasized that building performance modeling is a powerful design tool to predict the dynamic
interactions of subsystems in buildings in a holistic manner. It has advantages over traditional monodisciplinary, solution-
oriented simplified model. Design intentions and actual building energy consumption can be monitored and controlled through
BEMS. Model-based control simulation of BEMS can guide us toward a performance optimum, which could be lowest energy use,
lowest carbon emission while maintaining favorable indoor environmental conditions, for example, green building performance
metrics.

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Fig. 10 The human–building interaction energy behavior loop (Hong et al., 2016).

Principles for a BEMS

With advanced metering and BAS, we now have high-volume, high-velocity, and/or high-variety information of individual service type,
specific building location and even specific time of the day. BEMS needs to identify the most important variables for analysis to enable
enhanced decision-making, insight discovery, and process optimization (Clements-Croome, 2013, 2014a). Traditional energy baseline
will be updated through real-time diagnostic and dynamic system responses. IP for enterprise data/voice/video communications in the
21st century allows centralized and consolidated control and monitoring of systems from remote locations via the Internet.
The key principles for an effective enterprise-level BEMS outlined by Fuller et al. (2005) are:
l Consolidate all energy-related data into a data warehouse: Energy-related data comes from BAS, smart meter records of utilities usage,
operation and maintenance planning system, weather and forecast, etc. Additional information collection includes rate and
billing data, organizational activities history, and planned changes. All control and monitoring points from various systems and
vendors provide a system-wide view for effective diagnose operation and enable the organization to make more informed utility
purchasing decisions.
l Normalize and structure data: Having sufficient data to identify transitions to discern performance fluctuations across transition
time periods such as between day and night, office and nonworking hours, etc., to flag behavior pattern changes and problems
promptly. Normalization for addressing inconsistency on time series data from difference data sources is needed to represent the
pattern of overall energy usage in a precise and accurate manner (i.e., process and store all data in 15 min internal).
l Provide interactive access to actionable information by advanced analytics: With built-in analytics, BEMS should be able to provide
interactive access via a simple and intuitive interface for the users through gigabytes, even terabytes of storage data. By organizing
data in meaningful ways, such as within the facility hierarchy (zones, buildings, floors, rooms), organization (departments,
rooms), or systems (chiller system, air handling system, solar thermal system, etc.). Gaming technology could allow users “drive
through the facility” from self-defined viewpoint. Augmented reality technology also helps users to compare trend lines against
best practice guides and benchmarks to support decision-making.
A variety of users from different disciplines, for example, HVAC design engineers, technicians, area/building mechanics,
facilities engineers and building managers, commissioning agents, energy purchasers, and performance contractors, can extract
relevant information from the system database. For other managerial and financial personnel, the enterprise-level energy and
operational data can be pulled out from detailed technical data to meet their specific business interests and needs.
l Measure and verify results: Through the total building life span, verifying and measuring results of optimization efforts are iterative
processes to stipulate energy efficiency improvements decision and realizing actions. All influencing factors (climate change,
retrofitting/adaptation measures, behavior changes, technology advances) provide an overall realistic scenario and measurable
outcomes backed up by real-time data. Visualization of building subsystems can highlight issues to subject matter experts.
l A platform that embraces industry standards: An open architecture platform for energy management and other facilities operations
embraces dynamic development of any organizations. Industry standards emphasize the interoperability to protect the orga-
nization by minimizing dependency on any single vendor, allowing flexible adjustment of functionality for future.
Note that small and medium enterprise or homes would use the same principles for tailored systems with reduced complexity
and future capacities extension.

Intelligent control of BEMS

Building performance modeling can be used for the advanced control of building energy systems through design to operation.
Model-based control predicts the necessary behavior of a building based on the predicted occupancy, weather forecast, etc., and

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Fig. 11 Process for fault detection and optimization in building operation (Henze and Neumann, 2011).

adapts the building systems in anticipation to the forecast, either employing steady-state models for instantaneous optimal control or
dynamic models for predictive optimal control tasks. Henze and Neumann (2011) provide examples of model-based control for
commercial buildings. They also illustrated the process for fault detection and optimization in building operation (see Fig. 11), which
should be performed either continuously or at regular intervals to ensure the energy efficient operation over the entire building lifetime.
In order to support rapid virtual prototyping of new energy systems and control systems, Piette et al. (2012) created an open-
source library, the Modelica (which is an object-oriented description language) “Buildings” library, to allow implementation of real-
istic control sequences for supervisory and local loop control as continuous time systems, discrete time systems, and state graphs,
coupled to dynamic models of HVAC equipment, sensors, actuators, duct networks, and buildings. The so-called building controls
virtual test bed for two-way communication can interface different simulation programs for cosimulation, including EnergyPlus and
Matlab. All control models are modular to allow system models to be embedded in next generation energy information systems and
model-based control algorithms.
Another open-source Matlab/Simulink toolbox (MLE þ) for building energy R&D has been developed by Bernal et al. (2012).
MLE þ can be used to model multiple buildings on the demand side connected to a common supply loop. The authors use a virtual
campus (comprising of multiple buildings on the demand side) to investigate campus-wide supervisory control and demand
response (DR) strategies. By taking into account of the load dynamics and interactions of demand- and supply-side systems, the
capability of EnergyPlus is extended to simulate a large campus in a modular manner through incorporating load dynamics and
the weather and disturbance forecasts of the system, meanwhile avoiding the risk of causing high discomfort for occupants in
the case of a DR event.
Zhao et al. (2016) established a cosimulation platform for EnergyPlus and Matlab/Simulink via MLE þ. They focused on two
aspects of the dynamic building control for mix-mode operation in transient seasons: (1) the impact of the mixed-mode cooling
system on the active HVAC energy consumption and (2) the differences of individual thermal comfort preference and its impact
on energy. They used a two-story, 2262 m2 office building (Phipps Center for Sustainable Landscapes located in the suburban
area of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States) as a live case study building, and developed four control schemes to optimize
the mixed-mode passive/active HVAC systems that incorporate window opening strategies. A systematic method of creating four
control models as shown in Fig. 12 and listed below:
l Active mode baseline rule-based control model
l EnergyPlus predictive control (EþPC)
l Mixed-mode EnergyPlus predictive control (MEþPC)
l Occupant-oriented mixed-mode EnergyPlus predictive control (OMEþPC)

The HVAC power demand is compared among the four control models to distinguish if energy savings are from the passive
strategy or from the optimization algorithm. In the fourth control mode (OMEþPC), 15 volunteers have participated in the subjec-
tive feedback process during a 3-month experimental period. Their subjective thermal comfort votes are collected from the web-
based database, while the objective thermal environment measurement data from the test-bed building BAS system are mapped,
leading to customized each zone setpoint based on this feedback information. This control system can manage both active
HVAC system and passive motorized window opening system in line with occupant thermal comfort constraint for smooth
mix-mode operation for energy efficiency.

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Fig. 12 Occupant-oriented mixed-mode EnergyPlus predictive control (OMEþPC) implementation.

Current technologies and frameworks for effective BEMS

The timeline of energy systems evolution from the past century to date is outlined (Fig. 13) in a research on smart home and the
smart grid done by Asare-Bediako (2014). Towler and Lawson (2014) reported BSRIA’s vision on the trend of key advancing tech-
nologies for a converged smart world (see Fig. 14). In the interconnected “smart world,” technical and social convergence is the
driving force for the dynamic evolution. Integrated building energy management and BAS provide the technical frameworks to
connect smart homes and public buildings to data/evidence-based intelligent demand responsive grid management; smart grid
assists wider utilization of on-site energy storage and renewable energies; well-informed citizens contribute to smart cities develop-
ment and assist the realization of smart government for sustainable social, economical, and environmental visions. BEMS can be
categorized into public and residential systems, namely, enterprise energy management system (EEMS) and home energy manage-
ment system (HEMS).

Enterprise energy management systems

The Service-Oriented Architectures (SOA) or Service Framework establishes a loose coupling between services/systems/domains and
as a communication gateway between system devices and client applications to ensure interoperability, sustainability, and
autonomy (Erl, 2005). SOA applies to both home and EEMS.
BCIA (2016) state the key requirements and considerations for planning a robust BEMS for an organization, which are:
1. System: for example, integrating renewable energy systems in the near future?
2. Building: form (e.g., multisite, remote), specialist areas (e.g., laboratories, swimming pool, design studio), new building or
refurbishment project, what are the existing control systems?
3. Users and usability: end-users (e.g., typical occupants), various levels of users’ expertise (e.g., intuitive interface for smartphone
and tablet users, overview and specific details monitoring on workstation for facility engineer), how much user intervention is
allowed? (e.g., room-level, remote access only, building-level).
4. Maintenance/lifetime functionality: check for forward compatibility policy, maintenance considerations, continuous commis-
sioning, having an on-site facilities team or an outsourced service? Data collection and analysis of building performance will be
stored on-site or off-site with service provider?

Fig. 13 Timeline of energy management systems evolution (Asare-Bediako, 2014).

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Fig. 14 Key advancing technologies (Towler and Lawson, 2014).

For improved occupants comfort while fulfilling legislation and benchmarking requirements, model-based control for optimum
seasonal change and start/stop operation of DR operation should be implemented. Extend plant life with better control and main-
tenance routine should include the following technologies and techniques:
l Automated responsive control: M2M (machine-to-machine) messaging for rapid response to faults
l Plant rotation for longer plant operation
l Trend data analysis and alarms settings: condition monitoring to help detect failure or vibration which can indicate imminent
failure
l Maintenance schedules and planned preventive maintenance
l Auditing and recording maintenance to utilize the Big Data for continuous optimization: keep an audit trail for the facility
management (FM) department or third-party maintenance provider.
In enterprise applications, a BEMS should provide flexible access to the BAS from several different platforms and locations. It is
scalable from just one device to thousands of devices, linking the functionality of individual pieces of building equipment to oper-
ate as one complete integrated system. As illustrated in Fig. 15, SOAs are frequently used in building automation to integrate various
types of technology, such as devices from a range of vendors or devices communicating using a diversity of protocols (Domingues
et al., 2016).
By now, interoperability is still the main challenge for both building automation and IoT technologies as summarized in Table 2.
Technical interoperability concerns horizontal data/messages exchange in between protocols, which is usually performed by

Fig. 15 Typical topology of a management service framework abstracting multipurpose client applications from the underlying building automation
technologies (Domingues et al., 2016).

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Table 2 Mapping of how the analyzed technologies support the standard application concepts (Domingues et al., 2016)

Functionality
Technologies Grouping/zoning Event notification Alarm notification Historical dataaccess Scheduling Scenarios

BACnet Group communication Notification object type Event object type and Provides trend log Calendar and Command objects may
objects services for alarm object as a standard a Schedule be used to emulate
notification object object types the scenario
concept
KNX Group communication Datapoint updates are NA NA NA Can be implemented
type usually broadcasted by different
throughout the Datapoint Types
network related to Scenes
(e.g.,
DPT_SceneNumber,
DPT_SceneControl)
LonWorks Domains and subnets Provides SNVTs to Provides SNVTs to NA Provides an Provides SNVTs to
enable the creation handle events model alarms SNVT to manage scenarios
of groups and zones schedule
events
ZigBee Network group Reports events using The Alarms cluster can NA NA Scenes cluster enables
addresses and a specific command be used for sending setting up and
clusters are used to and configure alarm recalling scenarios
manage groups notifications
BACnet/WS Devices can be Provides services to Provides services to Historical data can NA NA
logically grouped subscribe to event subscribe to alarm be requested using
using the model’s notifications notifications the get History
hierarchy Periodic method
OPC UA Although OPC does Monitored Items offer Defines an Information OPC tracks changes in NA NA
not define the ways to subscribe Model for variable attribute’s
concept of to event Conditions and values and in the
grouping, objects notifications Alarms with system’s address
may be used to acknowledgment space
aggregate other capabilities
objects
oBIX oBIX objects may Watch objects enable Supports the definition Traceable objects have NA NA
aggregate and a client to subscribe of alarms with attributes which are
reference other to objects’ state acknowledgment. stored by the history
objects updates Alarms have to be record service
associated to watch
objects

network gateways. It is noted that many new device manufacturers develop their IoT device which communicates using its own
proprietary protocol. The semantic interoperability requires vertical data integration relating how top-level concepts from different
technologies are interchanged, understood, and processed. An International Standard is still to be set for industry-wide vendor-
independent solutions for building automation technology.

Industry case study: International Telecommunications Company

Having grown rapidly through a series of acquisitions, the company’s real estate footprint was comprised of disparate and varied
HVAC systems, BEMS, and networks. Given the corporate endeavor to reduce operational energy consumption and carbon expen-
diture, the company embarked on a journey to create an SOA EEMS.
Initially, a 500,000 ft2 campus was used as the pilot to demonstrate the concept of integrating three buildings using BACnet and
ModBus as the base communication layer. This base communication layer is aggregated by a proprietary onsite BEMS.
The company was interested in having the points data generated by the machines, in a format that was easiest to access and
manipulate. To achieve this, the data was aggregated in an open source database. From the central data lake, the business would
be able to understand key operational trends against energy consumption and make informed decisions as a result.
Following the successful implementation at the first site, the company wanted to extend the proof of concept to a smaller, older
site. The complexity of this project was heightened by the fact that many of the older machines at this site were not enabled for
communications. In order to develop the communications network at this site, it was necessary to understand, scope, and imple-
ment a variety of different communication methods (depending on the individual make and model of high-consumption
machines). Using specialist data aggregation and communication protocol translations panels, oBIX, ModBus, Trend, and BACnet
protocols were translated to a Tridium instance for data transfer and manipulation.

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The age of the equipment and network limited the frequency of data transfer in some cases to 15 min to ensure that machines
remained reliable for business critical activities. In some instances, this limited the quality of some of the analysis performed.
Having data frequency mismatches added further computational complexity. These challenges necessitated the running of an inter-
polation script to “fill in the blanks” between anticipated reporting periods. In cases where a machine was unable to report values
back to the analytics system every 5 min, a Python script interpolated and gave the mid-point values between the reporting periods.
As a result, data batch running through the analytics needed to be delayed to the longest data frequency (e.g., 15 min). Challenges,
such as this, make analytics retrofits incredibly difficult on existing building stock.
The business was satisfied that an EEMS could be delivered with standardized end-use data across a variety of BEMS, machines,
and communication protocols. The next challenge was scale.
The third site which the business wanted to consider was a 2.5 million square feet campus on the other side of the world. Again,
this campus had grown organically and had a different BEMS in each of the buildings, which presented severe integration chal-
lenges. Batching the site’s buildings into three groups enabled the aggregation of data, easing the loading of the servers.
The campus collects 36,000 points of data every 5 min, resulting in around 4 billion points per year. When the scale and volume
of data collection and transfer reaches this level, specialist ROM drives with enhanced writing and reading speeds are needed to
ensure that all, or at least the majority of, threads are recorded. The number of virtual workers and their calibration to threads
and the disk writing ability needs to be considered carefully to ensure reliable and complete data sets.
Given the processing task, it was necessary to transfer the data at regular intervals to a cloud analytics solution. By upscaling the
processing power, the business was able to analyze aggregated and granular sets of information through visual means. Furthermore,
using a set of proprietary algorithms, it became possible to monitor machine- and system-level performance for comfort, mainte-
nance, or energy issues. Suitable courses of actions can also be recommended to energy managers. The ability to inspect the data
means that the energy manager can make a real-time decision on what course of action is required to deal with a given problem.
For example, a system-level operational issue was uncovered by inspection to the return air pressures on an air handling unit (AHU).
Initially, it was assumed that there was a sensor issue within the AHU. However, the data did not fully support this theory. By being
able to quickly render a graph and understand the damper positions across all VAV units across the building, it became clear that
a maintenance issue was preventing around 50% of them from diffusing supply air properly. This issue would not have been found
without the use of analytics. By correcting the dampers, the business was able to save a four figure dollar amount in energy per
month.
Having performance data that can be trended over time allows the analytics system to start offering predictive maintenance
suggestions. The advantage of this for a business means that they can understand both their operational and capital expenditure
and get real-time asset health. Businesses are often interested in extending the life of their assetsdsystems such as this allow vital
insights to be gained.
Being able to replicate data acquisition, storage, transfer, and analysis at scale has demonstrated how a complex enterprise
management system can be developed.
Data quality is often an issue in the development of the systems. The people responsible for commissioning the HVAC systems
on the BEMS at building handover often use illogical and colloquial names for equipment and its location. Being able to compe-
tently map the data against which machine is producing it, is the biggest challenge for configuring an analytics platform. It requires
the intimate knowledge of the facilities managers. Furthermore, in instances of mass data transfer, it is often the case that batches fail
or are incomplete. To tackle this issue, the company developed a data quality checking tool that compares values across the whole
data supply chain, notifying a data manager of instances of mismatch.
As the cost of sensors reduces and the availability of cloud computing increases, buildings will become deeply integrated to allow
for real-time occupant adaptation. When a location beacon is integrated with the space booking system, the building will know
when someone has not turned up to their room. The room booking system can then send a command to switch off both the
HVAC and lighting systems. By knowing where occupants are in the building, it would be possible to turn chillers and/or boilers
off to adapt the occupant loading. This will allow building operators to manage the building in a sustainable, healthy, and intel-
ligent way.
Buildings are often the largest asset on a business’ balance sheet. Digital has disrupted businesses to the point where their entire
processes have changed. However, commercial real estate has proven resistant to this change. Subsequently, more and more busi-
nesses are discovering that their real estate is no longer fit for purpose. EEMS are the first stepping stone on the path to the fully
integrated building.

Home energy management systems

Focusing on the intelligent energy management systems for residential customers, Arboleya et al. (2015) investigated on smart
buildings integration in smart grids. Examples of smart home demonstration projects around the world are listed, energy manage-
ment systems for residential applications and their key features provided by worldwide vendors are also reviewed. Fig. 16 shows the
proposed framework for deployment of smart energy homes. As the advanced tools to monitor and/or control households’ loads
and generation, the ICT infrastructure, software platform and the algorithms in an HEMS must support different appliances and
technologies from different vendors. Retrofitting of old houses and installation of advanced loads such as heat pumps, micro-
CHPs in old neighborhoods should be done in close cooperation with local network operators to the adverse effects imposed
on the public grid by stand-alone smart homes.

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Fig. 16 Integrated framework for smart energy home penetration (Asare-Bediako, 2014).

Smart grid uses computers, sensors, automation, digital two-way communications, with sensors for self-monitoring and self-
healing, pervasive control, adaptive and islanding to provide many customer choices and add intelligence to networks. It can
improve the reliability of electricity services for consumers by identifying and resolving faults on the electricity grid, better managing
voltage and identifying infrastructure requiring maintenance, also prevent widespread blackouts under extreme weather conditions.
Smart grid helps smart home consumers better manage their individual electricity consumption and costs through the use of energy
efficient “smart appliances” and allows home owners to integrate the variable output that comes from renewable energy sources and
accommodate the charging of electric vehicles (see Fig. 17). When energy storage becomes commercially viable in the near future,
the “smart” distribution networks will be able to easily handle the transformation.
Arboleya et al. (2015) proposed a system integrates in the same building AC and DC distribution. The two distribution systems
are coordinated and connected through a DC/AC converter to the public grid. The whole system can provide active and reactive
power to the building and/or to the public grid among other ancillary services as a reactive compensation functions. The whole
building will work as a two coordinated small microgrid or as a dispatchable load or generator.
Recently, the concept, configurations, and scheduling strategies of HEMS were reviewed by Zhou et al. (2016). DR and time-of-
use pricing programs which offer incentives to the end-users who curtail their energy use during times of peak demand. A model
based on mixed-integer linear programming, is comparatively better than the other approaches as a decision tool to cope with
dynamic pricing mechanisms, will lead to significant economic savings for both the energy consumer and provider.

Retrofitting for energy efficiency and NZE buildings

Buildings Performance Institute Europe provides a data hub for the energy performance of buildings across Europe (http://www.
buildingsdata.eu/). Energy consumption usage (DoE, 2012) and projection can be found in the Building Energy Data Book by pub-
lished by DoE (http://buildingsdatabook.eren.doe.gov/). In addition to detailed breakdown of energy usage in various sectors in the
United States, for example, the residential site energy usage, some global data can also be found, such as China took the United
States’ place as the largest consumer of energy in the world in 2010.

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Fig. 17 Power solution for net zero energy building (NZEB) with smart grid (Deng et al., 2014).

Approximately 80% of the United Kingdom homes will still be in use in 2050. Several forms of energy-saving buildings, as
summarized by Krope and Goricanec (2009), are listed with incremental benchmarks for retrofitting. For example:
l Low-energy houses (e.g., annual thermal loads below 80 kWh/m2a, inclusive of active (solar collectors) or passive (glazing on the
southern side of the building) solar heating, etc.)
l Passive houses (e.g., average heat transfer coefficient of the external envelop of U  0.2 W/m2K, plus criteria for glazing and
opaque components, no thermal bridging, ventilation with heat recovery, heating system connected with solar system and the
heat pump, etc.)
l Zero-energy houses (e.g., no thermal bridges or conventional heating systems, not dependent on the public electrical grid, etc.)
l Energy self-sufficient houses
l Plus-energy houses
ASHRAE’s vision is that the building community will produce market-viable NZE buildings (NZEBs) by the year 2030. Smart
homes with intelligent energy management systems are technically close to the zero-energy buildings performance goal, which,
on an annual basis, use no more energy than is provided by on-site renewable energy sources. Existing domestic building stock
can be upgraded with strategic effective planning and advancing integrated technologies (Mumovic and Santamouris, 2009,
Clements-Croome, 2014a,b). In total, 32 selected practical examples of nearly/NZEBs in 20 countries across Europe are reported
by Erhorn and Erhorn-Kluttig (2014). The sample buildings cover residential and nonresidential buildings, also new and renovated
buildings (including single-, multifamily houses, office buildings, schools, a bank building, and a library). Various building services
systems are used to suit specific climate, site and building type, and occupancy pattern, to achieve specific goals: NZEB test in practice;
significant energy efficiency compared to current national requirements; designed as plus-energy buildings; fulfill the “Passive house”
standard requirements; achieve maximum renewable energy integrations. All studied buildings in the catalog are in average 74%
more energy efficient than buildings compliance with national standards. Investors and planners showcased the projects to the public
and especially to other builders that the NZEB concept is already a reality and can be achieved with available technologies at accept-
able additional costs. The U.S. General Services Administration (GSA) created an interactive sustainable facilities tool online (https://
sftool.gov/) to provide know-how information on planning for NZEBs and energy efficiency retrofitting workflow (see Fig. 18).

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Fig. 18 The US General Services Administration (GSA) Sustainable Facilities Tool to energy efficiency and net zero energy project planning flow
(https://sftool.gov).

Intelligent control for energy efficiency and occupants’ comfort and wellbeing
Studies in office buildings by Zeiler et al. (2014) revealed that occupants’ influence has 3–5 times higher impact on energy
consumption than variations in building parameters. When occupants behavior is categorized into three workstyles in private offi-
cedAusterity, Standard, and Wasteful, Hong and Lin (2013) evaluated the potential impact through simulation and concluded that
the combined Austerity workstyle can save up to 50% of source energy, while the combined Wasteful workstyle can increase energy
use by 80% to the Standard workstyle.
In the north regions of China, some aged district heating networks have uneven distribution of heat for clusters of residential
complexes in winter. The households close to the supply station have to keep windows open overnight and place several buckets
of water to add indoor RH, to overcome overheating and dryness induced discomfort, meanwhile, the residents located further away
from supply station need to use additional electric heaters for maintaining indoor temperatures around 16–17 C. In the United
Kingdom, you may find students wearing Hawaii summer dresses and shorts in centrally heated residential halls on campus during
winter time, complaining about headaches and catching flu easily. Short et al. (2012) explored adaptive strategies for retrofitting
1960s built UK hospital buildings to overcome overheating risks in future climate change scenarios. Using the Rosie maternity
hospital in Cambridge as a pilot test, the research identified that since a refurbishment in 2010, this typical medium-rise courtyard
building enjoyed relatively low energy and low carbon performance against the Department of Health guidance benchmarks, but at
the cost of comfort, that is, unable to shed heat in relatively mild external conditions. The research concluded that only integrated
subjective adaptation behavior of occupants and objective evidence-based technological improvement on operation and mainte-
nance management can achieve energy efficiency and improve resilience.
As the first evidence-based system for monitoring and certifying building features that impact on health and wellbeing of
building occupants, the WELL Building Standard (International WELL Building Institute, 2014) sets the new benchmark for inte-
grated optimal operational management. WELL measures the attributes of a building that impact on occupant health by looking
at seven areasdair, water, nourishment, light, fitness, comfort, and mind. Certified green projects in design (e.g., BREEAM,
LEED, and Green Star) have to meet all the performance metrics in use to achieve WELL recognition.
Successful implementation of health and wellness strategies will require both a better understanding of related medical science
research and a deeper collaboration between owners, architects, engineers, contractors, and FM to identify design criteria that go
beyond comfort and the building and additionally incorporate personalization and user-experience design. The emergence of
sensors that can be embedded into clothing, materials, and equipment, together with wireless sensor networks, will result in a ubiq-
uitous network providing extensive and valuable real-time data on performance. The captured data on occupants’ responses to the
changing environment can be analyzed to reveal significant patterns that can be used to provide a degree of personal control, also
increase their awareness of their actions with regard to energy and water consumption. Real-time information streaming of crowd

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sourced data, for example, the outdoor air quality reading on an Apple-app or Israel’s BreezoMeter, can provide high-resolution
map of pollution sources and help to make informed decision on rectify measures (Clements-Croome et al., 2015; Clements-
Croome and Taub, 2016).

BEMS Embrace the Digital Challenge

Building Information Modeling/Management for Integrated Design, Construction and Operation
The RIBA Plan of Work 2013 (RIBA, 2013) defines eight work stages in a construction project as illustrated in Fig. 19; each work
stage also has eight task bars, that is, (1) Core objectives, (2, 3, and 4) the three Ps: procurement, program, and (town) planning,
(5) suggested key support tasks, (6) sustainability checkpoints, (7) information exchanges, and (8) UK government information
exchanges. This new work practice flow encourages holistic thinking, early and interactive communication between different stake-
holders and utilize building information modeling/management (BIM) technologies for delivery of sustainable buildings.
Sinclair (2012) detailed the core BIM activities overlay to the RIBA work stages. RIBA Plan of Work 2013 facilitates best practice
in BIM at maturity level 3 and beyond for better briefing processes and forming collaborative project team to focus on the client’s
objectives and deliver desired project outcomes on time (RIBA, 2013). BIM would provide good communication platform for all
stakeholders (summarized in Table 3; Clements-Croome, 2014a) for making prompt decisions to balance possibly conflicting
requirements through efficient interdisciplinary collaboration, also align clients’ business model with legislation changes and tech-
nological advances for beneficial outcomes for all.
As depicted in Fig. 20, BIM linking virtual assets with rich information database enables integration of people, processes and
products through the whole building lifetime. The integration of all objects and aspects being managed within a single source allows
stakeholders to find coordinated solutions to complex interrelated problems. With an evidence based more intelligent and robust
project brief being developed, the client’s needs and requirements can be realized to be a functional energy efficient building
through effectively management of all legislation constraints and integrated systems performance criteria, with continuous valida-
tion and optimization for building users (Cao and Pietiläinen, 2013).

The Cyber Security Issues

BEMS connect to the cyber environment which encompasses the Internet, telecommunication networks, computer systems,
embedded processors and controllers, and a wide range of sensors, storage, and control devices. In a penetrating test, an IBM
team of cyber security experts has taken control of an individual building’s automation system, then gained access to a central server,

Fig. 19 Eight stages in the RIBA Plan of Work 2013 (RIBA, 2013).

Table 3 The views of all the interested parties in the traditional design and construction process need to be appreciated if mutual understanding is to
be developed (Clements-Croome, 2014a)

Practitioners Viewpoints Objectives

Users Social Usability; natural light, space, and fresh air, with some degree of personal
control of thermal conditions; amenities; healthy working conditions
Clients Economic Reliability, quality; economic operating costs; after care
Designers (e.g., architect, engineer/consultant) Technical Overall quality and reliability
Developers planners/surveyors Business/economic Conformance to requirements; costs
Contractors Technical Quality; profit; workmanship; delivery times
Project managers Operational Integration; facilitating resources; coordination; time constraints
Facilities managers Operational Operation and maintenance; POE; green issues
Financiers Economic cost Successful completion of project on time within budget

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Fig. 20 Management of needs and requirements during building lifetime (Cao and Pietiläinen, 2013).

and consequently could extend control to several other geographically dispersed buildings. Organizations should ensure the best
practice when designing and implementing network security architects for their BAS environments (IBM, 2016):
l All devices have up to date security patches
l IP addresses are whitelisted to protect vulnerable ports
l Firewalls are up to prevent attacks
l Unnecessary remote access is prohibited
l Passwords are unique

BIM collaborative approach is based on shared information models, which will be developed and maintained across the lifecycle
of the building or infrastructure. In the IET cyber security Consortium report, Boyes (2014) emphasized that it is vital to address
cyber security in the implementation of the collaborative processes and systems knowing that organizations have differing levels
of security awareness and discipline. Cyber security affects both the technology and process elements of BIM. Organizations should
ensure to achieve the general security objectives, that is, confidentiality, integrity, availability (reliability and resilience).
Four key areas for implementing cyber security good practice are:
l Cyber security policies and procedures: regular review of access rights, rigorous password and authentication policy, regular
security audits.
l Cyber security awareness and education: ensure staff involvement and support of IT department.
l Protecting the project’s technical infrastructure: run analytics to look for abnormal patterns/events.
l Protecting the asset’s systems and infrastructure: separate servers by firewalls, regular and ideally automated process for applying
security patches.

Innovative Future

As current technology advances, for example, IoT, embedded sensors and wearable sensors, the concept of integration and interop-
erability, the growth of IP, robotics, and material science, buildings will not only be static enclosed spaces to facilitate various modes
of human activities but also to adapt, behave, respond, and accommodate the flows of energy and information (Kolarevic and
Parlac, 2017). Through the intelligent building pyramid presented in Fig. 21, Ghaffarianhoseini et al. (2016) summarize the
evolution of systems in the past decades, also highlight rapid adaptability and harmonization of technology advances and market
needs to accelerate innovation in the near future.
Sarkisian (2016) indicated the great opportunity to consider flow and interaction between architectural, structural, and building
service systems, especially for tall buildings. Structures can be integrated into the exterior wall systems so that superficial enclosure
elements are eliminated. Dynamic damping system will be able to sense and predict the ground movement force and frequencies for
counterbalancing the seismic forces. The structural system could be a conduit for fluids as radiant heat source or heat sink for heating
or cooling buildings.
Zero cement concrete and building-integrated renewable energy systems, such as built-in wind turbines, solar PV windows, algae
biofuel system, etc., enable more and more self-sufficient and zero energy/carbon buildings for intelligent sustainable living
(Clements-Croome, 2014b; Ghaffarianhoseini et al., 2016). The principle of homeostasis could be used as a concept to develop
building elements that adapt to changes in environmental conditions and indoor demands (Worall, 2011). Heating and cooling

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Fig. 21 The intelligent buildings pyramid (Ghaffarianhoseini et al., 2016).

glass explores the potential for the migration of the central HVAC system into a decentralized modular. el-Khoury et al. (2012)
explores eco-friendly transformable kinetic buildings concept. A fresh-air window can be embedded as a sealed curtain wall unit
with a heat recovery ventilation element in a double glazing façade. Self-sufficient poly-glazed curtain wall systems harvest solar
energy to interact internal and external environment changes, shall maintain optimal visual and thermal conditions indoors to
enhance the resilience of buildings as the climate change continues.
The “open” SOA of BEMS provides universal gateways for the infusion of dynamic socio-economic and technological processes
in the responsive buildings of the future.

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