METHODS OF BRAIN IMAGING 33 3 Methods of Brain Imaging of these post-synaptic electric c of brain imaging (elect requires a brain imaging based on najor category of methods. ) active at the -conds) in a space case, EEG and MEG are without hypotheses about the modé ly by psychologists, and if the ex” 3.1.1 EEG 3.1.2 MEG there are ts, provided with i must be placed on the head of the subject under rigorous controls, fact, the placement of these electrodes must correspond to the same cerebral regions in all subjects, no matter what the size of their heads. interference device) to ensure their coo! certain number of captors—100 to 300—fixed the experimenter who fixes the number, as its captors are thus a few centimetres from of regions explored is greater, but also the iments on the signals recorded ‘The signal thus recorded is presented in the form of a succession of. waves, the spontaneous or “rough” EEG, which differ in sequence (in. hertz) and amplitude (in mi , beta, theta, that can the subject the perception of stimulus and the cognitive enerate potentials of very low amplitude (a few reprod event? (by the sti the task). Because of the reproducible with clenched teeth) electrode is placed swveats), OF very si linking eyes), cardiac rhythm (the ectrodermal activity (the skin current from an electrode. These must thus be eliminated le, either at the source (for example, one asks the subject to, ink) or after the factthere are software programs that make it possible to “correct” to some extent the EEG signal distorted by ocular ugh” se36 COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE for each type of si situation in which one to whi necessary to bring, respectively, responses RI and R2. Thus there is a series of “pairs” SIRI, S , SIRI, S2R2, S2R2, SIRI, S2R2, etc, The data processing program groups and adds, for each of the electrodes, all the “portions” of the EEA the ot the S2R2 pairs, this s fixed by the experimenter (y ms before $ and. interval a sufficient number of assays {at east 50 to 60 identical assays"), the rough EEG signal summed over the ‘entire set of identical assays will be annulled—it thus corresponds to a f the other, will be ). On each electrode, therefore, \d positive) marking the stages the deliverance of stimulus the response. AMETITODS OF HRAIN IMAGING 9p ess (there is a certain 1¢ can influence the other).METHODS OF RRAIN IMAGING. 39° | oink my cotton wth mk an to psychology and cognitive neuroscie! ‘components have been identified and studied over tin of technologies aging. The list of waves of EP tha © Fig, 9.2 (Contd)40. COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE p only when the subject can estima perative stimulus will occur, The mismatch negativity (MMN) ‘The team of de Naatanen (see Naatanen, 1992 for review) is responsible for the implementation and deeper study of an increase in negativity of EP in relation with the attenti hject must pay to auditory stimuli (the presence of this wave in visual modality is still not clearly demonstrated). The MMN (also called N2a) appears in the fronto central region, 100 to 200 ms after a rare stimulus in a series of stimul of frequency, intensity, Independent of the subject’s consciousness, it marks the a ntation of attention towards the deviant stimulus, towards a change detected in the environment. P300 (or P3) » 1965), P8300 is ives for a short time before the subject must tum his or correspond to the processes of evaluation stimulus. nd categorization of the # In an oddball protocol, the subject hears a succession of two sounds (onc of METHODS OF NRAIN IMAGING 42 d processes of evaluation and the context of the task. According It is @ negativity that survives around 400 n of a “discordant” word with respect to th was inserted (e.g., I di if a subject is shown a ph face with the resi 9). If there years when is not yet known, P3b as revealed by Kutas and Hillyard (1980) in the d the eyes masked (bait-stimulus that pectation in the subject) and, just afterward (around region, while this is person presented, ise of tegorization of to the authors, ormatio to act, and ms afier context of the expressed in jotograph of a fes of another is a debate42 COGNITIVE NAUROSCIENC! MIETHODS OF RRAIN IMAGING. 43 3.2.4 PET Maps of cerebral activities «: that an activity ree« soliware is available for rect es of the EP and ME observed, localization of sou EP) or at some centimetres n of this problem is not unambiguous. is important to emphasize that the EEG and MEG are ry methods and that, because of this, their combination improves the location of sources of signals received. In effect, because of the orthogonality of electrical currents and magnetic fields for a single dipole, the EEG deep sources than MEG detectors: for these e cerebral capillaries, in (the remaining part distributed us ofthe oxygen (O") possesses of radioactive oxygen (O!4) has 1€ of its protons is When a positron ately with an electron present in the ‘particle-antiparticle” pai is fice versa. ‘The comparison, for the same events thus suggests es: on the surface or in depths: on a Once temporal reso is of the order of \s hit two detectors, factors, one can precisely date the cognitive pros With the EP and ME, we have d ‘mental operations since the wave: a sort of mark of processes that occur between the appearance of the stimulus and the subject's response (that is, reaction behavioural index, ove1 3.2 INDIRECT METHODS: PET AND fMRI© Fig. 3.9 PET (left) and MRI (right). Above, the apparatus in which the subject the detector of coincidence of gamma photons of46 COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE spatial resolution of this technique (4 to 8 mm) in comparison to EEG— thus the only method of functional imagery. It made it possible in fact to nap the cerebral flow, and thus indirectly cerebral activity, in the entire brain, Nevertheless, the disadvantages of this method are numerous and effect an thod, requ ctions, and its temporal resolution is very weak (of the order of a minute), which does not allow the study of the dynamics of cerebral activations. Moreover, the need to apply the subtractive 3.2.2 fMRI EMRI arose from anatomic magne ince imaging (aMRD, conceived field—this is magnetization. Tfone sends t lasting a very short time, the spins thus excited align themselves according to a direction other than that of the gené resonance. When this impulse is st ‘enter into resonance’48 COGNITIVE NiUROSCIENEH Processes, the equipment is very ¢: some research centres have that the more Hi 4, igh-level Percepti ion: Vision