WA Chapter 01 new English Literature Its Background and Development Wonanee Introduction English Literature is one of richest literatures of the world, Being the literature of a great nation which, though inhabiting a small island off the west coast of Europe, has made its mark in the world on account of her spirit of adventure, Perseverance and tenacity, it roflects these characteristics of a great people, It has vitality, ‘rich variety and continuity. As literature is the reflection of society, the various changes which have come about in English society, from the earliest to the moder time, have left. their stamp on English literature. Thus in order to appreciate Properly the various phases of English literature, knowledge of English Social and Political History is essential. For example, we cannot form a just estimate of Chaucer without taking into account the characteristics of the period in which he was living, or of Shakespeare without taking proper notice of the great events which were taking place during the reign of Elizabeth, The same is the case with other great figures and important movements in English literature. When we study the history of English literature from the carliest to modern times, we find that it has passed through certain definite phases, each having marked characteristics, Thece Phases may be termed as ‘Ages’ or ‘Periods’, which are named after the central literary figures or the important rulers of England. Thus we have the ‘Ages’ of Chaucer, Shakespeare, Milton, Dryden, Pope, and Johnson. Wordsworth, Tennyson, Hardy; and, on the other hand, the Elizabethan Age, the Jacobean Period, the Age of Queen Anne, the Victorian Age, the Georgian Period. Some of these phases are named after certain literary movements, as the Classical Age, the Romantic Age; while others after certain important historical eras, as the Medieval Period, Anglo-Saxon Period, and Anglo-Norman Period. 27 Scanned with CamScanner28| BR. MULLIK: CRITICAL HISTORY-ENGLISH LITERATURE Section I These literary phases are also named by some literary historians after the centuries, as the Seventeenth Century Literature, Eighteenth Century Literature, Nineteenth Century Literature and Twentieth Century Literature. These ‘Ages’ and ‘Periods’ naturally overlap each other, and they are not to be followed strictly, but it is essential to keep them in mind in order to follow the growth of English literature and its salient and distinctive characteristics during the various Periods of its development. Now let us have a critical Survey of the background and development of English literature from the earliest times upto the Present age. WARASAKNOVILDIRUA RUIN. 7 Scanned with CamScanner1 Queslio® che 02 Kou * Qhet eC Os The Anglo-Saxon or Old-English Period (670-1100) WHA RL The earliest phase of English literature started with Anglo- saxon literature of the Angles and Saxons (the ancestors of the English race) much before they occupied Britain. English was the common name and tongue of these tribes. Before they occupied Britain they lived along the coasts of Sweden and Denmark, and the land which they occupied was called Engle-land. These tribes were fearless, adventurous and brave, and during the later years of Roman occupation of Britain, they kept the British coast in terror. Like other nations they sang at their feasts about battles, gods and their ancestral heroes, and some of their chiefs were also bards. It was in these songs of religion, wars and agriculture that English poetry began in the ancient Engle-land while Britain was still a Roman province. Though much of this Anglo-Saxon poetry is lost, there are still some fragments left. For example, Widsith describes continental courts visited in imagination by a far-wandering poet; Waldliere tells how Walter of Aquitaine withstood a host of foes in the passes of the Vosges; the splendid fragment called The Fight at Finneshurg deals with the same favourite theme of battle against fearful odds; and Complaint of Deor describes the disappointment of a lover. The most important poem of this period is Beowulf. It is a tale of adventures of Beowulf, the hero, who is a champion and slayer of monsters; the incidents in it are such as may be found in hundreds of other stories, but what makes it really interesting and different from later romances, is that it is full of all sorts of references and allusions to great events, to the fortunes of kings and nations. There is thus an historical background. After the Anglo-Saxons embraced Christianity, the poets took up religious themes as the subject-matter of their poetry. In fact, a major portion of Anglo-Saxon poetry is religious. The two important teligious poets of the Anglo-Saxon period were Caedmon and "9 a Scanned with CamScannerx: CRITICAL HistoRy-ENGL! U LITERATURE Section 4 MULL z in series the whole story of the fate ¢ ie cece and tbe ‘Tall to. the Redemption and the ie Sind ‘within this large framework, the Scripture hist sseeli’s most important poem is the Crist a metrical narrative? leading events of Christ's ministry upon coh including his retury te judgment, which is treated with much grandeur. Anglo-Saxon poetry is markedly different from tha PORKrY of the next period — Middle English or Anglo-Norman period —for it deals with the traditions of an older world, and expresses anothey temperament and way of living; it breathes the influence of the wing and storm. Itis the poetry of a stern and passionate people, concerned with the primal things of life, moody, melancholy and fierce, yet with great capacity for endurance and fidelity. The Anglo-Saxon period was also marked by the beginning of English prose. Through the Chronicles, which probably began in King Alfred’s time, and th rough Alfred’s translations from the Latin a common available prose was established, which had all sorts of Possibilities in it, In fact, unlike poetry, there was no break in prose of Anglo-Saxon period and the Middle English period, and even the later prose in England was continuation of Anglo-Saxon prose. The of the Anglo-Saxon prose is towards observance of the rules inary speech, that is why, though one has to make a considerable effort in order to read verse of the Anglo-Saxons, it is comparatively easy to understand their prose. The great success of Anglo-Saxon prose is in religious instructions, and the two great pioneers of English prose were Alfred the Great, the glorious king of Wessex, who translated a number of Latin Chronicles in English, and Aelfric, a priest, who wrote sermons in a sort of poetic prose. The Angles and Saxons first landed in England in the middle of the fifth century, and by 670 A.D. they had occupied almost the whole of the country. ke the Romans who came as conquerors, these tribes settled in England and made her their permanent home. They became, therefore, the ancestors of the English race. The Anglo- Saxon kings, of whom Alfred the Great was the most prominent, ruled till 1066, when Harold, the last of Saxon, kings, was defeated at the Battle of Hastings by William the Conqueror of Normandy, France, The Anglo-Saxon or Old English Period in English literature, therefore, extends roughly from 670 A.D. to 1100 A.D. As it has been made clear in the First Part of this book that the literature of any country in any period is the reflection of the life lived by the people of that country in that particular period, we find that Scanned with CamScanner02 —THE ANGLO-SAXON OR OLD. LIS PERIOD (670-1100) {31 his apples to the literature of this period, The Angles and Saxons vomabined in themselves opposing, traits of character —savagery and ent ough living and deep Feeling, splendid courage and deep melancholy resulting from thinking about the unanswered problem frdeath. Thus they lived a rich external as well as internal life, and it e eapecially the latter which is the basis of their rich literature. To these brave and fearless fighters, love of untarnished glory, and happy domestic life and virtues, made great appeal. They followed in ther lie five great principles—love of personal freedom, recponsivencss to nature, religion, love for womanhood, and struggle for glory. All these principles are reflected in their literature. They ‘were full of emotions and aspirations, and loved music and songs. Thus we read in Beowulf. Music and song where the heroes sat— The glee —wood rang, a song uprose When Hrothgar’s scop gave the hall good cheer. The Anglo Saxon language is only a branch of the great Aryan or Indo-European family of languages. It has the same root words for father and mother, for God and man, for the common needs and the common relations of life, as we find in Sanskrit, Iranian, Greek and Latin. And itis this old vigorous Anglo-Saxon language which forms the basis of modern English. SrA RTETLTIONLERLONA. K Hayeai ce! Lack 49 whe % (amors utiles: ve Cameos VodeF we CON C\ISIOM Scanned with CamScannerish or (1100-1500) ir Sep OPE The Normans, who were On defeated the Anglo-Saxon King at om ns "a es } an a distinctly new epoch in ay Mae wel England. The Anglo-Saxon the literary as we tly displaced as the : fenly and permanent! d authors on king, snteeatire afterwards read and written by glo-Saxon king. The lit sash 7 wi thereby as completely transformed as the sentiments aia tastes i erature introduced e foreign types-of lit and tastes of English rulers, he foreign typ | after the Nonna ee found fav6ur with the monarchs and a tions, and were deliberately fosteped by them, to the disrogard of native form¢ No effective protest fas possible by the Anglo-Saxons, and English thought for centusi@s lo come was largely fashioned in the manner of the French, hroughout the whole period, which we call the Middle English period (as belonging to the Middle Ages or Medieval times inthe History of Britain) or the Anglo-Norman period, in forms of artistic expression as well as of religious service, the English openly acknowledged a Latin control. It is true that before the Norman Conquest the Anglo-Saxons had a body of native literature distinctly superior to any European vernacular, But one cannot deny that the Normans came to their land when they greatly needed an exlérnalStimulus. The Conquest effected a wholesome awakening of national life. The people were suddenly inspired by a new vision of a greater future. They became united in a common hope. In course of time the Anglo-Saxons lost their initial hostility to the new comers, and all became part and parcel of one nation. The Normans not only brought with them soldiers and artisans and traders, they also imported schol revive knowledge, chroniclers to record memorable events, inst is to celebrate victories, or sing of adventure and love cranial in Normandy (France) le of Hastings (1066) ang Conquest inaugurated as political history of 32 Scanned with CamScanneres -e IOUREOUNIPNER ERED RRS Bs SF. gteat difference between the two periads— Anglo-Saxoh' py, rt 8 rman period, is marked by the disappearance of NE ool: There is nothing during the Anglo-Norman the ot Like Bextwulf or Fall of the Angels, The later religious poetry has peje in it to recall the finished art of Cynewulf, Anglo-Saxon poetry, Tittle nt lerived from Kaifieridam or from the Church, has ideas and we ers of its own; it comes to perfection, and then it dies away, It = that Anglo-Saxon poetry grows to ‘ich maturity, and then ‘isappears, as with the new forms of language and under new influences, the poetical education started again, and so the poetry of the Anglo-Norman period has nothing in common the Anglo-Saxon poetry. The most obvious change in literary expression appearsin the vehicle employed. For centuries Latin had been more Gr Jess spoken. or written by the clergy in England. The Conquest which led to the reinvigoration of the monasteries and the Tightening of the ties with Rome, determined its more extensiv€ use. Still more important, as a result of foreign sentiment in-court and castle, it caused writings ia ‘the English vernacular to-bé disregarded, and matom( ‘rench as the natural speech of je cultivated agd the high-born( The clergy insisted on the use of Lat mph bility’ on the use of Freiich; no one of influence saw the utility of’ English as a means of perpetuating thought, and for nearly three centuries very few works appeared in the native tongue.) In spite of the English language having been thrown into the background, some works were composed in it, though they echoed in the main the sentiments and tastes of the French writers, as French then was the supreme arbiter of European literary style. Another striking characteristic of medieval literature is its general anonymity. Of the many who wrote the names of but few are recorded, and of the history of these few we have only the most meagre details. It was because originality was deplored as a fault, and independence of treatment was a heino ce in their ey (sig Romanek sts 1 rahité during the Middle English The most popular form of Period was the romances, No literary productions of tie Middle Ages are so characteristic, none so perennially attractive as those that treat romantically of heroes and heroines of by-gone days. These romances are notable for their stories rather than their poetry, and they, like the drama afterwards, furnished the chief mental recreation of time for the great body of the people. These romances were mostly borrowed Scanned with CamScanner _ ftud op ty Guth a 234| B.R.MULLIK: CRITICAL HISTORY-ENGLISH LITERATURE Section h / ith the stories of Kin in and French sources. They deal with g Aan The Wat of Troy, and the mythical doings of Charlemagne and of Alexander the Great. (b) The Miracle and Morality Plays In the Middle English period Miracle pays pane very popular. From the growth and development of the Bib es ory, scene by scene, carried to its logical conclusion, this drama —devel loped to an enormous cycle of sacred history, beginning with the creation of man, his fall and banishment from the Garden of Eden and extending through the more important matlers of the Old Testament and life of Christ in the New to the summoning of the quick and the dead on the day of final judgment. This kind of drama is called the miracle play — sometimes less correctly the mystery play—and it flourished throughout England from the reign of Henry Il to that of Elizabeth (1154-1603). Another form of drama which flourished during the Middle Ages was the Morality plays. In these plays the uniform theme is the Struggle between the powers of good and evil for the mastery of the soul of man. The personages were abstract virtues, or vices, each acting and speaking in accordance with his name; and the plot was built upon their contrasts and influences on human nature, with the intent to teach right living and uphold religion. Ina word, allegory is the distinguishing mark of the moral plays. In these moral plays the Prolagonist is always an abstraction; he is Mankind, the Human Race, the Pride of Life, and there is an attempt to compass the of man’s experience and temptations in life, fe there had been a corresponding effort in the Miracle plays to embrace the complete range of sacred history, the life of Christ, and the redemption of the world. Whole scope (c) William Langland (c.a 1332 - ca. 1386), One of the Breatest poets of the Middl Ages was William Langland, and his poem, A Vien of Piers the Plownia holé's an ‘mportant place in English literature, In spite of it archaic style, it is a classic work in English literature, Tah posi. which isa satire on the corrupt religious practices, throne light on the ethical problems of the day. The character assumed by Langland is that of the prophet, denouncing the sins of society and encouragin men toospire to a higher life. He represents the dissatisfaction of the lower and the more thinking classes of English society. as Chaucer Tepresents the content of the aristocracy and the Prosperous middie Scanned with CamScanner0. MIDDLE-ENGLISH OR ANGLO-NORMAN PERIOD (1100-1500) (35, is essentially a satiric poet, he has decided class: A et lal ques! ions The feudal system is his ideal; Ie desired no change in the ireitulion of his days, ond he thine i woukl be well if the different orders of = ety would do their ae Like Danie and Bunyan, heennobles Hi entic. by arraying it in a gatb of allegory; and he is intensely rea. (d) John Gower (1330—1408) Gower occupies an important place in the devel English poetry. Though it was Chaucer who played the most important role in this direction, Gower's contribution cannot be ignored. Gower represents the English culmination of that courtly medieval poetry which had its rise in France two or three hundred years before. He is a great stylist, and he proved that English might compete with the other languages which had most distinguished themselves in poetry. Gower is mainly a narrative Poet and his most important work is Confession Amantis, which is in the form of conversation between the poet and a divine interpreter. It is an encyclopaedia of the art of love, and Satirises the vanities of the current time. Throughout the collection of stories w! major portion of Confes: moralist, Though Gower w: they were certainly fellow lopment of hich forms the 1 Amantis, Gower presents himself as a as inferior to Chaucer, it is sufficient that pioneers, fellow schoolmasters, in the task of bringing England to literature. Up to their time, the literary production of England had been exceedingly rudimentary and limited. Gower, like Chaucer, performed the function of establishing, the form of English as a thoroughly equipped medium of literature (e) Chaucer (1340?...1400) It was, in fact, Chaucer who wa: poetry, and he is rightly called the ‘F; the poetry of his pre few exce 5 the real founder of English ‘ather of English Poetry’. Unlike 'decessors and contemporaries, which is read by Pt professed scholars, Chaucer's poetry has been read and enjoyed continuously from his own day to this, and the Breatest of his successors, from Spenser and Milton to Tennyson and William Morris, have joined in praising it. Chaucer, in fact, made a fresh beginning in English literature. He disregarded allogether the old English tradition. His education aS a poet was two-fold. Part of it came from French and Italian literatures, but part of it came from life. He was not a mere bookman, nor was he in the least a visionary. Like Shakespeare and Milton, he Was, on the contrary, a man of the world and of affairs, Scanned with CamScanner A36| B, R. MULLIK: CRITICAL HISTORY-ENGLISH LITERATURE Section 1) and characteristic work of Chaucer js the oe ee anieh is a collection of stories related by the Canterbury heir way to the shrine of Thomas Becket at Canterbu; , TE grins represeh different sections of contemporary English jociety, and in the description of the most prominent ol De People in the Prologue Chaucer’s powers arc shown att ate very i hest. All these characters are individualized, yet their h oroug! ny typical quality gives unique value to Chaucer's picture of men and manners in the England of his time. The Canterbury Tales is a landmark in the history of English poetry because here Chaucer enriched the English language and metre to such an extent, that now it could be conveniently used for any purpose. Moreover, by introducing a variety of highly-finished characters into a single action, and engaging them in an animated dialogue, Chaucer fulfilled every requirement of the dramatist, short of bringing his plays on the stage. Also, by drawing finished and Various portraits in verse, he showed the way to the novelists to Portray characters. Chaucer's works fall into three periods. During the first period he imitated French models, Particularly the famous and very long Poem Le Roman de la Rose of which he made a translation —Romaunt of the Rese. This poem which gives an intimate introduction to the medieval French romances and allegories of courtly love, is the embryo out of which all Chaucer's poetry grows, During this period he also wrote the Book of the Duche: an elegy, which in its form and nature is like the Rowazaut of the Rose; Complaint unto Pity, a shorter poem and ABC, a series of stanzas religious in tone, in which each opens with a letter of the alphabet in order, The poems of the second period (1373-84) show th Italian literature, especially of Dante's Divine Comedy and Boccaccio’ poets. In ths period he wrote The Parliament of Fawis whieh sees very dramatic and satiric dialogues between the assembled bind Troilus and Criseyde, which narrates the story of thee “irda; Troilus and his love for a damsel, Criseyde: The Story of which is given a pitiful picture of womanhood; and The House of Fane sshich is a masterpiece uf comic fantasy, with a graver unio fa" contemplation of human folly. ne Of Chaucer's third period (1384-90) may be called the English Period, because in it he threw off foreign influences and showy, native originality. In the Legend of Goo! Woman he employed for the first time the heroic couplet. It was during this period that he Wrote ay Scanned with CamScanner he influence of03 — MIDDLE-ENGLISH OR ANGLO-NORMAN PERIOD (1100-1500) {37 The Canterbury Tales, his greatest i i , poetic achievement, whi in the heart of London. Here we find his gentle, ani ion a which is Chaucer's greatest quality, at its very best. : oun ; Chaucer's importance in the development of English literature is very great because he removed poetry from the region of Metaphysics and Theology, and made it hold as “twere the mirror up to nature’. He thus brought back the old classical principle of the direct imitation of nature. (f) Chaucer’s Successors After Chaucer there was a decline in English poetry for about one hundred years. The years from 1400 to the Renaissance were a period bereft of literature. There were only a few minor poets, the imitators and successors of Chaucer, who are called the English and Scottish Chaucerians who wrote during this period. The main cause of the decline of literature during this period was that no writer of genius was born during those long years. Chaucer's successors were Occleve, Lydgate, Hawes, Skelton, Henryson, Dunbar and Douglas. They all did little but copy him, and they represent an era of mediocrity in English literature that continues up to the time of the Renaissance. SALVA NMEVILTD NLS Scanned with CamScanner