{ Carolyn Merchant c 7 5 5 7 ; ae = DEATH | « NATURE WOMEN, ECOLOGY, AND THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTIONFor David and John, Elizabeth and Ana Ackalanent is made the persion of the Pontes oa fore eee eter ar eee per eed Bee a ene rae ee pat sn aenel fue ee eters Gute Rca Sag a en ig Tel Re Soom PADRE oe aed S beeen THEDEATHOF NATURE: Women Felony andthe Scenic evan Capt 1 Yo by Cann Marcas Pats oo cmv © 69 ty Cab Me Sanna Pride ed Ses nee Nop teres Tor nfrmaton ans Harper & Row, Pubcber, In 10 Eat Shed {ery of Cnr Casini Pain Dat The dh a ue i | riety ui i 80 wih ew rece. | Ircoes ewan! rece |, Hein ce: cy st | Gnnntar my Wk? ww 2esie ' SRN Os2509955 MON WORT ESA? 99990900200090.009 0000 00000000060 0006NE ES ON =) ~ ~ ” 7 ° ~ 7 7 2 ° ° ” a 9 7 a vows COC VOOVOS 3 > era e wae 10. nL. 2. Contents List of Tustrations viii Time Line x Acknowledgments xii Preface: 1990 xv Introduction: Women and Ecology xix | Nature as Female 1 "arm, Fen, and Forest: European Ecology in Transition” 42 Organic Society and Utopia 69 ‘The World an Organism 99 §. Nature as Disorder: Women and Witches 127 Production, Reproduction, and the Female 149 7. Dominion over Nature 164 ‘The Mechanical Order 192 Mechanism as Power 216 ‘The Management of Nature 236 ‘Women on Nature: Anne Conway and Other Philosophical Feminists 252 Leiboiz and Newton 275 Epilogue 290 Notes 296 Index 330List of Illustrations igee 1 The Nymph ofthe Spring by Ln cnCraach S18 Conan) Regretuced Se Rakes of Gronach (Lond: Ph distr) te he Tym, we? The female sul he war sed by aban Tae de ey. ab ‘tf Minos Mpa (Openbin, Auta Wo tp 8 Cotesy The Bon Fe 3 an Athanaie Kier, Oe pur hei, 4 va (Roe. Mesa {Seah p85. Coutay The Bo re Lisa, Unity a lor Fired Hermupvoi, tom Aan ci euch ete a issomali de ha alchemy (Now Yor ‘oor, 193), Pte o Fre 5 The anon a the slr an ban ‘Phorum (aitcen cent) Ra Rake dicey (New Yor Avon 197), Paced 2 Fore & Miners dvr ses sd et (ice (380), ane. Here €. Hower ‘Low Hoo (New York: Dover 1830 3. % Fw 3. Vee of ri ilies, in Gee ‘Ab ee etic 3), re (Now Yor Dove 930) ph we 8 The Clases of Men, wondet >y Heme Wade (cn 153) Repro by Permian of the Pt Dion, New Fett Lier, As, Lena Ti (Som Anise Ceerien, Harm oe ‘ernie (Amiterdam, ie) Curry Bi Roy V. Srey Suna tu, Calor Fe 10. The hermae pisoper ao Ine te oles af ature, eg’ oy Shaan Theta deBry. Rope tot ‘lame’ Papen, Hoe En Elena Nove de Secrets homie’ (Opens, 16h Sens Beat [nd Rae Barnrner Ven, 60) 10 Few Il, onf Pi den in Geman ei Soa seen Reposce fam Hamre Such, Te Retaaence Women tier Yo Mscaweni ot, Pateae as Fete 12 Te worn being ap «on rey nl gn Sot nab apo on (hee You dee, 9), Pe Few 13. The Witcher, woods by Hae Badung Gren anc. tad ate (S10, (Gecmary) Beri Sete Mots, Re: Profcel oe Hanae Sut The Re- ‘eins, Wan Roe Yak Mee Bratt Dor goad tl el 19% (Genmay). Ber, Sttiche Maen Re: fin, Pe Few 18 Tie pape from Maier ot Ihe Mom Woman (Logon, 1620). Reyer (hed y permion oT Huan ten Sta Maina, Calera 167 Fete 10 Five nen From the At Cx les ofthe Fle Shape Liber, ‘Wangan Dy Art vl 656 (Nuch Pier 1 awe 17. Nature Reval Hersey my ait Bere othe Bec Libery, Unies Salo Bal aft Ging by Agotino Rams i hi Yor ‘tar amd Yaesu Mackie tan, Moe Yeah Goat 6 199 ten rola, omar, aes copjrht Matha, Teach ret tod Bannerer hain, Neon fs poe 18. Figure an Watered pop fo ene Vina and Ingenious Machine as ‘Mar Tech Gol © 196 ter anal ‘Sinn glemsy, notes oprah” Mabe ‘Teach Gm and Bene Ferg ‘Soo Md ohn Hops Unersiy ace cae Bunae mates SRE age eee Batman From Hent Meet Sete te et and Mistry. ta, EWM omacd Franca R Madan (Nee Ving Pe 9 Pe 72" Oosin Fanta Pha, 1966 A Vitec, tear and wel’ t I t t t t t t t ! ! ! | t ' eens ! ' 1 ! ' ' J 1 1 ! ! J J ! ' 1 ' irene Poo, ‘State ramen tt and ME ‘tone REW. Madan ‘and Fae Madan ew York Viting Pron Pte 16. Orga pubic Bical de Viste, ae ‘Selby permis 6600008000000!the Period ofthe lie Revolution f Phe pa orice dt Mila [80 tates tran pee {Je sane Ye coat ef pce I ue ast sete [ihn Ona pera om [95 Gera Pants War ein Seaia Peteryyrentnts (ey en canine oe eo Gente aot ae wove (Soret tates tea oe ve | Sis rman Bobs 7 a I el complies The ich the esr che of he Bad | Fart nes) Sere BT tess Rib piss tbe Cope jn tl Pree Ted e | E88 Mary Ter Bondy May) cores ‘ation glad sn pets Pe | ane Ee Sev een eR Mie te Tbe 1 the of SESE sabe Kors ft Br of the Tum et tei ‘the Monstrous Regiment af Oe 1855 Joann Betts Det Poe's ar Mog 15st Desh of It Cain 1868 ams Ten De Ron Netra wa Pape Ppa 1572 Tyco ra cw (pen Sale he mort hes 1576 dona Ss Bot he Rpt 1578 Quen Habe gins. Landons 1586 gid Sets Dvn of ce at * 1587 Death of Mary Star, Quen of Sts 190 Edmund Speirs The Feri Quen 190 Hen Bop amen of 1594 Retnd Hak’ On The Lave of fe 5 saa Wim Gers Ox he Moret N62 Tonmu Campuree wits ly of 1 Acc Jame 110 he Eo 1403 Fee of Agarpendet annenes Ns acre ofthe ene es 1607 Feaning of Ime in Vga 1610 Gallas Sidra eee he dee oe hay 1610 Aceon of Lois XI tne of 16t6 Desh of Wan Steere 1616 Goiteey Goodmans The Fal of Mor 1618 Ty Var’ War bn 1609 Ree snc he harmon ns amore Wid 16 ear a” emma 12 nape mas Bagh ste Ia olny of Virgie 162) Ut il besos Pope 162 Cait Rte ie in ie o Pe va La i Qt Marin Manan’ a Yo de S- Aer Chinois 1S Asc ef Chr 1 tron of 1627 Kepler's Roping Taber 13 Gales cert ye Ison 1634 Corse Verma, Dutch ener, Tecan pun wo uh fee td sighs Seated Rie Epa 165 Dest of Rober Fad 16 Galles ours Te New So 162 Raph Ci War boi 1642 Dest icles 1642 Dent of Galea 160 Death of Loi 0, 163 Avceon of Laie XIV (at age 5) 10 ‘Seon of Face cami 1644 Deca Prints of Pilz 14a Death of Jotann Bata Van Hel 1646 Mathew Hop's wich ri in Be and 16 Chats of gland bbendd 169 Gerard Witney and Diggers take rer Gerge Hil Srey 1669 Pare Gnvendie Syiagne Philo | ner ipoee tga Thome. Vagtns me dope 1651 Witla Haney Ox Generation 1459 Henry Moret ie date the USO wn Gi’ “Maso ‘phere pemure . NG Dest of Ove Comme 160 Engin Restrain 141 Dat Get Marin, Ce 16 Joan Erin's uf 5 in ep elon 1665 Newton lye. foadaton fe tw 9 ‘aon, nepal cen, nl dese erin 1667 Soe Mia's Paradis Last 6 Te Dn wate ii 4678 Raph Cuter Tne Ilo 1629 Dash of Ame Coney 145 Aceon ons eno Fe as Beard de Fotese's Conerston onthe Prati of Weide NT Si es Novos Pract Mate 167 Elaatte Calis pies cngrs 168 Engl (or lr) Reson 1699 Acenice of Willan ad Mary ¢ hee of England 190 J Lacks To Trenton Gover 1196 Francis Mercary Van Heimat vi ‘Gud Wibim von Leb Hane! 1 Acca of Queen Aan 1 throne ¢ England 1713 Wan Deham’s Pc heaogr 11 Lathe creyonecCC é ¢ 1 1 { | | | 1 1 | 1 1 | 1 1 1 ' ' ' ' ' 1 J ! J ! Acknowledgments 1s pleasure to record my gratitude to the persons and onganiza tions who have supported and contributed 10 this book. My teachers have been the people, the period, and the place in which I haves Tived in recent years. The inital inspiration for a critical reassess: ‘ment ofthe Scientife Revolution came from castes and numerous © conversations with my feiend and fellow historian of science David Kubrin, who in the early 1970s was teaching courses in the San Francisco Liberation School, His perspectives on Isaae Newton, the ‘mechanistic analysis of nature, and the dialectic have been nd ‘mental toa conceptual reorganization ofthe period's history. Sur- ‘ined support, ideas, and critical evaluation have been offered by = Charles Sellers, 2 colleague and close friend. Both have read and < criticized the manuscript theough its many stages. Many others have contributed thir scholarly knowledge and © stimulating conversation. I have gained much from colleagues at = the University of San Francisco, specially the “Human Prospect” =. faculty group (sponsored by a grant from the National Endowment’ for the Humanities, EP-25821-76-1126), and from my science and’ humanities students, in whose presence the themes of this book, were first developed and tested. The Founding mothers, fathers, and = students of “Strawberry Creek College,” of the University of Cai {ornia at Berkeley offered me opportunities to deepen my analysis “Many references and thematic suggestions have come from mem: ‘bere of the Univesity of California, Berkeley, History Department, < especially John Heilbron, Roger Hahn, Natalie Davis (now at © Prineeton University), Thomas Laqueur, Gene Brucker, and Jan de'C Vries. Historians of science Walter Pagel, Robert Kargon, Donna, Haraway, Belty Jo Toter Dobbs, and Margaret Osler have read and evaluated individual chapters. Iam also grateful forthe value © able suggestions and support of Theodore Roszak, Clarence C Giacken, Everett Mendelsohn, Robert Cohen, Erwin Hiebert, Nina =[ | | j j : 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 _ ~ 2 * * * + « Gelbart, Elisabeth Gleason, Shirley Cartwright, Petor Dal ‘Karen Hermass, and Hida Smith ‘The research for this book was supported by & grant from the [ational Science Foundation, SOC 7642650. A year of writing, re Aection, and final synthesis was made possible by a fellowship from the American Council of Learned Sotities in Conjunction with a fellowship at the Cente for Advanced Study inthe Behaviocal Set ences, Stanford, California. 1am grateful to the National Endow ‘ment forthe Humanities, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the An drew W. Melion Foundation for grants contributing to my year at {the Center; tothe fellows ofthe classes of 1978 and 1979, who pro vided intelectual challenge and critical comment--partiularly Nannerl Keohane, Yaron Ezrahi, Charles Neider, Houston Baker, Alfonso Ortiz, and Bruce Kuklck; and to Gardner Lindaey, Pres. ton Cutler, andthe entice staff ofthe Center for creating an atmos Sphere of intellectual stimulation, cheer, and comfort. Tam espe ally indebted to Christine Hoth, Bruce Herley, and Patricia Knoblock for research aid, to Heather MacLean, Joanne Fox, and ‘Susan Thistle for typing the manuscript, and to John Shopp and Katharine Reigstad for editorial suggestions. Iam indebted to John, Leseh, Roger Hahn, and Mirko Grmek fora in obtaining 2 pho. {ograph of the Barrias sculpture, Although many have given their time and support tothe writing ofthis book, the interpretation presented here remains my own, The analysis relies on many quotations from primary sources. To avoid an undue burden of notes, quotations have often been listed Sequentilly in a single note atthe end of « paragraph containing several phrases or, in the case ofan extended discussion, in ingle note at the beginning of several paragraphs. All spelling has been ‘modernized. My eatier publications have been in the name Caro. ym Its, cM. Berkeley, California 1979 Seat, Preface: 1990 Inthe decade since The Death of Nae fs appeared, its major themes have been enforced. Today, a global cogil eis that goes bejond ‘he environmental crisis of the 1970s threatens the health ofthe entire planet. Cone depletion, carbon dioxide bldyp, clorofocarbon eri sons, and acid rain upset the respication and clog the pores and anes of the ancient Earth Mother, rechristened “Gai,” by atinospheie chemist James Lovelock. Toni wastes, pesticides, nd herbicides scp into ground ater, marses, bys, and oceans, poling Gaia's circulatory sytem Topical rainforests and northern old-growth ores disappear t alarming rates as lomberers shear Gaia of ber teses. Entre species of plats acd animals Become extinct each day. A new partnership between humans and the earth is urgenlly needed CCeietrating the tent ith anniversary of Rachel Carson's Sie Spring (1962), 2 1987 conference on “ecofeminist perspectives” called upon women to lad an ecological revolution to testoe planetary ecolgy. During the past decade, women ove th entire globe hive emerged as ecological activists. In Sweden, they have protested the se of herbicides on forests by offering jam made from tained heres to members of Pariment. In India, ty joined the Chipeo, ar “tee bugging” move nen, t preserve fuelwood for cooking protest ver marke imberng. In Kenya's Greenbelt movement dey planted milions of tees im an effort to reverse deserticaon. In agland, they camped fr many yeas at Greesharn Common to protest the deployment of mica missiles that threatzned the continuation of ie om earth, German women helped 10 found the Greens Party 28a platfoem for geen future forthe covnty andthe plone. Native American women protested rani mining Uke ‘than increased number of cancer cass on thet reservations. AC Lane Canal neat Niagara Falls, housewives demanded scion fom New Yor state offices over an outbreak of birth defects and miscarriages in neighborhood bull onthe ste of former hazardous chemical dan. ‘Simultaneously eminist scholars were prodcing an explosion o bookson ancient goddesses that became the basis fora renewed earth rooted Spiituaity, They revived interest in statues, images, petty, and rts surounding prehistoric earth goddesses, the Mesopotimian Innane, the Eaypian Iss, the Greck goddesses Demeter nd Gate, the Roman Cees, and Faropean paganism, aswell Asian, Latin Amevian, and Affceg female symbols and myths. Concets, sie thete, solstice and eu roti sta, poetry bookstores, and Jetue series eebated haan resonance with the earth ‘Yet these celebrations ofthe connection between women and nature ‘contain an inherent contradiction. If women overly identify with nature ‘and bo are devalue in moder Westen clr, dnt such ents ork, ‘against women's prospects for thi own liberation Is nt the contatn ‘of woman and nator frm of ese? Are not women adie that by virtue of thc ov reproductive biology they ae infact closer ‘ature than men and that indeed their social role is that ‘of career? Such actions seem to cement existing forms of oppression aginst bah ‘women and nature, ether dan liberating eer But concepts of nature and women ate historical and social constr ins. There are no anchangng“escaialcharactnstice of sex, odes ‘ornare Iva form concepts abou nature and thes own latin Ships to that draw on the ees and norms of te society into which they are bor, socialized, and edcated. People living ins Fines prt ostruct nature in ways that gve meaning to thei own lies as eres or ordinary people, men or women, Westemers or Eastemets. The histori: ‘task, “How have people histeneally conceptualized nate?" "Hon, ave they behaved in relationship o that construction” * What histopead ‘evidence supports 2 particular interpretation?” Betwoon the sixteenth and seventh centuries the image of an oe: anic cosmos with a living female earth a its center gave way to a ‘mechanistic work view in which nature was reconsrted as Jead spt !sstve, tobe dominate and controled by humans. The Death of Mature sas with he economic, cultural, and sclentife changes trough whack this as ransfomation ime abou. In secking to understand bow poop {eaceptualzed nature inthe Scientie Revolution, Lam asking not sboee utchangingessenes, but about connections between social change sa hanging constractons of nature. Similarly, when woren today sen to change society's domination of nature, they ae actin to overtone ‘modem constructions of mature and women as culturally passe and subordinate When the hisoran iss questo so te way ne vas views inamer sis ao sting gusts meaning he own cro, One reson the stl ges scien Te Desh oR of ners at we mabe experiencing sir lon ty imchne image tha han doin Wes ute rte pat dred years secs wo be ving yt somehow. Some el te tsomason "new pag er al "dep eal en teal ra postmodern eed id ve. ergng oe the pas dca a amis of endtc pep ht challenge te Scene Rooks nunc vw ol taune ‘Acconingt ct David Ulm, a mechanistic hes hase om og ‘sso ha ater vise at patho temo, con ‘or quarks) moved by external forces may be giving way to a new science ase on he pricy of pcess nti ey eth cata eee telat and quanta Beary hepanocatenge mecens Reunig thoy poled at es wi ayn eng sad ota pce Steg leas, much te wots is Hong sea, eee parle. iy neat wih and fy eah oer, bt wee Sl or Seed eel ant spate fm exch ob, Guat mea Inada eat chal, Maton nt continous, a ean sec, bt ors in aps. Parley, auch sir, eve HAE aes, while aves, sch igh wes, ee Ie parce depen cr Sin nat. oc, ah ae to mechanism and pat oe epic word vic, 2 fang Ghuncteii of mater, € i's proces ics lege chai stl fuer He wg, Sut ised of tring ith as pimary a tung up wiles scomiarypeomens «pss i edd ht Sats wi fied mata wiles foo ery ele Be bmorcn 4 dries te tenes! wd casa cans a ‘condry phenomenon. Te exe ot of he esa mr A ‘Wik ee on om eine tiene ein Iw of cacy ‘Aner chllng to machanism cone fom ew temodbanice efi igpne. The equivom and eam eonddmamie ofninent cers pss al Bently se, ila ses sucha seam egies an gers. gg’ a fm eqiii mayan als the post ate lsc of ranization can spoaaneus mere nto dork he yO67 2 2 ware AFR eee sytem breaks dowa, His approach applic to social and ccological a. tems, which are open rate than closed, and cps to account er bee seal and socal evn, ‘The recent emergence of chios theory in matematics suggests that ‘etcrministc, linear, predictive equations, which form the barf neh anism, may apply 10 unusual rather than usual situations, Chace he which a small effect may lad toa large effect, may be the aor, Tee «battery Mapping its wings in lw can celina hutricane in Paid ‘Most envizonmental and biologie! systems, such a changing weather, popation, rose, nonpioic hear illations, anc eoloieal pares ‘maybe goverod iy nonlinear chaotic elaionshipe Chaos thors roel pater of complexity tht lead to a great understanding of heel be, aviors; but militate against overetianee onthe simple predictions of linear eieretaleqeations What al these developments point oi the possibility of «new work view that could guide twenty-fisteeniry clizens in an ecole ‘stainable way of ile. The mecbanistic framework that legitimated the indasrial revolution with its side effects of resource depletion an pot Ietion may be losing is efficacy ae a framework, A tonmchang tc ssienoe ant an ecological ethic, howewe, mst supost a new ecommnte ‘cde grounded i he recycling of enews resources, he canseraton ‘of nontenewableresoures, andthe restoration of stainable eon ‘hat ffl basic human physical and spiritual need. Perhaps Gara wl ten be bese aS Introduction Women and Ecology WW 20 nature have an age-old sssciation—an affliaton that has pesisied throughout culture, language, an history, Their ancient interconnections have been dramatized by the simek, {ancity of two recent socal movements-women's Iberation, sya bozed in its controversial infancy by Betty Frieden's Fomine Mystique (1963), andthe ecology movement, which bult up during ‘the 1960s and finally captured national attention on Earth Daye 1970, Common to both is an egalitarian perspetive. Women ass strugeing to free themseives from cultural and economic contrainte that have kept them subordinate to men in American society, Env Foomentalists, warning us of the ireversible consequences of com, tiaving environmental exploitation, are developing an ceolonen) étic emphasizing the interconnectedness between people and no tue. Justaposing the goals ofthe two movements can ruggent ew values and social scuctures, based not on the domination of momen and nature as resourees but onthe full expresion of both mate and female tafent and on the maintenance of environmental intosnty.[New social concerns generate new intellctuel and historical problems. Conversely, new interpretation of the past prove pe Spectves onthe preset and hence the poner Co changeit Today's feminist and ecological consciousness can be wed to examine the ‘istorieal interconnections between women and natute that devel oped a the modern siete and economic world took form in ths sixteenth and seventeenth cenories—a transformation that shaped and pervades todays mainstream values ond percep, Feminist history in the bade sense requites that we look at history with ealtarian eye, sein it anew from the viewpoint not ‘only of women bot aso of soil and racial groups and the anton favironment, previously ignorad as the underlying texources ot bch Western calture‘and it progses have been bull. To wate history trom a ferns perspective ro tur it wpe damm tos Social structure fom the bottom up and to flip ep mainstream Values, An egalitarian perspctive scords both women and mcr their place in history and delineates their eas ad roles ‘The ine ‘act of serual difeences and sexlinked language on cltral ie logy and the se of male, female and androgynous imagery wil have important places in the new history. The ancien identity of ncure a8 3 mttering mother links wom cs history with the history of the environment and eolgial ‘hanes. The female earth was central othe organic comlogy tha was undeimined bythe Siete Revltin and these of ¢ mars ‘etriented culture in early modern Europe. The ecology move ment has awakened interest inthe values and concepts asoiatd historically wit the premodern organic world. The ecologies! mod and its asociated ethics make posible a frsh and cilia intr Bretaton of the ie of modern scence inthe crucial pesiod when ut cosmos ceased tobe viewed san organism and became inaead 3 machine. Both the women’s movement and the ecology movement are Sharply erica ofthe cot of competition, aggression, and domia tion arising from the market exonomy's modus operand im nate and society. Ecology has buena subversive scence nits rita of the conscavences of uncontlled growth asicated with captain, ‘technology, and progress— concepts that over the lst two hundred years have been treated with reverence in Westera culture Theo ‘Sion of the ecology movement has ben to cestne the tale of ha luce disrupted by industrialization and overpopulation. ft has eme asized the ned to lve within the ecles of mature, a3 oppsed fo {he exploitative, linear mentality of forward progres. I focuses on the cots of progres, the liits to growth the defcicacie of tc soogiesldeison making. and the arpeney ofthe conservation ad recycling of natural resources. Similry, the women's monemeat ‘as exposed the cons forall human beings of competition inthe ‘marketplace, the loss of meaningfal productive economic roles for women in early capitalist society, and the view of both women and nature as peychologial and reerational resources for the hated cntrepreneurhusband 1 is oot the purpose of this analysis to reinstate nature a the mother of humankind noe to advocate that women feastome the role of nrteer dictated by that historical wentty. Roth ned to be liberated from the anthropomorphic and sereotypic labels that sade the seious underlying issues The weather forecaster who {els us what Mother Nature has instore for us this weekood and legal systems that eats woman's sentlity as er hesand's prop: fey are equally pity of perpetuating a satan sepesive to bth women and nature. Nor am T asserting the eisenet of female per ‘exptons or receptive behavior. My intent is instead to examine the ‘nus asscited with the images of women and ature as they re late othe formation of our modern word and tei implications for cour lives today. ‘In investigating the roots of our current envionment dlemens and is connections to seienc, tchnology. and the economy, me ‘ust reexamine the Formation of a word view and a sence tat, by reeaceptulizing realty a8 a machine rather thane living or ‘nism, sanctioned the domination of bith pature end women The contributions of such founding “fathers” of modern scence 3s Francs Bacon, Willa Harvey, René Descartes, Thomas Hotes, and Isaac Newton must be recralted. The late of other options ltenativephilsophies, and social groupe shaped by the organic world view and resistant tothe growing explatative mentality needs ‘eapprisal To understand why one rad rather than the other Was {ake requires a bread synthesis of Both the natural and etal vironments of Western soily at the historical turning point This book elaborates an ecological perspective thot includes both nature and humankind i explaining the developments tha esl NAGATAHNTINNOMOOOCEOEEPMO OOO ODO Kom Oe o OO EG IPO OOoE vw in the death of nature as a living boing andthe accserating explo tation of bath human and natural reouzes in the mame of caltare and progres. "The cnt problem af this Sook i informed by the concerns of the prevnt. Yet the perspectives of our ownage do tot dictate the account that results Tasted they lp us to formulate questions and to reveal aspects ofthe Seite Revolution that might eter Wise escape us and that have validity fora history of the period, Several diferent retoutions (cok place ia the vaiout sence of the sixteenth aad seventeenth centuries, and 1 do not attempt 2 comprehensive inlegration of them here. Yet during the sime ae Im which the much celebrated Copernican revoltion wae tats focming people's image of the beavens above, a more subtle yet equally pervasive evolution was altering their concept of the earth underfoot the ancient center ofthe organic coumos By examining the easton rom the organism to the machine as the dominant metaphor binding together the coos, roity, and the sel ato single eultoral reabity—e world view-—1 ple less emphasis on the development ofthe intra content of science than fn he Social and etlecual factor involved in the transformation (Ofcourse, such external factors do nat ease intelectual to invent science ora metaphysics forthe conscious purpose of ting #30 Gin context. Rather, a array of ideas exit, avilable to given ge; some of these for unaticalated or even unconscious reas: seem plasibe to individuals oe social groupe; others do not. Some ideas spread; others temporary de out. But the diczion snd eu ‘mulation of social changes begin to dillerentate among the spec. ‘rum of posible that rome ieasasrume « ore central role in the array, while exers move lo the periphery. Out ofthis ier atid appeal of dea that seem most plausible under particular 30- ial conditions, cultral transformations develop. "Nori the specie content of science determine by external fc- tors. Instead soaial concern serve conicoualy or unconsciously ji a giver research program and to st problems for a develop ing science te pursue. Culteral norm and socal ieologies, slong ‘ith religious aed philosophical srumptions, frm ales vble but onctheles important component of the conceptual framework ‘ought to the study ofa sientite problem. Through dialectical in- "eration scence and culture develop ae an organic whol, frag- renting and reinegrating ou ofboth social and intellectual ten ‘Sons and tendencies, Between 1500 and 1700, the Western word bean to take on fe tures tha, the dominant opinion of toda, would make it modera land progiesie. Now, ecology and the women’s movement have be- {un to challenge the rales on wich that opinion based. By ent Cally reexamiing history fom these perspectives, we may begin to discover values associated vith the pemodera world that may be worthy of uassformation aed reintegration into todays and omor- fons tity Nore on TERMINOLOGY. Nature in ancient and carly modern times had a numberof itereated meanings With respect o ind vidual, it refered tothe properties, inherent character, and vill Powers of persons, animals oF things, or more generally Yo human ature Italo meant an inherent impulte to act and to sutsin ae tion; conversely, t0go against nature” was to disegad this inmate Impulse, With respec tothe material wordt refered to dyna je creative and regulatory principle that cased. phenomena and their change and development. distinction was commonly made between natura naturans, oF nature creating, and nature natura the nntral creation, "Nature was contasted with at (Cohn) and with actif re- sted things It was pesnied asa female-eing, eg, Dame No- ture; she was alternately a prudent lady, an empress, 2 mother, et. ‘The cou of nate and the laws of nature ere the actaliration of ber force, The slate of nature was the state of mankind prot 10 Social organization and prior tothe state of race. Nature spirits ratee dees, virgin nyphs, and elementals were thought to Side in or be associated with natural objects, a both Westera and non-Western cultures, nature was raditon- ally feminine. In Latin ad the romance languages of medical aad ‘aly modern Europe, nature was feminine nova, and hence, the virtues (temperance, wiom, ei), personified Teale ( in: atura, ae, German: die Natur, French la notre, ilian: la natura; Spanish: la narura.) The Greek word physi was ako fei Tn the early modern pid, the term organ wualy refered to' | | the bowily organ, structures, and organization of living eins aa accra was the doctrine (hat organic sructre was the weit ofan inherent, ada ive property in mate. The werd orgai- verrhowerer, was lo sometimes sed 10 refer to machine of a0 see neve, That a clock was sometimes called an “organial ely hte tome machines were sid to operate by oreasicil ep ahan mechanea, action sf the touch of = person was i seve Wcchanical refereed tothe machise and tol trades the mans open the hapa inanimate machines that nck son: ‘cy, oition, and thought; and the mechanical sciences? curren 1 Nature as Female Toe rote ins iat nm Fa ln tt rere ie human bigs have fived in daly, immediate, or nie felon wih the aataral order fr thei stance, Tm 1500, Fae ay interaction with natre was sil srvctgd for most Euro tea uet was Tor other peoples, by close-in, ooperativ, osm Fa surprising that for sstznth century Europeans the root metaphor binding together the self, society and the cosmos root at ofan organism, As a projection ofthe way people x0 TES aay lifes organiemie theory emphasized interdependence Teneo ine pots ofthe hursan body, subordination of individual 0 arrtsanl purposes in family, community, and state, and wal Me ‘ermeating the cosmos to the Towle stone. “The es of ature as living organism bad philosophical ante cadena in sient systems of thought, variations of which formed reat ieolgial framework ofthe sixteenth center. The Te ine metaphor, however, was immensly Reibe and ad ogg nec DHOHOHHHOOHOONHELE ERAT? 2 + + + * > 7 + + > * y able to varying contests, depending on which ofits presuppositions teas ephasize. A spectrum of pilosophical and polite! posit Ges existed, all of which could be subsumed under the general rw be of organi [Noeune as NURTURE: CONTROLLING IMAGERY. Centra the organic they was he Merton fare, cpa te arth with urtrig mote edly bereft female who ied for he cds of akin na nde, med unter Ba Another opening image of nature emale wes sao Prva Wid and won stre tt ead vende viene soma, routs, and general haa. Bath vere ented with the female Sex and were rojations of human percep eno the exe ‘er The metantor of the crs string nether war rade 2 to vansh a's daninan image a the Siete Revlon Ceti wo mecatize ano tatoalie the worl view. The send image, ature ore, cal frth sm ipertat moder ie, that of power ore autre’ Two new Hes thre of chan aed of the domination snd mastery of natre,Berne ee eoap the modem word An organelle mentality in with f- ie pindpe played an inporant ole wa undermined tnd te. aed by a mechanically evened entity ht eer simi Or wed female principles in a epltatve manner. Ae Western Entire eee incense) mechanized inthe 160 te female sirth and vin earth spit were subvelby the machine The change in contling ioagry was dey rtd co changes in bua tite and behavior Load the bth, Where 2s the martin eth iags ca evened 3 cere comtan, Tete te pee cy a moral) mantel an 3 Moa alwabl wih respect to the earth he pew images of ase ‘nd deninaton functioned cltaral sno forthe denudton Of matte Sot) pete tse now image conte te wr Ces ofcommercai and adatilraton, wich depended on ‘civies diet altering the cath mining riage dtr oan aarting (bing up stumps to cl el) The new Activites lized new echoalopes—iit and force pu, cane, indo, geared weds, ap ver, hang, pons, ads Stern verso materi fling mil yesh bellows, avalon, bucket chains, roles, geared and wheeled bridges, ranks, claborate block and tackle ystems, worm, spur, own, and lantern gears, ems and eccentrics, ratchets, wrenches, press, nd ‘crows in maoicent variation and combination “These technological and commercial changes did no take place quill, they developed gradually over the ancicat and medical tras, a dd the accompanying environmental deterioration, Slowly rer many centuries early Mositeranean and. Greek civilization ad mined and quarried the mounlaimides, altered the forested landscape and overgraved te hil. Norris, technologies were low level, peopl considered themseives part of Dnt eames, ad animism and fertility cults that treated ature as sacred were a ‘mero Roman civilization was more pragmatic, secular, and com ‘metclal and is environmental impact more intense. Yet Roma writers such at Ovid, Senecs, Pliny, and the Stoic philosophers openly deplored mining as an abuse of their mother, the cath ‘With the disineprtion of feudalism andthe expansion of Europe ans ito new worlds and markets, commercial society began to bate tn accelerated impact onthe nateal environment By the sinteenth tnd sevestecoth centuries, te easion between technological devel- opment inthe word of action and the controling organic images in the world ofthe mind had become too great The old stractres vere incompatible with the new activites. Both he murturing and donation metaphors had existed in phi Tosophy, religion, ad iterate. The ides of dominion oer the earth cxistol in Grock philosophy and Christin religion that of the nue Turing earth, in Greek and other pagan philosophies. But, as the ‘scanomy became modernized and the Scientific Revolution proceed tl, the dominion metaphor spread beyond the religious sphere and Sssumed ascendancy inthe socal and pital spheres well Those ‘vo competing images and their normative asocations ean be found insixteenth-cenuryiterature, art, philwophy, and scence. ‘The image of the earth 2s living organism and nurturing imather had served as cultural constraint string the actions of| Dumas being One doesnot realy slay a mother, di into here trails for gold or mutilate er body, although commerci) mining ‘would Soon require that. As long as the earth was considered tobe “live and sensitive, it could be considered a beach of human ethical Behavior to carryout destructive aes gaint i or most teaton-sl cltures, minerals and metals eipened in the teres of the Barth Mother, mines were compared tober raging, and metallurgy wat {he human hastening ofthe birth ofthe ving metal nthe atl womb of the furaee—an abortion of the meta’ natural growth le before its time. Miners fered propitistan to the delues of the sol and subterranean world, performed ceremosil scrdses od observed strict cleus, serualabtiaence, and fasting be: fore violating the sacredness of the living earth by sinking mine Smith asumed an awesome responsiblity in precipitating te met a's birth though sling. fsin. and beting it with hammer and anvil they were often accorded the statu of shaman in tell ‘als and their tools were thought to hold special powers. ‘The Renaissance image of the nirtaring arth sil eared with sul ei! contro and restraint. Such imagery found in a cul ‘ure’ iterature can play «normative role within the culture, Coo. lollng images operate as ethical restrtnts ora ethical sane. Yions—as subtle “ought” or “ougBt-nots.” Thus as the descriptive ‘metaphors and images of nature change, a behavioral restraint can ‘ve changed ino a sanction. Such a change inthe iimage nnd dev scription of nature was occuring dering the course ofthe Scenic Rerolutien tis important to recognize the normative import of descriptive atements about nature. Contemporary phlorphers of language fave critically reasested the earlier port distinction between the is" of cence and the “ought” of society, arguing that deny ‘ions and nerms are not opposed to one anther by lingusti sepa ‘atin into separate “is” apd “ought” statements, but are contained Within cach oer. Descriptive statements about the work! ean pe~ suppose the normative; they are then ethcladen. A statements ‘otmative function Lis in the ure tell as description. The moras ‘may be tacit assumptions hidden within the descriptions in such a vay as toact as invible restraint or moral ought-ots. The wer ‘or culture may not be conscious of the ethical mort ye ay net ‘sccordance with is dictates. The hidden norms may become con ‘scious of explicit when an alternative or contradiction present sail. Because language contains culture within lel, when an suage changes, a cature also changing in important ways, By zamining changes in descriptions of nature, we can then perceive ‘something of the changes in cultural values. To be awate of thei terconnertoness of destriptive and normative statements isto be able to evaluate changes in the later by observing changes In the former "Not only did ihe image of nature ax nertring mother contin tical implications but the organic framework isl, asa concep {ual system, abo carried wit it an associated value system. Con {emporary philosophers have argued that a piven normative theory 1 linked with certain conceptual frameworks and aa with others ‘The framenork contains within itself certain dimensions of sue tural and normative variation, while denying others belonging Lo an alternative or rival framework, ‘We cannot accept framework of explanation and yet reject i associated value judgments, boone the connection (the valu associated with the structure are not frutows. New commercial 8nd technological innovations, however, can epect and wadermine an established conceptual structure. New human and socal cod an thyeatenassocinted normative constraint, thesby demanding ‘Whe the organic framework was for many centri suiienty incgrative to override commercial developmen and technological Innovation, the acceleration of such changes throughout western [Burope dung the ssteenth and seventeenth centuries begun fon ermine the organic uty of the cosmos and tciely. Because the needs and purposes of society as 4 whole were shaaging withthe ‘commercial revolution, the values associated with the organic view of nature were no longer applicable; hence the plausibility of the conceptual framework itself was slowly, bat coatinaousty, being threatened, In order to make this interpretation of caltural change coaviae- it wll be advantageous to examine the variations ofthe organic framework, focusing on is astointod female imagery and pointing out the vals linked to each ofthe variants. It wl then be posible to show how, in the context of commercial and technological change, the elements of the organic tramework-—iteessumptions and yaluesaboet matare—could be either abearbed inte the emer ing mechanical framework o rejected an relevant. “The Renaissance view of nature and society was based on the or- fanic analogy between the human body, or microcosm, and the larger word, of maccocosm. 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