Transportation Research Part A 41 (2007) 489–501

www.elsevier.com/locate/tra

Dynamic at-stop real-time information displays for

public transport: effects on customers
1
Katrin Dziekan *, Karl Kottenhoff
Transportation & Logistics, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) Stockholm, Teknikringen 72, SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden

Received 10 March 2006; received in revised form 26 May 2006; accepted 21 November 2006

Abstract

Dynamic at-stop real-time information displays are becoming more and more ubiquitous in modern public transport.
Reactions and attitudes towards these systems are very positive. But there is a need to provide a comprehensive framework
of the possible effects that these kinds of displays can have on customers.
The seven main effects described in this paper are: (A) reduced wait time, (B) positive psychological factors, such as
reduced uncertainty, increased ease-of-use and a greater feeling of security, (C) increased willingness-to-pay, (D) adjusted
travel behaviour such as better use of wait time or more efficient travelling, (E) mode choice effects, (F) higher customer
satisfaction and finally (G) better image.
Two studies are presented in this paper. Study I supports and proves that perceived wait times can be reduced by 20%
by employing a before–after implementation evaluation study with questionnaires on a tramline. Study II shows the effects
of real-time displays on behaviour in the form of adjusted walking speeds, by using a behaviour observation method in a
subway station.
The effect framework does not claim completeness and many effects are related to each other. However, the framework
is a useful basis for designing evaluation studies and provides arguments in favour of at-stop real-time information
displays.
Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Public transport traveller information; Real-time information; User reaction; Customer satisfaction; Wait time; Evaluation

1. Introduction

Real-time information systems are very common in modern public transportation (PT) and a considerable
amount of money is spent on such applications each year (Yeung, 2004). Real-time information displays
showing the next departure of trains and buses at stations and stops (see Fig. 1) are becoming more and more
customary. The technology can now be regarded as matured and therefore, of interest to most actors

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +46 8 790 79 77; fax: +46 8 212 899.
E-mail addresses: katrin@infra.kth.se (K. Dziekan), kotten@infra.kth.se (K. Kottenhoff).
1
Tel.: +46 8 790 79 17.

0965-8564/$ - see front matter Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tra.2006.11.006
490 K. Dziekan, K. Kottenhoff / Transportation Research Part A 41 (2007) 489–501

Fig. 1. A typical modern at-stop real-time information display in Dresden/Germany (photo: K. Dziekan).

(Kåbjörn, 2005). Many projects have shown that this kind of information is appreciated by the customers
(Infopolis2, 1998; GoTiC, 2002; Lehtonen and Kulmala, 2001; Coogan, 2003; BMBF, 2002; Intermobil,
2002; Cassidy and White, 1995; Sekara and Karlsson, 1997; Nijkamp et al., 1996; Forsyth and Silcock,
1985). Often, the installation of at-stop real-time displays is just one component in an array of measures taken
to improve traveler information and service quality.
Accompanying the implementation of such, often expensive, real-time information systems, many cities and
authorities are conducting their own evaluations to learn about the effects and to justify their investments. But
in order to determine whether the investigation is worth the money, the range of effects of such at-stop displays
must be taken into consideration. Yet, there have only been a few comprehensive summaries of effects pro-
vided thus far.
An early paper on evaluation of at-stop real-time information displays was provided by Forsyth and Sil-
cock (1985). They reported that in the early 1970’s, the Chicago Transit Authority was already using Auto-
matic Vehicle Location (AVL) for providing passenger information. London also had an early AVL
project in the seventies called BUSCO, which also included real time information at bus stops (Whitley,
1984). In 1977, Stockholm Transport also tested an AVL system for 60 inner city buses. Following that, in
the beginning of the 1980’s much activity in the field of IT and public transportation was initiated in Sweden
(Holmberg et al., 1988). However, as the authors of the TCRP report by TRB (2003) concludes, information
to passengers came second at that time to the AVL function of improving operational efficiency. Often real-
time information was only seen as a measure of boosting image. The first real-time information in Sweden was
installed at a metro station in Stockholm in the 1980’s. It showed estimated wait time in minutes and when a
train was approaching, it also showed the destination of that particular train. In Gothenburg other types of
electronic signs were tested. One of them showed a route map where the current positions of approaching
trams were indicated (one example of such a map-oriented display is depicted in Fig. 2). This, less complex
kind of display included information about the position of the next tram without promising an exact departure
time. Thus, it is partly up to the passengers to draw their own conclusions based on the information given.
Nowadays the countdown displays, showing route number, destination and time remaining until departure
are state of the art (Infopolis2, 1998).
Later, in the 1990’s, a test site in Gothenburg was formed: GoTIC, the Gothenburg Transport Information
Centre, which was an international demonstration site (GoTiC, 2002). One purpose for the early tests per-
formed at this site was to investigate passenger needs and how data could be transferred and presented to trav-
ellers. This paper takes this issue one step further. It analyses the international literature and proposes a
 K. Dziekan, K. Kottenhoff / Transportation Research Part A 41 (2007) 489–501 491

Fig. 2. Example of at-stop real-time traveller information in stretch-map form in Brussels in the 1980’s (photo: K. Kottenhoff).

framework of possible effects of at-stop real-time information displays on customers. Practitioners can use this
framework when planning information systems and designing their own evaluation studies, but also as argu-
ments in favour of at-stop real-time information. Additionally, two studies are presented investigating and
proving two of the effects: reduced perceived wait time and adjusted travel behaviour. Finally, the pros and
cons of the framework and possible applications are discussed and some suggestions for further research
are made.

2. Framework of possible effects

When evaluating newly implemented systems, questions about perceived reliability, comprehensibility and
legibility of the displays are often asked of the customers. Further, the preferred position of the displays or
whether it is real-time or timetable-based is often of interest to practitioners. But these factors relate to design
aspects of the system and will therefore not be included in this effect analysis.
Reliability of the provided information and correctness of the estimated times are necessary preconditions
for any possible effects.
A question which is a precondition for all possible effects is: Do people look at the displays? The Science
Applications International Corporation (2003), Klinger (2004) and Dziekan and Sedin (2005) found that at-
stop real-time displays were consulted more often than other printed at-stop information such as timetables.
Indeed, the availability of the system is another precondition for effects of at-stop displays. The literature pro-
vides a range of between 70% to 100% of people who look at the displays (Schweiger, 2003; TriMet, 2002;
Infopolis2, 1998; GoTiC, 2002; Dziekan and Vermeulen, 2006). Such effects, of course, can only be measured
on people who used the displays. Unfortunately, the literature does not always provide complete information
about methods and analyses in studies conducted to allow an overall valid statement on the size of effects.
Fig. 3 provides an overview on the effects in form of a mind map. They have been sorted into seven cate-
gories: perceived wait time, psychological effects, adjusted travel behaviour, willingness-to-pay, mode choice,
customer satisfaction and image. The mind map indicates that these effects relate to each other although other
structures could have been possible. Further, it does not claim completeness.
The following sections provide the framework of effects with references to literature where available.

2.1. Reduced perceived wait time

The perception of wait time can, in principle, be investigated by asking passengers at stops and stations to
estimate how long they have been waiting. These estimations can be compared to estimations made without
the system or to observed wait times.
In several studies a reduced perceived wait time was reported as one effect of at-stop real-time displays
(Infopolis2, 1998; Nijkamp et al., 1996; Dziekan and Vermeulen, 2006; Schweiger, 2003). Kronborg et al.
(2002) showed that with real-time information, travellers overestimated their wait times by 9–13% as com-
pared to 24–30% without it. One of the earlier evaluation studies in London of at-stop real-time systems
concluded that the displays generally affect passengers’ expectation of wait time in a positive way (Forsyth
and Silcock, 1985). The Countdown evaluation project from London reported a perceived wait time drop of
492 K. Dziekan, K. Kottenhoff / Transportation Research Part A 41 (2007) 489–501

Reduced
uncertainty
Reduced Positive
perceived wait psychological Increased
time effects easiness-of-use

Increased feeling
Mode choice of security

At-stop Increased
real-time willingness-
Higher information to-pay
customer
satisfaction Utilisation of
wait time
Adjusted
travel More efficient
travelling
Better image behaviour
Other adjusting
strategies

Fig. 3. Mind map on possible effects of at-stop real-time information displays.

26% (from 11.9 to 8.8 min) (Schweiger, 2003). The results from study I presented below also proved this
effect.

2.2. Positive psychological effects

Psychological effects can only be studied by asking questions since they are related to the feelings and expe-
riences of the individual. Besides structured interviews or questionnaires, focus groups can also be used to
study how people think and feel about the displays (e.g. (Karlsson and Sekara, 1999)).
At least three different kinds of psychological effects can be mentioned:
An increased feeling of security: Traveller information systems contribute to an increased feeling of personal
security at public transport stops in general and especially after dark (Infopolis2, 1998; Kronborg et al., 2002;
Schweiger, 2003). They can also vastly reduce anxiety. More than half of the respondents surveyed by Science
Applications International Corporation (2003) indicated that the displays reduce their anxiety at the bus stop
and increase their sense of security.
Just the mere existence of such a system creates a general sense of trust in the public transport system. A
possible task for customers in an evaluation could be to answer the question ‘‘Please evaluate the personal
security at your boarding stop on a scale from very poor to very good’’. Often five-or seven-point scales
are used.
Reduced uncertainty: Simply knowing the actual departure time or time remaining until departure
removes uncertainty, increases feelings of control and could reduce stress (Battelle Memorial Institute
and Multisystems, 2003; Schweiger, 2003; Smith et al., 1994). The service is perceived as more reliable
(Infopolis2, 1998, Annex F;) even if service reliability actually decreased, as in the case in a survey from
London (Smith et al., 1994). People feel more in control and can plan their time better (Sekara and Kar-
lsson, 1997; Science Applications International Corporation, 2003). Arnström (1986) reports about early
Swedish tests which showed that people felt less stress at a bus-tram interchange when they received
real-time information about the connecting tram departures. Similar results were reported in Portland, Ore-
gon (TriMet, 2002) where people also felt less stress and uncertainty after the implementation of at-stop real
time-information displays.
In this context, various terms are used such as ‘‘stress reduction’’, ‘‘increased feeling of control’’ or ‘‘higher
reliability.’’ Nevertheless, the overall category can be labelled with the term ‘‘reduced uncertainty’’.
Increased ease-of-use: People want to save effort when making a journey. This effort can be of a physical,
affective and/or cognitive nature (Stradling, 2002). Measuring so-called ease-of-use as a concept that includes
 K. Dziekan, K. Kottenhoff / Transportation Research Part A 41 (2007) 489–501 493

the effort and the recommendation rate was not trivial and so far, trials (Dziekan and Vermeulen, 2006) have
not justified the method developed. But (Dziekan and Vermeulen, 2004) found that people who trust the at-
stop real-time information displays, perceived a high reliability of the information and had an easier journey.

2.3. Increased willingness-to-pay

Willingness-to-pay can be measured using stated preference experiments (Louviere et al., 2000). Some stud-
ies found increased willingness-to-pay for at-stop real-time information displays (Smith et al., 1994; Swanson
et al., 1997). In 1989, an extensive stated preference study on Stockholmers’ willingness-to-pay for public
transport was done (Widlert et al., 1989). It showed a significant willingness-to-pay for real-time information
at bus and metro stops. Systems including real-time information signs were shown to the respondents, among
other potential improvements relevant to public transport users. When choosing between, for example, certain
amounts of shorter travel time, reduced ticket prices and other factors, real-time information was traded off as
equal to about 12–16% lower fares or 6–8% shorter travel times. The systems were given a slightly higher value
for Metro (upper end of the interval) stations than for bus stops (lower end of the interval).
Wardman et al. (2001) report that passengers value real-time information at interchange terminals as equal
to 1.4 min in-vehicle-time. This measure can be recalculated into monetary willingness-to-pay (about 5 British
Pence per journey). To summarise earlier research (Widlert, 1988; Forsyth and Silcock, 1985; Gleave, 1987)
and the studies presented above, the value of real-time information systems at stops and stations seems to
lie in an interval between 5-20% of the ticket price for the trip.
However, others claim that travellers are not willing to pay for such a service (Dziekan, 2004). The main
argument here is that the traveller expects that the public transport provider should supply this information
free of charge. Nevertheless, an increased willingness-to-pay is a possible effect. It is worth noting that different
evaluation methods trigger different results. This does not necessarily mean that the different studies contradict
each other. It is more likely that respondents have answered questions that are qualitatively different.

2.4. Adjusted travel behaviour

The human being has the potential to be very adaptive to environmental conditions, such as travel environ-
ments (Schlag et al., 2007; Loukopoulos, 2005). Three possible adjusting strategies offered by at-stop real-time
displays are described below. Studies testing these effects in practise are sparse. Possible measurement tech-
niques include behavioural observations (Fassnacht, 1982) as a non-responsive indirect method and asking
travellers questions directly in interviews or questionnaires.
Utilisation of wait time: The knowledge about remaining wait time frees the customer to do other things
during wait time, such as last minute shopping or carrying out other business. Thus, a reduction in the dis-
utility of the wait period is implied (Forsyth and Silcock, 1985). This decrease in disutility had been shown
by Reed (1995) in a conjoint experiment. The time saved could be dedicated to other activities as shown in
a study from Birmingham (Nijkamp et al., 1996), where 20% of people who left the stop after checking the
displays stated that they use the time for shopping or going to the bank.
More efficient travelling: The information provided can be used by travellers to make travel decisions that
lead to shorter travel times and more efficient travelling. For instance, Mascia (2003) describes the hyperpath
as one possible effect: if a passenger is waiting for a bus, and then finds a bus on another line that could take
the passenger close to the desired destination, the passenger would probably take that bus. But if the infor-
mation system informs the passenger that the bus on the original line was expected to arrive 1 min after
the alternate bus, the passenger may decide not to board the bus arriving soonest on the original line, therefore
leading to a change in travel path. From a before–after study in Portland, it is known that the majority of
people make one or more decisions about their trip (e.g. take an alternate bus route or wait in a more sheltered
location) due to the displays. The most common decision was to leave the bus stop and return when the bus is
due (Science Applications International Corporation, 2003).
Nijkamp et al. (1996) report results from the case of the STOPWATCH implementation in Southampton,
that, in case of a long wait time as indicated by the displays, of the people who leave the stop, about 39%
494 K. Dziekan, K. Kottenhoff / Transportation Research Part A 41 (2007) 489–501

walked all the way, 30% walked to other stop and 7% hailed a taxi/lift. At-stop displays allow a new flexibility
in trip making.
Other adjusting strategies: There might be other adjusting strategies such as letting a crowded bus go by if
the display showed another would be arriving shortly (Schweiger, 2003). This strategy would, for instance,
enhance the comfort of a journey. However, unstructured observation on the Stockholm Metro indicate that
few people wait for the next train when a crowded train arrives, even when the real-time displays indicate a
second train arriving in 1–2 min.
Adjusting walking speeds according to the information received by at-stop real-time information displays,
as presented in Study II, in this paper would be another thinkable strategy.

2.5. Mode choice

Mode choice is often observed in revealed preference studies. Mode choice effects are plausible if attractive-
ness of one mode increases. The effects listed above (A–D) concerned mainly existing public transport users.
Now, potential customers are also considered in terms of mode choice effects.
‘‘Evidence on whether such systems increase patronage is mixed’’ (Balcombe et al., 2004, p. 92). The ques-
tion remains of whether at-stop real-time information displays enhance traveller numbers, whether the dis-
plays mainly impact the trip-making of existing users or if the new information system really attracts new
customers. Nijkamp et al. (1996) and Dziekan and Kottenhoff (2005) concluded a massive overestimation
of the impact of real-time information on travel behaviour. Some studies stated an increase in revenue such
as 1.5% in the Infopolis2 project (Infopolis2, 1998) or increased traveller numbers of between 5% and 10%
(Schweiger, 2003; Infopolis2, 1998, case Liverpool; Lehtonen and Kulmala, 2001). Nijkamp et al. (1996) found
that the new users were often young, usually travelling for education or leisure purposes and had high levels of
automobile availability.
Due to often combined measures, it is often difficult to quantify an increased number of public transport
users resulting from a new information system. Within the Infopolis2 project, people in Birmingham were
asked what measure they thought would be useful to help to get people out of their cars and onto buses.
Real-time information on public transportation was considered the best measure - even more important than
improved bus shelters or low-floor vehicles.
According to Dziekan (2004), experts in public transport information provision do not directly attribute
travel mode choice to new technologies. Other factors, such as travel habit or attitudes seem to be more impor-
tant. Sekara and Karlsson (1997) found that only a few of the passengers thought that at-stop real-time infor-
mation displays would change their way of travelling. Nevertheless, attempts should be made to measure the
potential mode choice effects of real-time at-stop displays by looking at traveller numbers or by including
mode choice questions in customer interviews or questionnaires.

2.6. Higher customer satisfaction

Often the users were asked if they liked the new displays. The answers can be seen as an expression of
attitudes towards the at-stop real-time information displays. An attitude is a predisposition that is
expressed by evaluating a product or service with some degree of favor or disfavor. This evaluation pro-
cess may be based on cognitive processes, affective processes, personal behaviour or social influences. Atti-
tudes are thus likely to be influenced more by these aspects than by actual satisfaction. In contrast,
satisfaction is generally understood to be based on direct experiences. Satisfaction is a direct response
while attitudes exist prior to and subsequent to encounters with a product or service (Friman, 2000). Atti-
tude is a higher order construct influencing all factors presented in this framework to some extent. Thus,
the effect of at-stop real-time information displays on customer satisfaction is considered in this paper as
one effect that can be measured, for example, by customer satisfaction scales in questionnaires or inter-
views (e.g. TRB, 1999).
Arnström (1986) reports that 97% liked the test display in the Stockholm Metro showing wait time and just
3% disliked that method of relaying information.
 K. Dziekan, K. Kottenhoff / Transportation Research Part A 41 (2007) 489–501 495

The overall response to real-time information displays at stops and stations has been very positive in all
projects studied (e.g. Infopolis2, 1998; Science Applications International Corporation, 2003; GoTiC,
2002). Often this effect was also measured as acceptance of the new system.
Many operators and public transport authorities use customer satisfaction as a quality control measure-
ment (e.g. in Sweden by SLTF, 2001). At-stop real-time displays can contribute to customer satisfaction,
which are not the main component of this construct.

2.7. Better image

The attractiveness of public transport in general can lead to an overall, better image (Dziekan and Kotten-
hoff, 2005).
Cassidy and White (1995) presented a study on at-stop real-time information on RiverBus, a ferry along the
Thames in London. They concluded that the system added to the wider impression that the RiverBus is a reli-
able form of travel. Another example is taken from the Infopolis2 project: The Countdown system in London
led to a general improvement in feelings towards bus travel, the particular operator and London Transport.
The mere existence of a real-time information system improved the overall feelings of travelers towards the
public transportation operator/authority (Infopolis2, 1998).
Like customer satisfaction, ‘‘image’’ is a complex construct that is influenced by many other factors. Thus,
the effects of at-stop displays might be only one piece of the puzzle that is public transport ‘‘image.’’

3. Applying the effect framework

With the structure of the seven main effects, an analysis of several examples of evaluation studies was done
(Table 1).
Not all studies take all factors into consideration. Other interests beyond a scientific evaluation study often
direct the aims of the evaluation. Examining all possible effects would provide a nearly complete picture but is
also considerably more demanding. Thus, when a budget allows for studying only selected effects, one should
focus on the effects that are connected with the expectations of the specific system that should be evaluated.
The proposed structure provides a framework for evaluation studies.
A perfect evaluation situation is created when it is possible to measure a variable before and after the imple-
mentation of a system. Such a situation was used in Study I which exemplarily proves the reduced wait time
effect. Another evaluation situation is given when a real-time traveller information system can be switched off
to measure, for example, the effect of adjusted travel behaviour as was done in Study II presented below.

4. Study I: perceived wait time reduction

The case of newly-implemented traveller information on tramline 15 in The Hague, The Netherlands was
used for a before–after evaluation study containing questionnaires given to travellers (Dziekan and Vermeu-
len, 2006). One month before, three months after and sixteen months after implementation, the same sample
of travelers filled out a questionnaire. The main result was that the perceived wait time decreased significantly
by 20% after the installation of the displays (see Fig. 4).
The only new element on the tramline was the real-time information system. No changes in the frequency of
the service were made. The result of reduced perceived wait time was lasting. After more then 1 year, the pas-
sengers still stated a remarkable reduction in perceived wait time.
How can this be put in terms of money? For the case in The Hague it was reported that the required invest-
ments to install real-time information by electronic displays at eight tram stops along one tramline, amounted
to Euro 200.000 (Vermeulen and Dziekan, 2005). One of the effects of the real-time information was a reduc-
tion of the average experienced wait time from 6.2 to 4.8 min. Another possible way to achieve the same wait
time would have been to increase the frequency of the trams. Because passengers overestimate the waiting time
at a tram stop, the real average wait time should have been 4.0 min, which means an average interval between
two trams of 8.0 min instead of the currently 10 min. To have made this possible, the total operating costs
would have increased by Euro 1.1 million per year.
 496
K. Dziekan, K. Kottenhoff / Transportation Research Part A 41 (2007) 489–501
Table 1
Examples of evaluation studies and their results using the structure of the seven effects
A B C D E F G
Reduced Positive Increased Adjusted travel Mode choice Higher Better image
perceived psychological willingness-to behaviour customer
wait time effects pay satisfaction
Stockholm SE Widlert et al. (1989) Yes
Stockholm SE Dziekan and Sedin (2005) Yes Not found
Gothenburg SE GoTiC (2002) and Sekara and Yes Yes Not found Yes Yes
Karlsson (1997)
Helsinki FI Lehtonen and Kulmala (2001) Yes Yes
Dresden D Intermobil (2002) Yes
London UK Forsyth and Silcock (1985) Yes Not found
London UK Infopolis2 (1998) and Schweiger Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
(2003); Smith et al. (1994)
Southampton Nijkamp et al. (1996) Yes Yes Yes Yes
UK
The Hague NL Dziekan and Vermeulen (2006) Yes Not found
Portland US Science Applications International Not found Yes Yes Yes
Corporation (2003)
Various Schweiger (2003) Yes Not found Yes Yes
 K. Dziekan, K. Kottenhoff / Transportation Research Part A 41 (2007) 489–501 497

7.00
6.2
6.00

Minutes 5.0 Calculated

5.00 4.8 average
wait time

4.00

3.00
Before installation 4 month after 16 month after
installation installation

Fig. 4. Average perceived wait time of travellers on line 15 in The Hague.

The conclusion is that it is five times cheaper to improve the quality of public transport by reducing the
average perceived wait time using at-stop real-time information, than by increasing the frequency of the tram
service.

5. Study II: adjusted walking speed due to displays on subway station

In a behaviour observation study on subway stations, it was found that people react outside of subway sta-
tions in Stockholm to installed real-time displays (see Fig. 5) Dziekan et al., 2006. The displays show the final
destination of the next subway train and the number of minutes remaining until departure. The dynamic text
in the second row indicates the two or three trains following the next one and the estimated number minutes
until their departure. Two independent observers, sitting in the station entrance hall, counted, during three
different periods of the day, the numbers of passengers running and walking into the subway. For comparison,
the displays in the selected subway station were turned off for one day.
The first hypothesis was that more people run if the displays are turned on than when they are switched off.
The second hypothesis was that the amount of time until next train departure would have an influence on the

Fig. 5. Example of real-time display installed in the investigated subway station in Stockholm.

9.5 Displays ON
Mean # of people running (%)

10
9 Displays OFF
8 Sign. (1%)
7 6.4
6 Sign. (1%)
5
3.5
4 Sign. (1%)
3 2.0
2 0.7 1.0
1
0
Morning peak Day Afternoon peak
Sample

Fig. 6. Mean number of people running in the sample for ON and OFF-display situations.
498 K. Dziekan, K. Kottenhoff / Transportation Research Part A 41 (2007) 489–501

Mean # of people running (%)

16 14.5
Displays ON
14
Displays OFF
12
Sign. (1%)
10
8 6.5
Sign. (1%) 5.5
6
Sign. (5%)
4 2.6
1.1 1.6
2 0.8 0.4
0
0 min 1 min 2 min 3 min
Minutes left until next train

Fig. 7. Mean number of people running categorised by ‘‘Minutes left until next train’’ for ON and OFF-display situations.

percentage of people running. It was assumed that more people would run if there are only a small number of
minutes left until the next departure.
The results (Fig. 6) showed that people react to at-stop real-time information displays, as significantly more
people ran in the station with these displays switched on than in similar periods in the same station with dis-
plays switched off. Furthermore, when a low number of minutes until the arrival of the next train was dis-
played, a larger number of people sped up (Fig. 7).

6. Discussion

It is well known that people like at-stop real-time information and have very positive attitudes towards it.
Many effects can be studied when evaluating the implementation of such information systems. Of course there
are cross-relations between the effects presented here, as indicated in Fig. 3. But the aim was to present a
framework that can be applied for further evaluation studies when implementing a new real-time system or
when estimating the effects in advance. Further, the framework provides the possibility for matching the
case-specific objectives with the achieved results.
In further evaluations, it will be desirable to focus more on the effects that are not yet so well elaborated
upon or proven. For example, the adjusting strategies can be an issue for further research. Do people really
change their behaviour due to the information shown on the displays allowing for more efficient travelling?
Effects of real-time at-stop information displays are often difficult to separate and quantify because the par-
ticular measurements are often combined with others, such as marketing initiatives and the introduction of
new routes.
In behavioural (econometric) modelling of transport, there is often a strict relationship between respon-
dents’ valuation of different factors and how much these factors influence mode choice. We know relatively
well that people do value real-time information – they have shown a certain willingness-to-pay – this implies
that there must be a mode choice effect. This effect may be small and difficult to detect, but it should be pos-
sible to calculate. Assuming a willingness-to-pay of 10%, for example, and a mode choice fare elasticity of 0.2,
the resulting mode choice should be 2%. On the other hand, factors like real-time information may not be
communicated as well to potential customers, as public transport fares change. Enhanced marketing could
possibly lead to even better effects.
As already discussed, it is imperative that the technical systems work properly. This is a precondition for
achieving some of the above mentioned effects. Otherwise, the information would at best, leave uncertainty
untouched and at worst, confuse the customer even more by adding one further uncertain fact. A reliable
information provision is the basis for trust in the system and thus for reduced uncertainty.
People adjust their estimations and evaluations of the information. For example, they learn quite fast that
1 min can sometimes seem to take much more than 60 s or that 20 min can seem to last only fifteen. This could
lead to a minimisation or worse, to a reverse of some of the effects mentioned in this paper.
Which error margins are people willing to accept without adjusting their behaviour? This grade of accuracy
of information is an open question for further research.
 K. Dziekan, K. Kottenhoff / Transportation Research Part A 41 (2007) 489–501 499

Evaluation study results are seldom related to specific user groups. Two exceptions exist. Wardman et al.
(2001) found that real time information at transfer points was very important, especially for occasional users.
Nijkamp et al. (1996) segmented in the sample in the STOPWATCH project in Southampton after frequent
and infrequent bus users, after age categories and after employment status since the at-stop displays made
some different impacts. Taking specific (non-) user groups into account provides the possibility of better target
group marketing.
Neither the type of system nor the mode is taken into consideration within this framework. But the effect
sizes may be mode and service frequency dependent. Reed (1995) showed in his conjoint experiment that the
disutility of wait time is a non-linear function. Thus longer waits are disproportionately more burdensome
than are shorter waits. Lehtonen and Kulmala (2001) suggested that the overall effects are stronger for bus
routes and for routes with lower frequency. For these kinds of smaller, lower frequency stops, it might be
a challenge to develop low-cost, simple display solutions. It seems that the sizes of effects vary for different
public transport modes. The displays may have a larger value at bus stops and are more a matter of course
at stops of rail-bound traffic.
When evaluating the implementation of such systems, it is always a question whether the benefits exceed the
costs. Therefore, a topic for further research can be how to put the costs and effects into socio-economic cost-
benefit analysis models, for example as used by the Swedish Rail Administration (Banverket, 2005).
In this paper effects were excluded that evolve from the potential of the at-stop displays to provide infor-
mation in service disruption cases or other interesting information to customers. This application would be
another interesting issue for further research.
Customers need time to adjust to new services. When evaluating the effects of existing or new IT-based PT
information systems, time-lags have to be taken into consideration. The full extent of the many possible effects
needs time to surface, as adaptation of human behaviour occurs successively, often exhibiting time lags prior
to complete manifestation. Beckmann (2003) advised that a final evaluation statement should not be made
until 3–5 years after implementation.
Finally, one last issue should be noted. Customers are very adaptive yet demanding when it comes to ser-
vice. In other branches it is almost a matter of course that the customer is provided with the best and most
modern information about a product. It might be that the effects described in this paper only exist in the very
beginning of the installation of at-stop real-time displays. After a while, people may grow accustomed to it. As
such, it becomes more difficult to continually meet their needs and expectations. This foot race against other
transport modes or services is a losing battle for the public transport industry. However, it is better fought
than not.
In a PT context, it is desirable to focus more on the customer and their needs than on the technical chal-
lenges. Effects on the customers can act as sensitivity indicators of the success of a new information system.
Development should always begin and end with the customer firmly in focus.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the Swedish Rail Administration (Banverket) and the Swedish Road
Administration (Vägverket) for the financial support for the research project ‘‘Behavioural Response to IT-
Based Traveller Information in Public Transport’’. Thanks also to Johanna S. Weinstock for language
corrections.

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