Essay Transfer of Learning

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Essay Transfer of Learning: Types and Theories of Transfer of

Learning!
Meaning:
The word transfer is used to describe the effects of past learning upon present
acquisition. In the laboratory and in the outside world, how well and how rapidly
we learn anything depends to a large extent upon the kinds and amount of things
we have learned previously.
In simple way transfer may be defined as “the partial or total application or

carryover of knowledge, skills, habits, attitudes from one situation to another
situation”.
Hence, carryover of skills of one learning to other learning is transfer of training

or learning. Such transfer occurs when learning of one set of material influences
the learning of another set of material later. For example, a person who knows to
drive a moped can easily learn to drive a scooter.
Types of Transfer of Learning:

There are three types of transfer of learning:
1. Positive transfer:
When learning in one situation facilitates learning in another situation, it is
known as positive transfer. For example, skills in playing violin facilitate learning
to play piano. Knowledge of mathematics facilitates to learn physics in a better
way. Driving a scooter facilitates driving a motorbike.
2. Negative transfer:
When learning of one task makes the learning of another task harder- it is known
as negative transfer. For example, speaking Telugu hindering the learning of
Malayalam.
Left hand drive vehicles hindering the learning of right hand drive.
3. Neutral transfer:
When learning of one activity neither facilitates nor hinders the learning of
another task, it is a case of neutral transfer. It is also called as zero transfer.
For example, knowledge of history in no way affects learning of driving a car or a

scooter.
Theories of Transfer of Learning:

There are two important theories which explain transfer of learning. These are
known as modern theories.
1. Theory of identical elements:

This theory has been developed by E.L.Thorndike. According to him most of
transfer occurs from one situation to another in which there are most similar or
identical elements.
This theory explains that carrying over from one situation to another is roughly
proportional to the degree of resemblance in situation, in other words- more the
similarity, more the transfer.
The degree of transfer increases as the similarity of elements increase. For

example, learning to ride moped is easy after learning to ride a bicycle. Here,
transfer is very fast because of identical elements in both vehicles.
Thorndike was convinced that the method used in guiding a pupil’s learning
activities had a great effect upon the degree of transferability of his learning.
2. Theory of generalization of experience:

This theory was developed by Charles Judd. Theory of generalization assumes that
what is learnt in task ‘A’ transfers to task ‘B’, because in studying ‘A’, the learner
develops a general principle which applies in part or completely in both ‘A’ and
‘B’.
Experiences, habits, knowledge gained in one situation help us to the extent to

which they can be generalized and applied to another situation.
Generalization consists of perceiving and understanding what is common to a

number of situations. The ability of individuals to generalize knowledge varies
with the degree of their intelligence.
6 Important Theories of Transfer of Learning

This article throws light upon the six important theories of transfer of
learning. The theories are: 1. Mental Discipline 2. Identical Elements
3. Generalization 4. Transposition 5. Ideals 6. Learning to Learn.
Transfer of Learning: Theory # 1.
Mental Discipline:
This theory came to existence in 20th century. It is philosophical in nature. Mind is
the central position which is composed of several facilities. These faculties are to
be trained through muscular and physical training. This facility psychology
developed during 1734.
The diagram below explicates the theory of mental discipline:

From the above diagram it is known that bright students learn better than that of
slow learners because memorization is more faster in length students where as
slow in slow learner.

Identical Elements:
E.L. Thorndike has developed this theory. It goes from on learning situation to
other situation. Two identical factors or activities or common factor transfer to
total situation where maximum transfer of learning or total learning can be taken
place. It goes from matter to mind.
Identities of substances:
Identities of procedure → Total result
Matter → Mind
Exp — Piano → Typing/Computer
Sanskrit → Hindi
Latin → English
Car Driving Bus Driving

Generalization:
This theory is developed by C. Judd. In this theory transfer of learning takes place
primarily through generalization and degree of transfer depends upon the extent
to which experiences in the first situation are understood and consolidated into
generalization.
Better transfer can be possible when one can understand the principle. It is just an
extension of the theory of identical elements. General principle Specific solution
Laws of refraction More significant One situation —> transfer other superior
situation. It is a fact that when practice of anything is made without training, then
result comes within automatically.
Transposition:
It is advocated by Gestalt psychology. Transfer starts in understanding the fact
and perception of similarity by the learner. It is known as pattern of relationship.
It is not the specific skills or facts or even underlying principles which are
important, but the understanding of relationship between facts, process and the
principles are the real basis of transfer.
Ideals:
It was propounded by W.C. Bagley. When ideas are stressed are perused then
transfer of learning can be taken place. Ideas like honesty, truthfulness, love etc.
can be transferred in this theory.
Learning to Learn:
After practicing a series of related or similar tasks then learner learns the capacity
to learn the same thing. It is found that whenever learner comes in contact with
various learning materials then he learns efficiently and effectively. Learning to
learn means when learning starts from one method then it goes to another
method.
Transfer of Training: Types and Theories |

Child Psychology
In this article we will discuss about:- 1. Meaning and Definitions of Transfer of
Training 2. Types of Transfer 3. Theories 4. Experiments 5. Educational
Implications.
Meaning and Definitions of Transfer of Training:

It is common belief that training in one subject is transferred to another subject. If
we study mathematics, the logical reasoning developed in solving complex
mathematical problems is so developed that it is utilised in other situation.
It is again generally said that study of science develops scientific spirit, the
teaching of grammar develops discipline of mind, music develops aesthetic sense
and cricket develops sportsmanship in every walk of life.
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All these common beliefs are subject of scientific discussion. In case these beliefs
are correct, many of our educational practices are sound. Then we say that
transfer of training takes place from one subject to another.
Thus if the training in one act is transferred to another, we say transfer has taken
place.
Definitions:
1. Crow and Crow:
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“The carry-over of habits of thinking, feeling, or working of knowledge

or of skills, from one learning area to another usually is referred to as
the transfer of training.”
2. Skinner:
“Transfer of training is concerned with the question of whether or not the learning
of material A-say Mathematics – aids, hinders or does not affect the subsequent
learning of material B – say Physics or Chemistry.
3. Sorrenson:
“A person learns through transfer to the extent that the abilities acquired in one
situation help in another.”
4. W.B. Kolesnik:
“Transfer is the application of carry over the knowledge’s, skills, habits, attitudes
or other responses from the situation in which they are initially acquired to some
other situation.”
5. Peterson:
“Transfer is generalization for it is extension of ideas to a new field.”
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6. Hilgard Atkinson Atkinson:

(Introduction to Psychology)” The influence that learning one task, may have on
the subsequent learning of another is called transfer of learning.”
7. Guthrie & Others:

“Transfer may be defined as a process of extending and applying behaviour.”
8. Encyclopaedia of Educational Research:

“The term’ learning’ would be applied to the special kind of transfer phenomena in
which there is great similarity between training conditions and test conditions.”
Types of Transfer:
On the basis of magnitude or quality, it is of three types-positive, zero and
negative.
Positive Transfer:
In this case, the past learning of one subject or activity facilitates the learning of
another subject or activity. A sportsman playing football plays volley-ball as
nicely. A bus-driver can drive a truck also equally efficiently.
Zero Transfer:
In this case, the learning of one subject does help the learning of another. There
may be zero transfer between language and mathematics.
Negative Transfer:
Herein learning of one task makes the learning of a second task harder. Learning
shorthand by Danton method may cause interference in subsequent learning by
Pitman method. The negative transfer is also called habit interferences.
One form of positive transfer is bilateral transfer or cross-transfer. Practice in

using right hand while handling a machine in the factory may help handling by
the left hand.
Theories of Transfer:
There are a number of theories regarding transfer of training.
The major theories are explained briefly below:

1. Mental Faculty Theory:
This theory is the out-come of Faculty School of Psychology, which believed that
mind is composed of a number of independent faculties like memory, attention,
will, imagination, reasoning and temperament. According to this theory, a
particular faculty works in every situation. If a person possesses strong memory,
he can use it in any situation. He will be able to remember anything.
Theory has been abandoned now. It has been found experimentally that there is
no faculty (amongst many) that is used in different situations. Take memory, for
instance. Memory is of different types visual memory, auditory memory,
immediate memory, rote memory, etc. Training in visual memory does not affect
auditory memory and vice-versa. Hence this theory is not tenable now.
2. Theory of Formal Discipline:

According of this theory some school subjects or instructional items have a
disciplinary value, apart from the knowledge value. Subjects like classics,
geometry, logic and grammar train the mind and strengthen the faculties of
observations and scientific thinking.
The advocates of formal discipline undermined the study of practical or utilitarian

subjects, because the subjects having disciplinary value could train to learn to
meet all situations in life. Geometry, for instance, was enough to strengthen the
reasoning faculty.
Appraisal of the Theory:

A number of experiments were made to find out the significance and truth of the
theory.
(i) William James was the first person to attack on this problem. He determined
to find out whether practising memorisation of poetry really helped general
memory. He discovered that it did not help at all.
(ii) Thorndike also made experiment on reasoning ability. But he found that one
subject was as good as another in developing reasoning ability. Greek and Latin
made no better logicians than Science or Physical Education.
These and such other evidences disproved the theory of formal discipline.
3. Theory of Identical Component:

According to this theory transfer takes place from one situation to another to the
extent that there are common or identical elements (or components) in the two
situations. Reasoning ability is common to Geometry and Physics. Hence transfer
can take place here.
Modern psychologists also believe that mental functions like perception,

attention, memory and reasoning are not separate entities but interrelated aspects
of the total functioning of the mind.
Hence learned response in one situation may benefit the learner in another
situation, if there are common elements in it. This theory was propounded by
Thorndike. He says, “By identical elements are meant mental process
which have the same cell action in the brain as their physical
correlate”. Latter Woodworth substituted the word element by component.
Examples:
(i) A boy who is a good hockey-player can be a good football- player also, because
in playing hockey he has learnt the skill of keeping eye on the ball, judging the
flight of the ball, catching the ball, hitting the ball, hitting the ball towards the
companion or the goal etc. All these skills will help him in both the games. These
skills are common elements in the two games.
(ii) A girl who has practised hemming a towel by hand can hem a short or a
curtain in the same nice manner, because hemming skill is common to both.
(iii) A student who acquires good expression and style in writing in one language
can be as good a writer in another language he learns.
Educational Implication:
This theory has got significant implications. There are a number of a courses in
our scheme of studies which have identical elements. It would be profitable to
form a group of all those subjects which possess identical or common
components. This grouping of subjects was unknown during the last century. But
the present higher secondary curriculum is based on the same principle.
The elective groups constitute of the subjects which have common elements.
These common elements are related to some special skill or ability. If a student
possesses that special ability he will profit by taking up that educational course in
which all the subjects are related to ability.
Secondly, now-a-days, we like to drop all those topics and skills, from the school
curriculum which are unique and isolated. A subject or topic which has nothing
common with other subjects, may be dropped. A number of a topics in arithmetic
like stocks and shares’, ‘trains’, ‘pipes and cisterns’ are being dropped on this
account.
Again, subjects which are of practical nature, which develop a number of abilities,
like scientific curiosity, initiative, originality, resourcefulness, application of
knowledge, judgment and reasoning, are being emphasised more. The curriculum
is being divested of much of the theoretical topics. Practical work, activity,
projects, assignments, field-work and application are being emphasised more.
4. Theory of Generalisation:
Charles Judd has gone a step further in propounding this theory. He accepts the
common element theory but gives further explanation that transfer takes place
because the pupil learns to acquire some broad principles or generalisations
which he applies in a number of situations with common elements. The attitudes,
skill and abilities are transferred only when these are systematised and related to
many situations wherein these can be utilised.
Suppose two situations a common element viz., punctuality. According to the

common element theory, a boy who is punctual at dinner party should be
punctual for school also. But no, this may not always be true. The child will not be
punctual in both situations, unless ‘punctuality’ has become a part of the child’s
attitude pattern as a result of schooling and training.
Again, a child may be tidy in the school for fears of punishment, but he may be
untidy at home. Transfer can take place from school situation to home (or vice-
versa) if the child full grasps the principle of tidiness, and gains a complete view of
the principle.
Symbolically we may say what is learned in situation X gets transferred in

situation Y when a general principle applicable to both is acquired. Judd
explained this principle through an experiment on two groups of boys regarding
throwing darts at a target placed 12 inches under water.
He explained the principle of refraction to one group could not apply the principle
as the target was very deep. But next time, the target was kept only four inches
deep. This time that group only. But that did not help that group, because the
pupils in that group fared better. Hendrickson and Schoroder made further
experiments of this type and confirmed the theory.
This theory is in consonance with the Gestalt theory of Psychology. The Gestaltists
believe that learning of a meaningful configuration presumes a kind of
organisation that modifies the organism. The organisation leads to the necessity
of generalisations.
Educational Implications:
It has been accepted now that there are certain broad principles which govern the
learning of some groups of subjects. In the absence of generalised principles,
isolated or fragmented pieces of information are soon forgotten. We may forget
the entire Physics long after the schooling is completed, but some generalised
principles that the study of Physics gave to us, can be applied to a number of other
situations in life.
Even in the teaching of a particular subject, transfer from one situation can take
place to another, if the generalised principles to both are comprehended. In
spelling, for example, grouping of words with similar spellings may lead to
improvement in spelling, as it may help the pupil to see a generalised principle
which he can apply.
Virtually speaking, the Theory of Generalisation is only an extension of the Theory

of Identical Components. The latter talks of common elements, and these are
substituted by the word ‘common rules’ in the former. Many psychologists take
these two theories as identical.
5. Transposition Theory:
This theory has been put forth by Gestalt psychologists. Gestalt Psychology
emphasises the total pattern of behaviour. So transfer is dependent upon the
whole-part relations between the old and the new situations. It is not the principle
or generalisation that is at the basis of transfer, but the understanding of the
relationship between facts, processes and principles. Hence the need for
‘transposition’.
Thus a song learned in a certain key may be recognised even in a different key.
The component of the song may be different, but that does not hamper the
transfer. It is because of the understanding of the total situation.
6. Theory of Ideals:
W.C. Bagley, goes a step further from the Theory of Generalisation, and he
emphasises ‘ideals’ or generalised attitudes at the basis of all transfer. Ideals are
rather deeper than generalisations, generalised attitudes.
There is no denying the fact that ideals, once adopted, and adopted seriously, are
applicable to all situations. The truth-seeking ideal, the spirit of enquiry, the love
for wisdom and thirst for discovery are transferable from one subject to another,
whether it is science or philosophy or history.
The teacher will do well to emphasise some practicable ideals, which can be
applied to majority of situations. If these ideals are kept in view, teaching methods
will secure greater transfer.
Two more theories viz. Edward Tolman’s Theory and Lewin’s Field Theory are not
so significant, hence not discussed here.
Conclusion:
Six theories have been explained above. The Theory of Formal Discipline has been
discarded now, as it does not accord with the facts discovered after numerous
experiments. There is nothing like a mental discipline which may be gained from
one subject, and transferred to another.
Memorisation of paradigms of grammar, or of stanzas of poetry or of non-sense
syllabus will no longer strengthen the memory of a person. That will be applied in
an entirely different situation, say remembering the prices of commodities in a
business-shop. Like Browning’s Grammarian, who died of cancer, most of the
grammarians are prone to get no benefit from the knowledge of grammar in
solving actual problem of life, such as maintaining health, succeeding in a

vocation etc.
The other four theories have much in common, and these prove that transfer of
learning does occur. These theories are only different explanations of the same
truth, in varied linguistic expressions. Identical components, general principles,
ideals and total patterns are in fact the same thing.
Having thus proved that transfer of learning does occur, we would like to
understand how it occurs. In this respect a brief discussion of some experiments
made will not be out of context.
Experiments of Transfer:
In conducting experiments on transfer of learning varied types of materials have
been utilised by psychologists.
The different types are:

(a) Sensori-motor,
(b) Perceptual,
(c) Memory,
(d) Reasoning
(e) Ideals,
(f) Problem-solving, and
(g) School subjects.
1. Experiments of Sensori-Motor:
(i) Starch experimented with the mirror drawing of a star. The subject was asked
to draw the figure of a star with his left hand after looking at the figure in mirror.
The paper for writing was concealed from the sight. The time taken in doing was
noted. Then he was asked to draw the figure with the right hand. Practice given
for 10 days. It was found that now the person could do it in less time than before,
proving transfer of skill from hand to hand.
(ii) Web tried to determine whether learning to thread a pathway through a maze
with a stylus aided, helped learning several other mazes. He used both animal and
human subjects. He discovered that one maze helped the learning of other mazes.
The degree of transfer was positive, but it varied from one individual subject to
another from 19 to 77% so there is positive transfer from one sensori-motor to
another.
2. Experiments on Perceptual Materials:
Thorndike and Woodworth have worked in this field. Some minor experiments on
perceptual material have been made. The subject was given a line of fixed length,
and told the measurement. He was then asked to estimate the length of a number
of lines of varied length shorter or longer than the first.
A square of one dimensions is presented. It is compared with a number of other

squares as regards their areas. Two circles of which one has double radius, are
compared as regards their area. The subjects are thus tested whether they can
apply the knowledge or judgement of length, dimensions, area, volume, weight
and colour from one situation to another.
3. Experiments on Memory:
(i) William James memorised 158 lines from Victor Hugo’s Satyr’ and kept
account of the time took him – viz., 132 minutes. He then spent 38 days (about 20
minutes per day) in learning the first book of Milton’s Paradise Lost’. Then he
selected again 158 lines from the ‘Satyr’ and remembered them, and to his
surprise it took him 151 minutes, i.e., more than what was needed on the first
occasion. This lead to the refutation of the Theory of Formal Discipline.
(ii) W.H. Winch conducted a controlled experiment by having two equated groups
with the same memory ability, one experimental group and other control group.
The experimental group memorised poetry for 2 weeks. On retesting both the
groups it was found that the experimental group fared better.
(iii) W.G. Sleight tested the effect of memorising poetry, tables and prose upon the
ability of memorise data, nonsense syllables, poetry, prose and letters. He
discovered little or no transfer.
His conclusions were:

(a) There appears to be no general memory improvement as a result of practice.
(b) There would seem instead to be a very large number of related and unrelated
memory functions of a more or less complex kind.
Many other experiments educated also signify that practice does not improve
memory. The transfer memory depend upon the specific activity exercise and its
relation to memory activity to which it is transferred.
4. Experiments on Reasoning:
(i) Winch used school children to determine the value of training arithmetical
reasoning problems in solving other logical problems. He trained the
experimental group in arithmetical problems, and found after retesting that it
fared 30% better than the control group which was not trained in arithmetic
problem solving.
(ii) Barlow, on the basis of his experiment claims that training in analysis,
abstraction and generalisation helps in interpreting fables and language material.
5. Experimentals on Ideals:
(i) Bagley, emphasised neatness and accuracy in arithmetic papers to a third
grade. Although the pupils slowed improvement in neatness and accuracy in
arithmetic papers, there was deterioration in these aspects in language papers.
Neatness did not get transferred from arithmetic to language. But Bagley went a
step further. In another investigation, he emphasised neatness in all the papers, as
an ideal to be followed when he retested the pupils for neatness, he found
considerable improvement. Thus he concluded that ideas can transfer.
6. Experiments on Problem Solving:

(i) Gray conducted experiment in code substitution on two educated groups. He
gave initial test and then gave training in a new code to experimental groups by a
method in which emphasis was placed upon its logical relationship. Upon
retesting, the experimental group evinced an advantage of 20 percent in its
performance over the other group.
(ii) Judd and Scholcknow conducted experiments on hitting of target 12″ under
water. To the experimental group they gave training in the principles of refraction
in water. This training did not give any advantage to them because the target was
too deep. But on a second time the water level was lowered, and the target was
only 4″ under water. This time the experimental group fared better as they used
theoretical knowledge.
7. Experiments on School Subjects:

(i) Brigs’ conducted experiment on two groups through relation group technique
in the effect of grammar on the one hand, and composition on the other. Two
groups were equated in intelligence. By rotation, one group was trained in
grammar and tested in grammar, and then trained in language and composition
and then retested.
The second group was trained in language and composition, then tested in that,
and then trained in grammar at the end of three months. The two groups were
compared, It was found that grammar groups improved is only one of the abilities
measured, viz., the ability to see likeness and difference.
(ii) Winch took up two equated groups in reasoning ability. One group practised
arithmetic computation 30 minutes a day for 10 days. The other group practised
drawing. After 10 days both groups were tested for arithmetical reasoning ability,
and were found equal. So no transfer took place.
(iii) Thorndike experimented upon 8000 students, gave them preliminary

intelligence test, studied them during one year’s instructional period in a high,
and again tested their intellectual capacity, to find out whether one year’s
instructions had any transfer effect up intellectual activity.
The pupils showed a gain of 23 points on the second test. But the maximum gain
was by the 1% pupils of the highest intelligence (20 ½ points). Pupils of low
intelligence gained very little (1½ points). Thorondike concluded that intelligence
rather than study of subjects contributed to the improvement in reasoning ability
and intellectual activity.
(iv) Wesman found correlation between intelligence test scores and achievement
test scores at the beginning and end of a school year, and concluded the presence
of transfer.
(v) Rugg found that a course in descriptive geometry transferred 32% to other
geometrical material.
(vi) Thorndike made another experiment on transfer from Latin to English. He

found that high school freshmen who studied Latin for a year gained in a
knowledge of English words of Latin origin about 2½ times as much as these who
did not study Latin. He further found that transfer value of knowledge of Latin
was 10%. But the transfer in reality was in relation to those English words which
were of Latin origin. The transfer was negative in relation to spelling words of
non-Latin origin.
Summary of the conclusions through Experimentations:

(i) Positive transfer does take place in majority of the cases, although absence of
transfer and negative transfer also have found in certain cases. This positive
transfer goes even upto 92%, and the variations are usually due to conditions
under which it takes place.
(ii) Some subjects do have transfer value. The teacher should find out the value of
each subject in helping the student meet situations in life.
(iii) In order to increase the degree of positive transfer, learning conditions in the
class-room should be improved. Some experiments have proved that instruction
in the methods of learning considerably increase the degree of positive transfer. L.
W. Webb generalises: “It has been proved that the methods used in
learning, the methods of instruction employed, the attitude of the
learner at the time the transfer is to take place, the generalising of an
experience, and the degree of mastery to material are all extremely
effective in increasing the degree of positive transfer”.
(iv) Positive transfer increases, if knowledge is imparted in a way that its
application is emphasised. Teach arithmetic not for the sake of arithmetic, but for
application. The pupils will learn to transfer their arithmetic experience to various
aspects for their life.
(v) Even after studying the various theories about transfer of training, we cannot
come to a conclusive result about the varying conditions that affect the degree of
transfer, or about causes of transfer. All that we know is transfer does take place,
and it takes place in situations which have common elements, or common
principles or common ideals. It is the duty of the teacher to obtain largest possible
value from the experiences he is giving to students by making them to apply the
experience in many situations.
(vi) Rote learning has been found useless, as it has no transfer value. All
theoretical voltage learnt for its own sake has no transfer value. Knowledge that
can be applied has got transfer value.
(vii) What affects transfer is not only the applicability of the experience but also
the desirable attitude, dispositions, and methods of learning.
Educational Implications of Transfer of Training:

1. Factors Affecting Transfer of Training:
It is a crucial question before the teacher, how to secure maximum transfer. He
must know the factors that determine or affect transfer. We conclude and reply to
this question on the basis of the theories propounded by psychologists and
experiments conducted.
The three major factors are:

(i) Intelligence,
(ii) Positive attitude and
(iii) Meaningfulness of the contents.
(i) Intelligence:
The amount of transfer is closely related to the intelligence of the learners.
Thorndike’s experiments give clear evidence. Brighter children transfer their
experience more effectively in different situations than average or dull children.
The intelligent pupil comprehends the subject-matter more efficiently, masters it,
remembers it and over-learns it. Over-learning helps greater transfer.
(ii) The positive self-confident attitude:

Influences greater transfer when the pupil knows that a particular subject is to be
learnt not for the sake of examination but for its intrinsic work, for its
applicability, when he is confident of its utility in varying situations, he is bound
to apply the knowledge in as large extent of the field as possible. The teacher and
the pupil should be conscious of the goal.
(iii) Generalising affects transfer i.e., transfer depends up on the extent to which

principles are developed and experiences are made more meaningful. The
common elements, common principles and common ideals in different situations,
affect transfer. This has already been explained above in connection with
common. Element Theory, Theory of Generalisation and Theory of Ideals.
2. Factors helping Maximum Transfer:
Three essential conditions ensure maximum transfer.
Firstly, the purport and meaning of the subject-matter taught should be explained
fully and in minute details. It is not enough to dole out some geographical facts to
be mugged up.
Thoroughness and details will stimulate the pupil to think more and apply the
knowledge in different situations. The paragraph in a language lesson could be
explained with all its details — grammar, spelling, pronunciation, idiom,
etymology, beauty of thought etc. This will ensure maximum transfer.
Secondly, all learning should take place in living and concrete situations. Thus all
unreal problems in arithmetic, useless items in grammar, memorisation of dates
and names in history and geography, which have no utility in life situations should
be eliminated from the curriculum.
Thirdly, pupils should be given as much of practical experience as possible. The

curriculum should contain subjects of practical nature, which are applicable in
vocations or life situations.
3. Curriculum and Transfer:

The theories and experimental evidences regarding transfer of learning provide us
with certain broad principles on the basis of which we can remodel, overhaul or
reorganise the present curriculum in order to secure-greater transfer.
(i) Disciplinary value of subjects:

As the theory of formal discipline is no longer acceptable now, there is no reason
for inclusion or rejection of any subject in the curriculum simply for its
disciplinary value. We can easily dispense with theoretical grammar, Euclid’s logic
(in geometrical theorems) and classical languages which to thought to be of
disciplinary value.
(ii) Varying Importance of Subjects:

All subjects in the present curriculum do not have equal value. Some subject are
least connected with life situations (like ancient history), and these have the least
transfer value. The present approach is the social-utility approach in including a
subject or a topic in the curriculum.
(iii) Subject-matter Vs. Experiences:

Thorndike and Wesman have experimentally proved that it is not the subject-
matter but the experiences gained in the study of the subject that is important and
useful for future applicability. The transfer value of all the subjects for any trait
(say improvement in reasoning) is almost equal.
But the experiences gathered by the pupils differ, and that accounts for greater or
lesser positive transfer. Hence an attempt should be made to provide superior
experiences leading to greater transfer rather than teach subjects in a theoretical

manner.
Mathematics enjoys no monopoly for developing reasoning ability. There are no

less opportunities for the same in the teaching of other subjects, say geography or
history or physics. All subjects can be taught in a manner that they encourage
raising questions and offering answers.
(iv) Classical Languages:
The old belief that classical language should be taught for its disciplinary value is
no longer tenable. Even its linguistic value is questionable. Experiments on
transfer value of Latin by Thorndike do not give credit to Latin beyond 10%
transfer. In India we may teach Sanskrit not for its transfer value for Hindi or
modern Indian languages, but for its literary importance.
(v) Grammar may be taught only for its practical use and application:
The present grammar teachers get lost in details of parsing, tenses, moods,
analysis, transformation and etymology, which have no bearing upon the real
objectives of teaching the subject, as these do not help correct expression or
smooth communication. “The transfer is to take place from expression to
grammar, that is, expression and communication is to take place first
and then correct grammatical usage is to follow.”
(v) Subjects related to life:
Subjects and topics which are directly connected with our vocations, physical
environment, social environment social living and life-situations have great
transfer value. Hence stress should be laid on those subjects which bear daily
needs and help solving life problems.
Diversification of courses, and presenting groups of subjects directly connected

with future vocations of the pupils, or certain areas of life, will help the pupils in
gaining appropriate knowledge of maximum utility which have transfer value for
vocations and life-activities.
4. Methods of Instruction and Transfer:

For securing desirable transfer, the present methods of instructions shall have to
be modified and overhauled, on the evidences of experimentations (cited above).
There is no ‘best method’. But there are varying approaches to instruction in
accordance with varying situations.
(i) Importance of goals:
Firstly goals and outcomes of each subject should be clearly stated. It is only
recently that attempts have been made in analysing a particular subjects in terms
of objectives, behaviour patterns and learning experiences. Much of what is
useless and unrelated to the objectives of a subject is being discarded.
The awareness of goals both on the part of the teacher and the pupil will lead to
devotion to work, habits of thoroughness, exactness, accuracy, sound attitude to
work and consciousness of the utility for future occasions.
(ii) Understanding of Individual Differences:

The teacher should study each pupil and his credit side and debit side, so as to
vary with great flexibility his teaching methods, illustrating material and emphasis
on the subject-matter. Approaches towards bright and dull pupils will differ,
otherwise the same approach might cause negative transfer.
(iii) Integrated Approach:

It was Herbert who emphasised first the need for correlating various school
subjects, and further upon concentrating upon subject as a centre of study for
many other subjects. Ziller and Colonel Parker actually put this idea into practice.
Froebel kept play as the centre of all study. Transfer from one central subject to
many others was considered possible.
Dewey gave the integrated approach, and propounded the problem and the
project method through which a number of subjects could be introduced in an
integrated manner, with their common elements emphasised at one place.
Modern experiments on transfer, the Theory of Common Components, vouchsafe

the fact that maximum transfer can be procured by integrating different subjects
and emphasising their common elements, principles or generalisations.
(iv) Attitude towards work:

The value and importance of attitude towards work and study has already been
explained above (Theory of Ideals). Healthy attitudes and worthy ideals get
integrated into the mental and moral make-up of the pupil, and thus these ensure
greater transfer.
The pupils should study with a spirit of enquiry, desire to know love for wisdom
and hunger of the soul. All scientific discoveries have been preceded by this
attitude. Such an attitude will be transferable from one subject to another.
(v) Practical application of knowledge:

Practical application of knowledge and out-of-school experiences are helpful in
assimilating the core of a particular subject. Which can help transfer. Every
subject, including the sciences should be taught intelligently with the scope of
practical application. Mursell remarks in this regard.
“When any ability is most intelligently taught and organised for its
own sake, it is thereby taught and organised in such a way as will
facilitate transfer, and its converse; when we deliberately work for the
transfer of some ability, we facilitate its acquisition in its own right.”
We may conclude that securing of maximum transfer depends solely upon the
teacher. It is he who can inculcate worthy ideals and attitudes which secure
maximum transfer in all situations. It is he who can find out that he wants to
teach, and for what goal. Transfer can take place, if the goals of teaching are
known, and the appropriate methods are used.
Learning: Meaning, Nature, Types and

Theories of Learning
Learning: Meaning, Nature, Types and Theories of Learning!
Meaning and Nature:
Learning is a key process in human behaviour. All living is learning. If we compare
the simple, crude ways in which a child feels and behaves, with the complex
modes of adult behaviour, his skills, habits, thought, sentiments and the like- we
will know what difference learning has made to the individual.
The individual is constantly interacting with and influenced by the environment.

This experience makes him to change or modify his behaviour in order to deal
effectively with it. Therefore, learning is a change in behaviour, influenced by
previous behaviour. As stated above the skills, knowledge, habits, attitudes,
interests and other personality characteristics are all the result of learning.
Learning is defined as “any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs

as a result of practice and experience”. This definition has three important
elements.
a. Learning is a change in behaviour—better or worse.
b. It is a change that takes place through practice or experience, but changes due
to growth or maturation are not learning.
c. This change in behaviour must be relatively permanent, and it must last a fairly
long time.
All learning involves activities. These activities involve either physical or mental
activities. They may be simple mental activities or complex, involving various
muscles, bones, etc. So also the mental activities may be very simple involving one
or two activities of mind or complex which involve higher mental activities.
What activities are learned by the individual refer to types of learning. For
example, habits, skills, facts, etc. There are different types of learning. Some of the
important and common learning activities are explained here.
Types of Learning:
1. Motor learning:
Most of our activities in our day-to-days life refer to motor activities. The
individual has to learn them in order to maintain his regular life, for example
walking, running, skating, driving, climbing, etc. All these activities involve the
muscular coordination.
2. Verbal learning:
This type of learning involves the language we speak, the communication devices
we use. Signs, pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds, etc, are the tools used in
such activities. We use words for communication.
3. Concept learning:
It is the form of learning which requires higher order mental processes like
thinking, reasoning, intelligence, etc. we learn different concepts from childhood.
For example, when we see a dog and attach the term ‘dog’, we learn that the word
dog refers to a particular animal. Concept learning involves two processes, viz.
abstraction and generalisation. This learning is very useful in recognising,
identifying things.
4. Discrimination learning:
Learning to differentiate between stimuli and showing an appropriate response to
these stimuli is called discrimination learning. Example, sound horns of different
vehicles like bus, car, ambulance, etc.
5. Learning of principles:
Individuals learn certain principles related to science, mathematics, grammar, etc.
in order to manage their work effectively. These principles always show the
relationship between two or more concepts. Example: formulae, laws,
associations, correlations, etc.
6. Problem solving:
This is a higher order learning process. This learning requires the use of cognitive
abilities-such as thinking, reasoning, observation, imagination, generalization,
etc. This is very useful to overcome difficult problems encountered by the people.
7. Attitude learning:
Attitude is a predisposition which determines and directs our behaviour. We
develop different attitudes from our childhood about the people, objects and
everything we know. Our behaviour may be positive or negative depending upon
our attitudes. Example: attitudes of nurse towards her profession, patients, etc.
Theories of Learning:
Psychologists have tried to explain how people learn and why they learn. They
have conducted many experiments on animals and children and come to certain
definite conclusions which explain the modes of learning.
These are called as theories of learning. In many books, these explanations are
treated as kinds of learning. In a sense it is true. But the term learning is very
comprehensive. It covers a wide range of activities which cannot be explained
within a limited framework. There are many theories explaining modes of
learning. Important among them are:
Trial and Error Learning Theory:

This theory was developed by an American psychologist EL Thorndike (1874-
1949). He argues that learning takes place through trial and error method.
According to him learning is a gradual process where the individual will make
many attempts to learn. The essence of this theory is-as the trials increase, the
errors decrease.
This is possible because of association formed between sense impressions and

impulses to action. Such an association comes to be known as a ‘bond’ or a
‘connection, because it is these bonds or connections which become strengthened
or weakened in making and breaking of habits. According to this theory when an
individual is placed in a new situation, he makes a number of random movements.
Among them, those which are unsuccessful are eliminated and the successful ones
are fixed.
These random movements are not eliminated at once. In the first attempt their
number is very large, in the second attempt the number of errors diminishes and
the range of activity becomes narrower. Gradually the individual learns to avoid
unnecessary movements and reaches the goal. Improvement takes place through
repetition.
Thorndike studies the character of trial and error learning in a number of

experiments on cats-using a box which he called ‘puzzle box’. In one of the
experiments a hungry cat was placed in the box and the door was closed which
could be opened by pressing a Latch. A fish was placed outside the box in a plate.
The cat could see this fish. The cat was given 100 trials-ten in the morning and ten
in each afternoon for five days. The cat was fed at the end of each experimental
period and then was given nothing more to eat until after the next session. If,
succeeded in opening the door in any trial by chance, he went to eat food (fish). A
complete record was made of the cat’s behaviour during each trial.
In the beginning the cat made a number of random movements like biting,
clawing, dashing, etc. gradually in subsequent trials the cat reduced the incorrect
responses (errors), as it was in a position to manipulate the latch as soon as it was
put in the box.
This experiment revealed that the random movements were decreased gradually,
that is-as the trials increased the errors decreased. As the trials increased the
solution to open the door (pressing the latch) was discovered and at the end, the
cat could open the door with zero error. The time taken in each trial was
eventually reduced.
Thorndike conducted many experiments with maze and puzzle box learning in
which cats and rats were used. He has demonstrated that through numerous trials
the animal learns much and gradually improves his effort.
We all learn many skills like swimming, cycling, riding, etc., through this method.
Children learn to sit, stand, walk, and run by this method only. However, this
method involves considerable waste of time and effort.
Learning by Conditioning:
In literal sense, conditioning means ‘getting used’ to, or ‘adjusted ‘to a new
situation, or a stimulus. It is a process of substituting the original stimulus by a
new one and connecting the response with it. There are two types of conditioning
theories:
1. Classical conditioning:
This method of conditioning got its name from the fact that, it is a kind of learning
situation that existed in the early classical experiments of Ivan P Pavlov (1849-
1936), Russian physiologist who was awarded Nobel Prize, in 1904 for his
experiments.
Pavlov designed an apparatus to measure the quantity of saliva produced in

response to food (meat power). At the beginning of his experiment Pavlov noted
that no saliva flowed when he rang the bell. He then trained the dog by sounding
the bell, and shortly afterwards presenting food.
After the sound of the bell had been paired with food a few times, he tested the
effects of the training by measuring the amount of saliva that flowed when he rang
the bell and did not present food. He found that some saliva was produced in
response to the sound of the bell alone. He then resumed the training-paired
presentation of bell and food a few times and then tested again with the bell alone.
As the training continued, the amount of saliva on tests with the bell alone
increased. Thus, after training the dog’s mouth watered-salivated- whenever the
bell was sounded. This is what was learned; it is the conditioned response.
This theory states that CS (bell) becomes a substitute after pairing with UCS
(food) and acquires the capacity to elicit a response. It is because the association
(conditioning) is formed between CS and UCS. This may be symbolically
presented as follows:
UCS<———————————à UCR
(Food) (Saliva)
↓ (Conditioning)
CS<————————————-à CR
(Bell) (Saliva)
Sub-principles of Classical Conditioning:

There are certain sub-principles which explain the different phenomena of this
experiment.
a. Extinction and spontaneous recovery:

Extinction means cessation of a response. The strength of the CS gradually
decreases when it is presented alone and not followed by UCS for a number of
trails. This process is called ‘extinction’. In this experiment when only bell is
presented without food for a number of trials, the dog stopped salivation
gradually.
But when the CS (bell) was paired again with UCS (food) for some trials, the CR
(salivation) recovered. This is known as ‘spontaneous recovery’. In spontaneous
recovery the dog required less number of trials than the first time, because the
association between CS and UCS still existed in the brain of the animal.
b. Stimulus generalization:
A tendency to respond to a stimulus which is similar to original one is called
stimulus generalization, the greater the similarity, the more the generalization. In
this experiment, the dog started salivating even for the sound of a buzzer which
was similar to bell.
c. Stimulus discrimination:
When there is much difference between two stimuli, the animal can discriminate
between the two. For example, if the dog is conditioned to salivate at the signal of
red light, it will not salivate when green light is presented.
d. Higher order conditioning:

If a ‘light’ is presented followed by bell and then by food for a number of trials, the
dog will start salivating to light itself. This phenomenon is called higher order
condition.
All these principles are very useful in behaviour therapy. Conditioning is not
confined only to the laboratory.
In our day-to- day’s life we come across many instances of such learning. For
example, a small child who does not know, touches a burning candle, it gives him
a painful experience and withdraws his hand. Later this experience will make him
withdraw from burning objects and avoid them all together.
Conditioning is used as psychotherapeutic technique very effectively in the

treatment of abnormal behaviours such as phobias, alcoholism, enuresis, etc.
These are called behaviour modification techniques. Watson and others have
conducted many experiments to prove the usefulness of this method.
2. Operant Conditioning:
This method of conditioning was developed by an American psychologist BF
Skinner. This theory is also known as ‘Instrumental conditioning’, because the
animals use certain operations or actions as instruments to find solution.
Skinner conducted his famous experiment by placing a hungry rat in a box called
after his name ‘Skinner box’. This box was containing a lever and a food tray in a
corner of the box. It was so arranged, that the animal was free to move inside the
box, but the pressing of the lever would get the animal a pallet of food in the tray
as reinforcement.
Arrangement was also made to record the number of pressings of the lever by a
mechanical device. It was found in the beginning that the rat pressed the lever
occasionally and used to get food as reinforcement for each pressing.
Gradually, as the animal learnt the pressing of lever would give some food, it
repeated the responses very rapidly. This rapid increase in pressing the lever is the
indication of the animal conditioned to get food.
In day-to-day’s life also, much learning takes place in animals as well as in human
beings by this method. The reinforcement will be the motivating factor. It will
make the organism to repeat its action.
It is on the basis of these experiments, Skinner made his famous statement

“Rewarded behaviour is repeated”. Instrumental conditioning involves more
activity by the learner than classical conditioning. Skinner conducted his
experiments on different animals like pigeons, rats, etc.
Reinforcement which is the most important aspect of this experiment is divided

into two types: positive reinforcement is used in reward training. Negative
reinforcement-like punishment is used to stop undesired responses or behaviours.
Operant conditioning is useful in shaping undesirable behaviour and also in
modification of behaviour.
This is also useful in training of mentally retarded children to learn dressing,

eating and toilet training skills, treatment of phobias, drug and alcohol addictions,
and psychotherapy and to teach needed behaviour in children. Further, these
experiments have proved that intermittent reinforcement yields better results
than continuous reinforcement.
Learning by Insight:
Many times learning proceeds by the more efficient process of trying those
methods which are seem to have a relation to solution. This is possible by
understanding or perception of the situation.
Learning by perceiving the relationship in the scene and understanding the

situation is insightful learning. This theory was developed by a psychologist
known as Wolf gang Kohler, who belonged to Gestalt school of psychology.
According to Gestalt theory—perception of a situation as a ‘whole’ gives better

understanding than sum total of its parts. That is, the situation viewed as a whole
will definitely look different from that, viewed through its parts.
Kohler conducted his most famous experiments on chimpanzee- called Sultan. In

the experiment, Sultan was put in a cage and a banana was placed at some
distance outside the cage. Then the chimpanzee was given two sticks, so
constructed that one stick could be fitted into another and make the stick longer.
The hungry Sultan first attempted with its hands to get the banana. Then he took
one of the sticks and tried to pull the banana nearer, then tried with other stick,
but failed to reach it. By this effort, the chimpanzee became tired and left the
attempts to reach banana and started playing with sticks.
While playing so, one of the sticks got fitted into the other and the stick became
lengthier. Immediately Sultan became elated and pulled the banana with this long
stick and ate it. This ‘sudden flash of idea’ to reach food with longer stick was
called as ‘Insight’, by Kohler.
He conducted many experiments to prove that learning takes place also by insight
and not only by trial and error. He concluded that the occurrence of insight to find
solution to a problem is possible by perception of the whole situation.
Kohler conducted many experiments on this line of learning to prove that, just
trial and error method is not enough to find solution for many complex problems.
Trial and error or association through connectionism and conditioning may

account for simple acquisition of knowledge, skills, interests, habits and other
personality characteristics. But it is absolutely insufficient for solving complex
problems.
It is here the method of insightful learning is very useful. Because it involves many
higher mental processes such as thinking, reasoning, intelligence, etc.
Insight occurs, when the individual sees in a flash, the solution to his problem or
difficulty. It is not blind or stupid learning. It is an intelligent way of learning. In
many occasions people try to size up the situation, things and arrive at a
conclusion. With experience man is able to solve problems better and sooner.
He exercises his discrimination ability in solving problems, and learning becomes

a matter of insight rather than of trial and error. Archimedes’s example of’ Aha’
experience (eureka) explained in creative thinking is the appropriate example for
occurrence of insight.
Learning by Imitation:
It is the simplest method of learning. Many of our day-to-day’s activities are learnt
by imitating others. For example, the way we eat, drink, walk, talk, dress, etc, are
all learnt by imitating others. We observe and watch what and how other people
do certain activities and imitate them.
We observe the demonstrations given by an expert, imitate his movements and

learn them. By copying the behaviour of others, people avoid waste of time and
effort of trial and error method of learning. For example, a boy observes the way
of holding a cricket bat, the movements of an expert player, imitates the same and
learns.
Psychologists like Millar and Dollard have tried to show that the tendency to
imitate is itself a learned response and if reinforced, the individual will be more
likely to continue to imitate.
Many people believe that imitation is a lower form type of learning. Still others
argue that imitation can never lead to novel responses and there will be no chance
to use individual’s creativity or originality. But at the same time many
educationists believe that only the imitative individual can learn better. Whatever
may be the opinion it is quite obvious that we learn many things by imitation.
Laws of Learning:
EL Thorndike has explained three laws of learning called Primary laws and in
addition to these, he has also framed 5 subsidiary laws in connection with his trial
and error learning theory.
Primary laws:
These are the most important laws, which explain the basic aspects of
learning. They are:
1. Law of readiness:
By readiness means the organism is ready to respond or act. This is more essential
prerequisite for learning.
This indicates that the animal or human being is motivated to learn. This
condition of readiness has two effects— satisfaction and annoyance. When the
animal is ready to act- if permitted- it gives pleasure. If it is not permitted, it feels
annoyed.
In the same way when the animal is not ready to learn- if asked to learn- it is
annoying. On the other hand, if it is prevented from learning it gives pleasure.
These points have been given below in the words of Thorndike:

a. For a conduction unit ready to conduct-to conduct is satisfying.
b. For a conduction unit ready to conduct-not to conduct is annoying.
c. For a conduction unit not ready to conduct- to conduct is annoying.
This law clearly shows that readiness of a person to learn is very important. Hence
motivate him to learn.
2. Law of exercise:
This law is also known as law of frequency. Frequency refers to number of
repetitions of learning. Thorndike believed that repeated exercising of a response
strengthens its connection with stimulus.
This aspect refers to law of use and disuse, which explains that, anything not in
use will perish. So also if the response is not repeated, its bond with stimulus gets
weakened. This is also according to the statement that ‘practice makes man
perfect’.
In Thorndike’s experiment the cat becomes perfect after repeating the response
more number of times, i.e. it learnt to open the door without committing any
error.
3. Law of effect:
This law states that when a connection is accomplished by satisfying effect- its
strength is increased. By this, Thorndike meant that the probability of its
occurrence is greater. In his experiment if the hungry cat succeeded in opening
the door, would get its favourable dish to eat.
This had a positive effect on its response. Rewards always strengthen connections
between stimuli and responses, and on the other hand, punishment weakens
connections.
Secondary laws:
In addition to the three primary laws explained above, Thorndike has given five
secondary or subsidiary laws also.
They are as follows:

a. Law of multiple response:
It means when a response fails to elicit a desired effect, the learner will try with
new responses until the goal is reached.
b- Law of set or attitude:

Mental set or positive attitude is very important in any learning.
c. Law of associative shifting:

This is nothing but shifting of the response to a new situation which is similar to
the earlier one. Because the fundamental notion is that, if a response can be kept
intact through a series of changes in stimulating situation, it may finally be given
to a new situation.
d. Law of prepotency of elements:

This law states that the learner is able to react in a selected way, only to the salient
elements of the problem and not for other unimportant elements.
e. Law of response by analogy:

It means comparing a new situation to the previously learned one and thus giving
a response by analogy.
As stated above, Thorndike formulated these laws on the basis of his experiments.
According to the law of readiness, the cat was ready to learn, because it was
hungry. This hunger motivated the cat to learn to open the door.
According to the second law, the cat was repeatedly given trials and exercise
which strengthened its learning. Finally on each trial the cat was given
reinforcement in the form of fish.
This encouraged the cat to continue its effort to learn to open the door. The
secondary laws given by him support these findings. These laws are highly
relevant to the field of education. The teachers can make use of these laws in order
to make their teaching more effective.
Importance of Transfer of Learning | Process

| Learning | Psychology
After reading this article you will learn about the importance of transfer of
learning.
The main purpose of any learning or education is that a person who acquires some
knowledge or skill in a formal and controlled situation like a classroom, or a
training situation, will be able to transfer such knowledge and skill to real life
situations and adapt himself more effectively.
If this does not happen, then any exercise in learning or any system of education is
an utter waste because no individual is going to spend his entire lifetime in the
psychologist’s laboratory or a classroom or a training institute to learn on each
occasion to solve his problems.
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The purpose of any teaching-learning interaction is to bring about a generalisation

and application of what has been learnt in specific situations to real life situations
and acquire a general capacity to adapt. One often hears a complaint from
employers that university graduates who are supposed to be good at learning
having secured high marks, are very often found to be useless, inept and
incompetent in dealing with actual work situations.
This has been said even about technical graduates in the fields of engineering and
technology. Such candidates are found unfit to man jobs for which they have been
ostensibly trained or prepared. For a long time a principle known as “formal
discipline” was followed. Educators in Europe believed that an individual who
masters a classical language like Latin or Greek would be able to learn all other
disciplines much better.
The underlying assumption was that learning of these languages would inculcate
certain general discipline, attitudes and skills and also approaches to learning
which are of a general nature and that this would facilitate their learning in a
variety of situations.
Unfortunately when psychology became an experimental science, this theory was

unceremoniously thrown out as not having been empirically established. Here it
could be said that the psychologists could have undertaken some experimental
studies, comparing those who have mastered these languages with those who have
not, on a variety of learning tasks. But, unfortunately, early psychologies had more
faith in developing the theories of learning by studying cats and rats rather than
human beings. Obviously cats and rats could not be taught Greek or Latin.
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Nevertheless the problem of transfer of learning did finally attract psychologists.

Some of the earliest studies on this problem were carried out by William James on
himself as a subject. He tried to study the impact of learning literary material in
Latin on learning materials in the English language.
Psychologists have certainly carried out a number of experiments on the

phenomenon of transfer. A typical design of such an experiment takes the
following form. Two groups of subjects matched on age, education, intelligence
and prior learning and also background are selected.
One of them is designated as an experimental group and the other as the control
group. At the next phase, the experimental group was required to learn a
particular task to a point of criterion previously determined. The control group
was not required to learn this.
At the next phase both the groups, experimental and control, were required to
learn another task and their performances in terms of amount learnt in a fixed
time or number of trials required for complete learning were compared. The
assumption here is that any superiority in the performance of the experimental
group could be attributed to the effect of transfer from the previous learning.
Several variations were introduced in choosing the original learning task in terms
of similarity to the tasks to be learnt subsequently. While the results of the various
experiments did not prove anything conclusive, nevertheless they led to an
analysis of the phenomenon of transfer of learning in the light of the findings of
the above paragraph and also certain other issues.
Some of the points that emerged are mentioned below:
1. Transfer can be positive or negative. Whenever an earlier learning experience
leads to better learning of a subsequent task, positive transfer may be said to take
place. On the other hand if prior learning is followed by poor learning at a
subsequent task, it may be inferred that there has been a negative transfer or
interference. Interference may result from a number of factors.
2. Transfer involves generalisation. There can be a stimulus generalisation or a

response generalisation. Stimulus generalisation occurs whenever two tasks, the
original and the subsequent are similar. Thus, learning a poem first may facilitate
the learning of another poem compared to the learning of a prose passage.
Here one should call the attention of the student to the view that the principle of
similarity comes into operation. If there is a certain degree of similarity between
the first and the second tasks then transfer may take place. However, if the
similarity is too high then there can be a negative transfer or interference.
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3. Transfer may arise due to response generalisation. If there is a similarity

between the responses acquired by two situations then there can be a transfer of
response from the first learning to the second learning. Thus, learning to type on
an ordinary typewriter can be generalized to typing on a computer.
Here again the factor of interference may occur. Thorndike formulated a principle
known as Principle of Identical Elements which held that the amount of transfer is
related to the degree of stimulus similarity or response similarity. But this
principle as already noted cannot explain all aspects of the problem of transfer
because it has been shown that beyond a certain point similarity can actually
result in interference.
4. The students while learning about the process of conditioning must have learnt
about the process of stimulus generalisation and response generalisation. Transfer
has also been categorized as general transfer. Some of the sources of specific
transfer essentially relate to similarities in stimuli or response.
General transfer, however, depends on those factors which do not spring from
elements of similarity. General transfers will result if the learner picks up general
skills and strategies of learning which had nothing to do with the specific elements
of similarity.
General transfer is very difficult to identify. However, psychologists have divided

general transfers into two categories, warm up learning and learning how to learn.
Warm up involves in an experimental set up, adjusting to the experimental
conditions through which the stimuli are presented, learning to adopt a

convenient posture etc.
These appear rather early in the course of learning and are temporary. On the
other hand, learning how to learn and acquiring certain strategies of learning are
permanent and occur later. In very early experiments employing a number of
pairs of associated words, with no similarity among them, it was found that as the
experiment progressed there was a noticeable reduction in the number of trials
required, thus providing evidence for a transfer effect that cannot be attributed to
similarity. In fact, the subjects appear to have learnt how to learn.

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Essay Transfer of Learning: Types and Theories of Transfer of

In simple way transfer may be defined as “the partial or total application or

Hence, carryover of skills of one learning to other learning is transfer of training

Types of Transfer of Learning:

For example, knowledge of history in no way affects learning of driving a car or a

Theories of Transfer of Learning:

1. Theory of identical elements:

The degree of transfer increases as the similarity of elements increase. For

2. Theory of generalization of experience:

Experiences, habits, knowledge gained in one situation help us to the extent to

Generalization consists of perceiving and understanding what is common to a

6 Important Theories of Transfer of Learning

Transfer of Learning: Theory # 2.

Exp — Piano → Typing/Computer

Car Driving Bus Driving

Transfer of Learning: Theory # 3.

Transfer of Training: Types and Theories |

Meaning and Definitions of Transfer of Training:

“The carry-over of habits of thinking, feeling, or working of knowledge

6. Hilgard Atkinson Atkinson:

7. Guthrie & Others:

8. Encyclopaedia of Educational Research:

One form of positive transfer is bilateral transfer or cross-transfer. Practice in

The major theories are explained briefly below:

2. Theory of Formal Discipline:

The advocates of formal discipline undermined the study of practical or utilitarian

Appraisal of the Theory:

3. Theory of Identical Component:

Modern psychologists also believe that mental functions like perception,

Suppose two situations a common element viz., punctuality. According to the

Symbolically we may say what is learned in situation X gets transferred in

Virtually speaking, the Theory of Generalisation is only an extension of the Theory

solving actual problem of life, such as maintaining health, succeeding in a

The different types are:

(f) Problem-solving, and

(g) School subjects.

A square of one dimensions is presented. It is compared with a number of other

His conclusions were:

6. Experiments on Problem Solving:

7. Experiments on School Subjects:

(iii) Thorndike experimented upon 8000 students, gave them preliminary

(vi) Thorndike made another experiment on transfer from Latin to English. He

Summary of the conclusions through Experimentations:

Educational Implications of Transfer of Training:

The three major factors are:

(ii) Positive attitude and

(iii) Meaningfulness of the contents.

(ii) The positive self-confident attitude:

(iii) Generalising affects transfer i.e., transfer depends up on the extent to which

Thirdly, pupils should be given as much of practical experience as possible. The

3. Curriculum and Transfer:

(i) Disciplinary value of subjects:

(ii) Varying Importance of Subjects:

(iii) Subject-matter Vs. Experiences:

experiences leading to greater transfer rather than teach subjects in a theoretical

Mathematics enjoys no monopoly for developing reasoning ability. There are no

Diversification of courses, and presenting groups of subjects directly connected

4. Methods of Instruction and Transfer:

(ii) Understanding of Individual Differences:

(iii) Integrated Approach:

Modern experiments on transfer, the Theory of Common Components, vouchsafe

(iv) Attitude towards work:

(v) Practical application of knowledge: