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Closed loop control system for a heliostat field

Article · August 2015

DOI: 10.1109/TAPENERGY.2015.7229630

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 Closed Loop Control System for a Heliostat Field
Joshua Freeman Keerthi K. S Lekshmi R. Chandran
Amrita Center for Wireless Networks Department of Electrical Department of Electrical
and Applications and Electronics Engineering and Electronics Engineering
Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amrita Vishwa Vidhyapeetham, Amrita Vishwa Vidhyapeetham,
Kollam, Kerala 690525 Kollam, Kerala 690525 Kollam, Kerala 690525
joshdfreeman@am.amrita.edu kirti.ks@gmail.com lekshmichandran@am.amrita.edu

Abstract— The alarming energy crisis, heightened by the
continuing depletion of fossil fuels, accentuates the need for the
development of renewable energy technology, knowledge, and
infrastructure. A Central Receiver (Power Tower) Solar Energy
system uses heliostats (motorized planar reflectors) to
continuously reflect direct radiation from the sun onto a central
receiver. This paper discusses a novel closed loop control system
for a heliostat field. In this system, rough adjustment of the
heliostat is performed using an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU).
Precision adjustment of the heliostat is performed by inducing a
small mechanical vibration in the heliostat’s reflective surface,
using a piezoelectric actuator. This vibration creates time-
dependent changes in the light waves reflected from the heliostat,
which can be detected by photo-sensors surrounding the thermal
receiver target. The position of misaligned heliostats can be
corrected once they are identified by FFT analysis of the light
waves received by the photo-sensors. This technique can, in
principle, control thousands of heliostats simultaneously. The
control system is coded using MATLAB.
Index Terms — Solar thermal energy, Heliostat, Power tower,
Central receiver, Closed-loop control, IMU
I. INTRODUCTION
A central receiver thermal energy system, also known as a
“Power Tower”, is a clean and efficient way to produce
electricity that can be easily integrated with the grid. Thermal
storage can also be added, to produce dispatchable energy.
However, the cost of solar thermal systems is a concern,
especially with the ever-dropping costs of solar PV systems
and the availability of cheap natural gas in the United States.
Cost reductions in solar thermal energy still need to be attained
in order for it to remain competitive.
II. CONTROL AND CALIBRATION SYSTEM METHODS
Alignment and control of the heliostats constitutes one of
the largest costs of both time and money. It is necessary to
verify that the method of control is efficient and that reflected
rays are continuously reaching the central receiver. If the rays
focus on unintended parts of the tower, the tower may get
damaged due to the high temperature. Implementation of a
closed loop control system can address the aforementioned
issues and reduce losses drastically, thus making the
technology more cost-effective.
An open loop system uses an analytic model of the sun’s
relative position formed from the heliostat field’s geographical
coordinates, the current time, and sensors on the heliostat axes
to calculate and verify the physical orientation of the heliostat.
However, in an open-loop system, no verification steps are
incorporated to confirm that the radiation is actually reaching
the desired target. Solar One, which operated from 1982 to
1988 near Barstow, California, used an open loop control
system [1].
The eSolar plant in Lancaster, CA was able to achieve a
satisfactory tracking resolution using a custom-built, closed
loop alignment system using cameras at elevated locations
around the field. However, it took 18 days of good weather day
to complete the alignment procedure [2].
A closed loop system based on multi-scopic photometry
has been successfully developed by Kribus et al [3]. The
system uses CCD cameras along the periphery of the receiver.
The presented system has four cameras, which each take an
image of the heliostat field. A brightness imbalance between
the opposite images of a given heliostat indicates that the
heliostat is not properly aimed, and enables determination of
the direction and magnitude of the required correction. Using
high speed image processing, it is possible to generate and feed
real-time corrections to the heliostat tracking algorithm. This
system works well even with some problems related to
saturation and contrast in the digital image. However, this
system has no standalone capability as the heliostats can’t be
controlled without feedback from the receiver. This is
especially useful in a partially cloudy day, such that when a
cloud passes, the heliostats are already focused on the receiver.
This issue is overcome in [4] by providing an orientation
control in the heliostat with the use of additional
accelerometers. The authors extended the light spot sensing
algorithm described by Kribus et al. [3] to provide on-target
(x,y) location information for each light spot reflected off a
heliostat, and to detect if a light spot is within the target area. A
3-axis accelerometer is used for rough orientation control to
bring the heliostat in to the system’s range of detection. Once
the light spot is near the target a multi-scopic photometry
system with multiple cameras situated around the target helps
to triangulate and direct incoming light, with an accuracy of
approximately ten centimeters.
Cameras in the aforementioned system are replaced by
piezoelectric oscillators and photodiodes in a novel and
economical system described in [5]. When reflected light from
the heliostats falls on photodiodes surrounding the edge of the
receiver, it indicates misalignment of heliostats in the heliostat TABLE I. COMPARISON OF CALIBRATION AND CONTROL SCHEMES
field. For the most efficient control of the system, each Heliostat
Control
System Orientation Method
heliostat should be controlled individually, as the sun’s relative Feedback
Control
position varies with each heliostat and each heliostat can have
individual tracking errors. Therefore, piezoelectric actuators No standalone Digital Image
Camera
capability image processing
are used to vibrate each heliostat with a unique frequency. This
frequency acts as an ID for each heliostat. Real-time FFT Piezoelectric +
No standalone Wave
analysis of the signals received by the photo-diodes around the Photodiode
capability vibration
FFT
receiver can tell which heliostats are out of alignment. Control calibration
signals are generated to bring these heliostats back into focus
on the receiver. This system also lacks standalone capability. Camera + Standalone after Digital Image
In this paper, a novel control system given in [5] is adopted accelerometer initial calibration image processing
and modified, in collaboration with the original developer, by
adding an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) to provide Piezoelectric +
Standalone after Wave
heliostat stand-alone operation and also provides enhanced Photodiode and
initial calibration vibration
FFT
Accelerometer
calibration features.
A. Selection of Calibration and Control Scheme Peizo-electric+ Standalone with Wave
The calibration and control scheme has been selected based FFT
Photodiode and IMU reduced calibration vibration
on parameters such as heliostat orientation control, the type of
identification process and cost effectiveness. Table 1 shows the
aforementioned control and calibration schemes in terms of the need for an initial manual calibration process of focusing
these parameters. the heliostats on the receiver. This step is still required while
Stand-alone capability, i.e. the capability to operate as an using an accelerometer. The added IMU cost is very small
open loop system (in case of unavailability of the feedback compared to the overall cost of the system and will likely be
system), without additional external control of the heliostat, is compensated for in reduced installation and calibration time
a required component of our control scheme. and cost
Individual heliostat identification in a closed-loop system is Thus the selected hybrid [6] heliostat control scheme of
also another key requirement for effective control. Image using piezoelectric actuators and photodiodes augmented by
processing for heliostat identification is complex and is IMUs has standalone capability, closed loop control and a less
performed based on comparison of the brightness of the digital complex heliostat identification process. The selected scheme
images at a particular location. The possibility of error is also of adding low-cost IMUs is economical, and also has a lower
high. In FFT analysis methods, the process is comparatively number of days required for calibration.
simple and heliostats are identified by the unique frequency of
vibration, reducing the chances of error in heliostat III. MECHANICAL COMPONENTS
identification. Mechanical components play a crucial role in tracking
The third parameter is the cost effectiveness of the system. accuracy. Degrees of freedom of motion, the type of axes used
The cost of the system is primarily determined by the type of for tracking, and others range of rotation, aperture size and
feedback and control equipment used. Vibrations in the light shape, and the inertia and friction of moving parts are a few of
reflected from the heliostats can be generated by a small patch the factors involved.
of low-cost piezoelectric actuator and consequently identified A. Heliostat type
by a photodiode and FFT signal processing system. The heliostat structure from [7], based on a tip-tilt (pitch-
The piezoelectric and photodiode scheme gives the same roll) tracker using dual linear actuators, was selected as a
functionality as a camera system with reduced complexity. It foundation for our heliostat design. The dual linear actuator
avoids the issues of saturation and contrast in digital images solution, which uses two actuators for motion in two axes,
and the difficulty in operating digital camera in the vicinity of a offers the possibility of a more economical solution than
thermal system [5]. conventional azimuth/elevation heliostats, since two linear
Table 1 compares various camera and photodiode based actuators are normally lower cost than the combination of a
control and calibration schemes. Both the piezoelectric + linear actuator and slewing ring. The tip-tilt heliostat is also a
photodiode and the camera scheme don’t have inherent more compact solution since it requires a smaller movement
standalone capability. However, the same camera scheme is envelop to move within.
made standalone with the addition of an accelerometer for
heliostat control [4]. In a similar manner, an accelerometer or B. Receiver
Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) can be added to the One method of increasing the plant efficiency and capacity is
piezoelectric and photodiode scheme to provide standalone to increase the receiver temperature. Higher receiver
capability. The IMU is a combination of accelerometer and temperatures can be obtained by increasing the concentration
gyroscope, and sometimes includes a magnetometer. It can axis ratio, which is equal to the flux density at the receiver times the
(using the in-built digital compass), which also reduces receiver area, divided by the total aperture area of the heliostats

Fig.1. Pitch/roll or tip/tilt heliostat, as given in [7].
Flux density can be increased by increasing the amount of
reflected light reaching the receiver. For a constant receiver
size, this can be achieved by increasing the number of
heliostats. However, there are often economic and space
constraints to increasing the number of heliostats. If the density
of heliostats increases, then an increase in blocking and
shading losses is likely. Another alternative to increasing the
flux density is to reduce the image size. A curved facet can
give a reduced image size for the same amount of incident
radiation compared to a flat facet. A curved reflector structure
is identified as one of the cost reduction methods in [1]. How a
curved structure can improve heat input to the receiver is
studied in [8].
IV. CONTROL SYSTEM
The heliostat can be operated in a low precision, open-loop
mode by using the inertial measurement unit (IMU) kept on the
reflector’s support body. The pitch and roll of the heliostat’s
reflector surface can be measured using the IMU. Using
inverse kinematics, the lengths of the linear actuators can be
determined to orient the heliostat as determined by the NREL
Sun Position Algorithm (SPA) [9]. In this rough control mode,
heliostat orientation does not need to be fully accurate; it just
needs to reflect light to illuminate at least one of the
photodiodes surrounding the receiver. The signal received by
the photodiode is processed using a signal conditioner and then
FFT analysed to determine the spatial vibration frequencies of
the incident light. Individual heliostats are identified with the
frequency obtained from the FFT analysis. Feedback control
signals are given to the identified heliostat to align the reflected
beam to the center of the receiver. Feedback to tilt the heliostat
to the desired position is calculated using the normal vector and
inverse kinematics. The current sun position is continuously
calculated using the NREL Sun Position Algorithm (SPA) [9]
and is taken into account in every loop. Additional details of
the control process are given below.
Step 1: Identify the heliostat by FFT analysis of filtered and
amplified photodiode signal.
Step 2: Obtain the pitch and roll angle of the normal vector to
the reflector surface of the heliostat identified in Step 1. The
IMU used in the heliostat consists of an accelerometer, a
gyroscope and a magnetometer. The combined, filtered data
from the accelerometer and gyro are used to calculate various
angles of the normal of the heliostat reflector surface, with
respect to the individual heliostat’s local coordinate system.
These angles are then converted with to a global coordinate
system with the magnetometer data.
The accelerometer and gyroscope raw data are obtained
from the IMU and used to find the roll and pitch angles of the
heliostat. A 3-axis accelerometer, in addition to measuring 3-
dimensional acceleration, can also measure the static tilt about
the three axes. Equations (1) - (3) give the accelerometer angle
values 𝑥"##_"%&'( , 𝑦"##_"%&'( , and 𝑧"##_"%&'( , read from the
accelerometer, for the x, y and z axes respectively [10],
2
𝑥"##_"%&'( = tan01 (1)
3 4 5 6 4
03
𝑦"##_"%&'( = tan01 (2)
2 4 5 6 4
𝑧"##_"%&'( = 0 (3)
where x, y and z are the raw output data from the
accelerometer, in the x, y and z directions.
The gyroscope gives the rate of change of angular position
over time ( 𝜃 ), which is the derivative of angular position.
Therefore, integrating this value will give the angular position.
Assuming that at time t = 0, the angle θx = 0, then the angular
position, 𝑥&29:_"%&'( at any given time t is given by Eq. (4),
@ @
𝑥&29:_"%&'( = 𝜃𝑥 = 𝜃
A 3
𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ≈ A 𝜃3 𝑡 𝑇? (4)
where, Ts is the sampling time. Substituting θy and θz gives the
respective equations in the y and z directions.
The accelerometer picks up all of the external vibrations
and disturbances which can sometimes interfere with the static
tilt readings. On the other hand, while the gyroscope data is not
as susceptible to external vibrations, a drift error is added to it
due to integration over time. Accelerometer data is reliable
over a longer term, while gyroscope data is reliable over the
short term. These two data can therefore be combined using a
complimentary filter to obtain the correct data. Equation 5
gives the equation for a complimentary filter using x-axis data
to determine the roll angle, 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒3 .
𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒3 = 𝛼 × 𝑥&29:_"%&'( + 1 − 𝛼 × 𝑥"##_"%&'( (5)
where 𝛼 is the smoothing angle with a value ranging from 0 to
1 (usually values are taken between 0.9 and 1). Similarly,
𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒2 and 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒6 can be found by respectively substituting in
the y and z gyro and accelerometer values. The pitch angle is
given by 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑦 . The yaw angle, 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒6 , is not used here since
the pitch-roll heliostat design does not have freedom of
movement in the yaw axis.

+x axis coming out of the yz plane
Fig.2. Measurement of the roll and pitch angles in the Heliostat
coordinate system
number (in this particular case normal will always be in –z
region) , we can then determine a and b.
The above-calculated vector, 𝑟, is in the local or heliostat
coordinate system and needs to be converted into the global
coordinate system to be used with the rest of the control
scheme. This can be achieved by multiplying the obtained [a,
b, c] normal vector by a rotation matrix about the z-axis, as
given in equations 8 and 9.
+y axis coming out of the xz plane
cos(𝑎𝑧_𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑒𝑡) − sin(𝑎𝑧_𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑒𝑡) 0
𝑅6 = sin(𝑎𝑧_𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑒𝑡) cos(𝑎𝑧_𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑒𝑡) 0 (8)
0 0 1

[𝑎 𝑏 𝑐]\&':["' = 𝑅6 × [𝑎 𝑏 𝑐]\]('^:?@"@ (9)

where az_offset is the azimuth difference between the local roll

+x axis coming out of the yz plane +y axis coming out of the xz plane
Fig.3. Measurement of the roll and pitch angles in the IMU coordinate
system, arrow indicate direction of rotation from vertical position.
axis of the heliostat, as determined when the heliostat is
oriented parallel to the global xy plane (oriented flat, with the
surface normal pointing to the vertical), and the global North,
which is given by the magnetometer output of the IMU
corrected by the local magnetic declination.
Step 4: Calculate the sun vector, 𝑠, which gives the current
position of the sun. This is calculated using the NREL SPA,
which takes current the time, altitude, longitude and latitude of
the location where the heliostat is placed. The sun vector, 𝑠, is
calculated using Equation 10 below,

𝑠 = sin 𝑠_ cos 𝑠` , sin 𝑠_ sin 𝑠` , cos 𝑠_ (10)

where 𝑠_ and 𝑠` are the altitude and azimuth angle,

Fig.4. Block diagram for roll angle calculation
These values can be used to calculate the position of the
heliostat surface normal, as shown in the next step. Fig. 2
shows the orientation of the roll and pitch angles in the
heliostat coordinate system. Fig. 3 Shows the roll and pitch
angles in the IMU coordinate system.
Step 3: Calculate the reflector normal 𝑟 , which can be
represented as a vector [a, b, c], where a is the component
along the roll axis (x-axis), b is the component along the pitch
axis (y-axis) and c is the component along the yaw axis (z-
axis). The normal vector can then be calculated using Formulas
6 and 7.
a = -c*tan(𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒2 )
b = c*tan(𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒3 )
There are actually an infinite number of vectors that satisfy
Equations 6 and 7, all with the same orientation and origin but
with different lengths. Therefore, by fixing c to be any negative
respectively, which are obtained using the SPA.
Step 5: The calculations in this step are a modified form of the
control system given by Convery in [5]. First calculate the
heliostat reflector surface normal vector required to cause
reflected sunlight to hit the center of the receiver. Calculate an
effective target, 𝑡 , inferred from the reflector normal r and
current sun position by using Equation 11,
𝑡 = 𝑠 – 2𝑟(𝑠Ÿ 𝑟) (11)
The heliostat surface normal correction and the consequent
linear actuator corrections are generated using the photodiodes.
Each photodiode (PD) is assigned a variable ai, which is set to
one if the ith PD is illuminated and otherwise set to zero. The
target direction correction needed to bring in the beam
illuminating the ith PD to the center is given by the vector
𝑝d . This is the vector pointing to the center of the receiver from
the individual PD. The total correction is given by Equation 12.
%
𝛿= ^g1 𝑎^ 𝑝^ (12)
(6)
(7) The formation of the required resultant vector when one photo
diode is illuminated is shown in Fig. 5(a). The resultant vector
is equal to 𝑝d if the ith PD is illuminated. Fig. 5(b) shows the
resultant vector when two PDs, i and j, are illuminated. Then
the resultant is the vector sum of 𝑝d and 𝑝h .
 ?0@′
𝑟′ = (14)
?0@′

Vector 𝑟′ gives the required reflector surface normal. At the

end of each iteration of the process, the reflector vector 𝑟 is
updated to 𝑟′.
Step 6: Use the vector 𝑟′ and the heliostat inverse kinematics to
calculate the lengths of the linear actuators required in order to
(a) (b)
Fig.5. Total correction vector in target direction when (a) one photodiode obtain the required reflector orientation. After a 15 seconds
is illuminated and (b) when two photodiodes are illuminated delay, the loop is repeated.
V. SIMULATION
A system of four heliostats, a central receiver and the
calculations detailed in the previous section was simulated in
MATLAB. The NREL SPA was used to determine the sun’s
position. Initial accelerometer and gyroscope data from the
IMU was read into MATLAB through an Arduino and the
reflector normal vector was calculated. The program runs in a
continuous loop with an exit condition when the current target
vector matches the desired reference target vector to within
10%. The 10% allowed deviation is to prevent the simulation
from going into an infinite loop, but can be adjusted in actual
practice to any desired accuracy.
Fig. 7 gives the top view of the heliostat field simulated in
the software. The height of the tower is 100 units. Table II
gives the coordinate of four PDs around the receiver with
reflector R1 as the reference origin.
Since the heliostat system has not yet been physically built,
the orientation of the initial heliostat surface normal vector, as
given by the IMU readings, was adjusted in small steps in the
software. This new surface normal vector was used to
determine the current target vector and the consequent
possible illumination of the PDs.

Fig.6. Flowchart of the control system

The total correction in the target direction calculated in

Equation 9 is added to the target 𝑡 to find the required target Fig.7. Field layout used in Simulation (top view)
vector 𝑡′ . Fig. 8 shows a sample PD output generated using
𝑡′ =
@5i
(13) MATLAB combining two sine waves, of frequency 5.2kHz
@5i and 5.6kHz, and noise. The program was written to do FFT
analysis of the photodiode signal and determine the
To achieve this target vector, the final change has to be fundamental signal frequencies and the refelector
performed in the reflector surface normal, which can be corresponding to these frequencies. Table IV gives the pre-
calculated using Equation 14. written table and the mirror identified by the FFT analysis.
 TABLE II. COORDINATES OF PHOTODIODE which was comparable with the required (desired) target
PD position with respect to vector.
Coordinates
Receiver
Table V shows the output obtained when the control system
Left [30.00, 19.50, 100.00]
is operated in night mode.
Right [30.00, 20.50, 100.00]
Up [30.00, 20.00, 100.50] VI. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
Down [30.00, 20.00, 99.50]
This work will soon be applied to an actual pitch/roll
(tip/tilt) heliostat system that is being fabricated, as part of a
complete multiple heliostat and receiver test system. There, the
theory will be verified and validated. Further for the complete
closed loop control the signals from various sensors need to be
integrated with computer, study is in progress on ways to do
this integration. Additional work has been completed on the
kinematics of the pitch/roll heliostat, which is being published
separately.
VII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors thank Sri Mata Amritanandamayi Devi, the
Fig.8. Sample PD output Chancellor of Amrita University, for inspiration and
invaluable guidance for this work. We would also like to
thank Dr. Mark Convery for his generous assistance and help.
The assistance of Mr. Kiranlal is hereby noted.
REFERENCES
[1] Gregory J. Kolb, Clifford K. Ho, Thomas R. Mancini,
Jesse A. Gary, “Power tower technology roadmap and
cost reduction plan” Sandia Report SAND2011-2419,
Sandia National Laboratory, California 2011
[2] S. Schell, “Design and Evaluation of eSolar’s Heliostat
Fields”, Solar Energy 85(4), 614-619 (2011).
Fig.9. Output of FFT analysis of sample signal [3] A. Kribus, “Closed Loop Control of Heliostats”, Energy
29(5-6), 905-913 (2004).
TABLE III. OUTPUT OF FFT ANALYSIS OF ABOVE SAMPLE [4] Google. RE. <C Heliostat Project Overview. 2013;
Mirror No: Predefined Frequency Mirror Identified Available from:
1 5 kHz No http://www.google.org/pdfs/google_heliostat_project.pdf
2 5.2 kHz Yes [5] Mark R. Convery, “Closed-loop control for power tower
3 5.4 kHz No heliostats”, in Proc. of SPIE Vol. 8108, pp. 81080M-1.
4 5.6 kHz Yes 2011.
[6] J. Freeman, Kiranlal, E.U., Rajasree S.R.: Study of the
TABLE IV. OUTPUT WHEN CONTROL SYSTEM OPERATES TO GIVE Errors Influencing Heliostats for Calibration and Control
REFLECTOR ANGLE System Design, IEEE International Conference On
Mirror Required Vector Obtained Vector Error Recent Advances and Innovations in Engineering
no: ( By Calculation) (By Control system) (%) (ICRAIE-2014), May 9th - 11th, 2014.
1 [0.2822, 0.1881,0.9407] [0.2825,0.1875,0.9408] 0.52% [7] V. Lindberg and J.P. Maki “SKF Dual Axis Solar
2 [0.2860, 0.0953,0.9535] [0.2863,0.0941,0.9535] 0.55% Tracker-From Concept to Product”, Chalmers University,
3 [0.2860,-0.0953,0.9535] [0.2859,-0.0973,0.9537] 0.62% Sweden (2010).
4 [0.2822,-0.1881,0.9407] [0.2819,-0.1898,0.9412] 0.65% [8] Willem Landman, Dept. Mechanical and Mechatronic
Engineering, Stellenbosch University, “Sensitivity
TABLE V. OUTPUT WHEN OPERATED AFTER SUNSET Analysis of a Curved Heliostat Profile.”
Operating time
Date: 12/03/2015 [9] Reda, I., Andreas, “Solar Position Algorithm for Solar
Time : 22:38:48 Radiation Applications,” pp.55; NREL Report No. TP-
End of Day
Message 560-34302, 2003, Revised January 2008.
Mirror aligned for next day
Date : 13/03/2015
[10] Mark Pedley, “Tilt Sensing Using a Three-Axis
Next operating time Accelerometer,” Application note, Freescale
Time: 06:50:00
semiconductor, AN3461, Rev.6, 2013.
Table IV gives the output obtained for the system [11] William B. Stine, Michael Geyer “Power from the Sun”,
simulation. It can be seen that a target vector was obtained www.powerfromthesun.net, 2011.

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