DESIGN OF “EXPERIMENTS USING THE ITAGUCH _ APPROACH» | (16 ) Steps to Product and Process Improvement RANJIT K. ROYDesign of Experiments Using the Taguchi Approach 16 Steps to Product and Process Improvement Ranji K. Roy, Ph.D., PE ®) AWILEMINTERSCIENCE PUBLICATION JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. New York * Chichester * Weinheim * Brisbane * Singapore + TorontoPageiv disclaimer ‘This netLibrary eBook does not inchide the ancillary media that was packaged with the original printed version of the book. Copyright 2001 by John Wily & Sons, Inc. Allrights reserved. 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If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional person should be sought. ‘This title is also available in prnt as ISBN 0-471-36101-1 (cloth : alk. paper) For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www: Wiley.com.Contents Preface Acknowledgments Symbols and Abbreviations Introduction DOE Application Skills Quick Step Summary Step 1. Design of Experiments and the Taguchi Approach Overview of Design of Experiments and the Taguchi Approach What Is Design of Experiments? Who Is Taguchi? Why Is Taguchi's Name Associated with DOE Today? What's New? New Philosophy and Attitude toward Buikling Quality New Way to Measure Cost of Quality New Disciplines ‘Simpler and Standardized Experiment Design Technique What Is DOE Alll about? Where Should DOE Be Applied? What ‘Types of Industries Can Beneft from DOE? Who Should Benefit Most from DOE? Summary Exercises xi 21 21 21 22 Page vExercise Answers Step 2. Definition and Measurement of Quality Performance Evahation and Measurement Process View of System under Study ‘Types of Results Evahtations for Comparison Setting Up Qualitek-4 Software in Your Computer Copying Example Experiment Files to the QT4 Program Directory 24 25 26 29 30 33 37Rumning the QT4 Program Comparison of Individual Performances Comparison of Group Performances ‘Measuring Variations with Mean-Squared Deviation Using QT4 for MSD Caleulation Results Comprising Multiple Criteria of Evaluation OEC Formulation Rationale for the OEC Fonnula Calculating OEC Using QTA Things to Remember When Using QT4 OEC Capabilities Summary Review Questions Exercises Exercise Answers Step 3. Common Experiments and Methods of Analysis Why Experiment? Language of Experiments Investigating One Factor at a Tane Finding the Desirable Factor Level ftom Mutilevel Experiments Investigating Several Factors One at a Time Lack of Reproduebility As! ng the Status of Performance from Multiple Sample Tests Summary Review Questions 37 40 40 aL 60 62 65 65 66 70 15 78 719 90 90 Page viExercises Exercise Answers Step 4. Experimental Design Using Orthogonal Arrays Experiments with Mutiple Factors Experiments That Look at All Possible Factor Combinations Shortcuts to Design of Experiments Properties of Orthogonal Arrays Orthogonal Properties of Arrays Common Orthogonal Arrays and Their Special Properties Using Orthogonal Arrays to Design Experiments Experiment Planning: First Step in DOE Application Completing Experiments as Planned Case Study 4.1: Part Strength Study Summary Review Questions Exercises Exercise Answers 91 93 95 95 96 99 99 100 102 103 110 115 11s 133 133 133 134Step 5. Experimental Design with Two-Level Factors Only Two Ways to Use an L-4 Orthogonal Array Four Ways to Use an L-8 Orthogonal Array Four Ways to Use an L-12 Orthogonal Array Four Ways to Use an L-16 Orthogonal Anay Sixteen Ways to Use an L-32 Orthogonal Array Improved Reproducibility with Orthogonal Array Experiments Analytical Verification of Orthogonal Array Experiments Summary Review Questions Exercises Exercise Answers Step 6. Experimental Design With Three- and Four-Level Factors Three Ways to Use an L-9 Orthogonal Array Over Six Ways to Use an L-18 Orthogonal Array Six Ways to Use an L-27 Orthogonal Array Four Ways to Use a Modified L-16 Orthogonal Array Nine Ways to Use a Modified L-32 Orthogonal Anvay Summary Review Questions Exercises Exercise Answers Step 7. Analysis of Variance Two Parts of the Analysis 136 136 143 159 161 162 165 168 168 168 171 172 193 198 204 206 207 207 Page viiPart I: Simple Analysis Part II: Analysis of Variance Why Perform ANOVA? ANOVA Calculation Strategy Degrees of Freedom Confidence Level and Confidence Interval ANOVA Utilities Enror'Term Test of Significance Experimenters: Be Aware Summary Review Questi Exercises Exercise Answers Step 8. Experimental Design for Studying Factor Interaction What Is Interaction, Anyway? 207 208 208 209 223 224 224Fons of Interactions Sorting Out Interactions between 2 Two-Level Factors Interaction Design, Analysis, and Correction Strategy for Experimental Study with Larger Number of Factors Interactions between Three- and Four-Level Factors Summary Review Questions Exercises Exercise Answers Step 9. Experimental Design with Mixed-Level Factors How to Determine Which Array to Modify Review of Array Modification Techniques Summary Review Questions Exercises Exercise Answers Step 10. Combination Desiens Factor-Level Compatbilities Combination Design Technique Main Effects of Combined Factors Summary Review Questions Exercises Exercise Answers 244 246 249 275 278 283 285 286 301 311 311 312 317 319 319 321 333 335 Page viiStep 11. Strategies for Robust Design Driving Philosophy Collecting Information about Variation Experimental Strategy for Robust Design Fomualities of Combining Noise Factors Preferred Ways to Treat Noise Factors Summary Review Questions Exercises Exercise Answers Step 12. Analysis Using Signakto-Noise Ratios Mean-Squared Deviation Definition of MSD for the Three Quality Characteristics Recommended Yardstick for Analysis Benefits and Complexties of Analyses Using S/NV Ratios 336 337 338 339 339 362 363 363 364. 368 369 370 371 371Calculation of ANOVA Temas Abemative Form of "Nominal is Best" S/ Ratio Summary Review Questions Exercises Exercise Answers Step 13. Resuts Comprising Mutiple Criteria of Evaluations Overall Evaluation Criterion Recommended Analysis Strategy for Mutiple Objectives Summay Review Questi Exercises Exercise Answers Step 14. Quantification of Variation Reduction and Performance Improvement How to Measure and Express Improvement Interrelationships among Common Distribution Statistics Expressing Improvements in Terms of Dollars Estination of Variation from Known S/2V Ratios Relationship between Gain in S/2V and Standard Deviation Relationship between Gain in $/0V and Loss in Dollars Relationship between Capabilty Indices and Standard Deviation Summary Review Questions Exercises 401 402 404 405 406 406 429 429 430 432 433 434 435 437 444 448 449 459 460 Page ixExercise Answers Step 15. Effective Experiment Preparation and Planning Preparation for Experimentation Project Selection Team Selection Plaming and Execution of the Experiment Application and Analysis Checklist Summary Review Questions Exercises Exercise Answers Step 16. Case Studies Case Study 16. 1:Body Panel Thickness Variation Reduction Study Case Study 16.2: Window-Cranking Effort Reduction Study 463 465 465 466 467 478 479 480 485Case Study 16.3: Reduction of Hydrogen Embrittlement in Electroplating Case Study 16.4: Water-Jet Cutting Process Study Case Study 16.5: Performance Optimization of an Airbag Inflator Case Study 16.6: Summary of Laser Welding Process Study Case Study 16.7: Summary of Paint and Urethane Bond Strength Study Case Study 16.8: Summary of Fnish Tuning Process Optimization Study Case Study 16.9: Driver Comfort Simulation Study Case Study 16.10: Optimization of Tensile Strength of an Airbag Stitch Seam Case Study 16.11: Summary of Resistance Spot Welling Study Summary Appendix Ghssary F-Tables Common Orthogonal Arrays ‘Two-Level Orthogonal Arrays and Interactions (Linear Graphs) ‘Three-Level Orthogonal Arrays Four-Level Orthogonal Arrays Linear Graphs for Two-Level Orthogonal Arrays References Practice Session Using Qualitek-4 Software Special Tasks: Capturing, Pasting, and Cropping QT4 Screens for Reports and Presentations What's on the Disk Index 488 490 495 Page xPage a Preface Leaming takes place when ideas and concepts are exchanged between an instructor and students or readers. The author's involvement in promoting and training use of Taguchi's experimental design technique dates back to the early 1980s, when ét was introduced in the United States. The carly attendees of seminars on the subject were there more through professional curiosity than application interest. ‘The attendees seemed satisfied that they got what they expected ffom the seminars, but over the years, as demands for qualiy-related skills grew, so did the demand for application knowledge from industrial and academic professionals at all levels. Instructional seminars with attendees of all sorts of backgrounds, from those with advanced university degrees to others with no university instruction, always poses a challenge to the instructor. As a trainer wishing to satisfy the most attendees, the author has always felt a continting need to make the instructional method easier. Having conducted several hundred classes and workshops, published one textbook (4 Primer on the Taguchi Method, 1990), and developed one sofiware package (Qualitek-4) on the subject during the past few years, t appears that the task of making the learning process simpler is never-ending, Design of Experiments Using the Tagucht Approach: 16 Steps to Product and Process Improvement is an attempt to offer another learning approach that allows the experimenter to understand the technique on his or her own with detailed examples, exercises, and preprogrammed sohitions. Although the design of experiments using the Taguchi approach is statistical in nature, no formal background in statistical science is necessary to master the subject. Over a dozen reference texts on the technique have been published by experimenters in the industry. A number of organizations also routinely offer courses and workshops on the subject. But there are not many hands-on seminars with application workshops to be found anywhere. nor is there any textbook that offers readers the option to leam in their own home or workplace. This book is written using the language most common on the manufacturing floor so that it will be easier for technicians, working engineers, and professional managers in the manufacturing industries to read and understand. For developing application expertise, a sound knowledge of the theory and a working understanding of the application principles and computational aids used in processing the experimental resuls are necessary ingredients. To eam the theory, one would generally need to read one or more of the books available on the subject. Application tips are more easily understood ffom an experienced instructor than by reading books on application examples. When experiments are carried out and there is a need for analysis of resuts, i is a good idea to obtain one of the available packages ofPage ai analysis software. The software assures the accuracy of analysis and saves time. This book provides resources in all three elements of the leaming process. It contains applicable theories in brief and step-by-step application of the concepts. It ako contains a filly finctional sofiware CD-ROM that readers can use to review example experiments, By using the software, the readers lea each application step by experioncing hands-on how to enter data for experiments, analyze results, and draw conchisions from the analysis. ‘The author sincerely hopes that practicing engineers in the industry and academia ill fad this book helpfil in kaming howto apply the Taguchi experimental design technique and promote applications of the technique within ther own work environment. The author would greatly appreciate receiving your questions, comments, and suggestions. RANJITK. ROY E-mail: rkroy@rkroy.comPage sai Acknowledgments I would like to thank Bob Argentieri of John Wiley S Sons, Ine. for expressing an interest in the book and working with me throughout the publication. Bob worked with my last book, 4 Primer on the Taguchi Method, while he was wih Van Nostrand Reinhold. My thanks also go to Bob Hibert, Stacy Rympa, and other staffmembers of John Wiley who worked on the production of this book. Tm ako indebted to my seminar attendees and hosts, Tt is their collective feedback and comments that motivated me to write this book. Over the last several years, I devoted much of my time to publishing easy-to-use literature, developing soffware for calculations with experimental resuks, and setting up effective training classes. Now you will be able to use this booksoftware combination to leam the techniques at your own pace. Thanks for your reviews and suggestions to allmy public seminar attendees, students ofmy class at Oakland University (Rochester, Michigan), attendees at my seminars at company sites, readers of my earlier book, and users of Qualitek-4 software. The source for much of the application experience I shared in this book came fom seminars and workshops conducted for my corporate sponsors. I would lke to take this opportunity to thank Lamy Smith, Mark Slagale, and Rod Muro of Ford Motor Company in Dearborn, Michigan for their unwavering sponsorship of uy traning in many parts of the organzation. I'm also much obliged to Probir Guha at Budd Plastic of Troy, Michigan, Hossein Nikoui of the Oakwood Group, Dearbom, Michigan, and Brian Rauch of John Deere Dubuque Works in Dubuque, Iowa for providing me with the opportunity to train their people. My special thanks also go to Dean Stamitis of Contemporary Consutants, Jayanta Chandra of Eaton Corporation, and Pavel Blecharz of Quality Management Institute for reviewing my mauuscript materials and providing valuable feedback. Finally, I express iny sincere thanks to those who are al-ways in mind: my daughter Purba and her husband, Walter, my younger daughter, Paula; and my wife, Krishna, for allowing me to be absent stom countless family activities so that I could put the manuscript together: The publisher and I would lke take this opportunity to express our gratiude to Peggy Jennings, Vice PresidentOperations of the American Supplier Institute, Inc., Center for Taguchi Methods, for granting permission to reproduce the orthogonal arrays, triangular tables, and related linear graphs. These materials are contained in the System of Experimental Designs by Genechi Taguchi (1987),Symbols and Abbreviations ABC a,b, or Ay, By Cy On DOF, f F L-4, L-8, etc. < oN VS, Jo a 9G, Q z Notation used for factors under experimental study Descriptions of evel 1 of factor A, level 2 of factor 3, ete. Capabilty indices Degrees of freedom F-ratio Orthogonal arays You Ne ‘Mean-squared deviation Number of resuts Quality characteristic ‘Sums of squares Pure sums of squares Signal-to-noise ratio Total sums of squares Total of all results Variance Resuk Average performance ‘Minimum result Targetinominal Standard deviation Standard deviation (population) Standard deviation (classical definition/sample) ‘Summation sign Page xvPage 1 Introduction Welcome to Design of Experiments Using the Taguchi Approach, designed to provide you with a comprehensive background in the design of experiments (DOE)/Taguchi technique. You will not only learn the details of application methods, you will also leam how to set up experiments and accomplish all analysis tasks using any of several available soffware packages. A Full-Featured Working Model ofthe Qualitek-4 software is inchnded with this book for your Jeaming experience. All example experiments used in the book are included with the sofiware. The book is hid out to prepare you for immediate application of the approach in 16 steps. Each step covers necessary minimum skills and background you willneed to apply the technique confidently in your own projects. In the first step you will get an overview and understand what design of experiment technique is all about and how Dr. Genechi’Taguchi applied the technique to improve the quality of products. In the next several steps you will ean the method for designing simple experiments, followed by steps applying the same method to study interactions between factors and mixed-level factor designs. Advanced techniques to analyze experimental results and Taguchi robust design strategy are covered in the last several steps. Experiment plunning and strategies for effective experiments are discussed in Step 15. Each step starts with a leaming objective and ends with a summary of what you should have leamed in the step. The steps also contain exercises for readers to use to practice what they leam. The solutions to the exercises are incinded at the end ofeach step. The overall goal isto keep the discussions simple and teach the application method quickly. ‘The computer soffware inchided will be used to carry out calculations whenever the capability is available. The use of complicated equations is restricted unless necessary to conmnunicate a point under discussion. Similarly, a detailed discussion of background and theory is included only when it enhances understanding, as applications are the main focus. Discussion of experiments with dynamic characteristics, which is one of the more sophisticated concepts proposed by Dr. Taguchi, is left for further study. DOE Application Skills The benefits derived ftom using DOE/Taguchi depend largely on the manner in which it is used. Athoush the main purpose of this book is to take you through all the steps involved in the design and analysis of experiments, much emphasis is placed on proper preparation and plaming ofthe experiment. Affer completing all the steps, you will