Delacour Pianos FRENCH POLISH

Technical Services

118. French polish is a solution of shellac and other gums in alcohol, and the
polishing process distributes the gums in a liquid form over a given surface of wood
that has been specially prepared to receive the polish. A hard, brilliant, and
transparent surface is thus given to the wood, enhancing its natural beauty while
rendering it impervious both to dirt and damp.

Varnishing by means of a brush produces a comparatively uneven surface ;

French polishing, on the contrary, should be smooth and should have a glossy and
durable surface. The process can be applied to nearly all varieties of woods, the
best results being obtainable with those kinds having a close and even texture and a
good figure.

EQUIPMENT OF POLISHING SHOP

119. Necessary Workshop Conditions.—It is essential that the operations of

French polishing should be carried out in an atmosphere free from dust, since if
small particles settle on and adhere to the polish while yet wet, they will spoil its
surface and appearance. It is a good plan to sweep up the shop overnight after
covering up the work, thus ensuring cleanliness on starting work every morning. The
temperature of the workshop should be warm, even in winter, and the light must be
good. If possible, the shop should be arranged so that it receives its light from
windows facing the north, as a north light is best where delicate colours are
concerned, being more equable and uniform than direct sunlight. In the Southern
Hemisphere, where the conditions are reversed, a south light would be desirable.
Lighting from overhead, as through skylights, should, if possible, be avoided, since
such lighting has the effect of magnifying and distorting any defects that may be
present in the work. As it is impossible to do good polishing in a poor light,
artificial light should be abundantly supplied where required ; the incandescent
electric light is best on account of superior safety from fire risks. It should be
understood, however, that matching up colours cannot be satisfactorily performed
except by natural daylight, and should not be attempted under any other conditions.

120. French-Polishers’ Bench and Trestles.—As the bench will only be used
by French polishers for small work, no extra strength will be required in its
construction. For ordinary work, a bench having the following proportions will be
found suitable : length, 4 to 5 feet ; width, 2 feet 6 inches to 3 feet; and height, 2
feet 6 inches to 2 feet 9 indies. A kitchen table having a drawer at one end will
serve the purpose admirably. The bench should be placed near the window
whenever possible, as it is important for the light to fall full on the front of the
work. In addition to the bench, a pair of trestles should be provided for use when
polishing larger work, which may be supported directly by the trestles, or by boards
laid on the latter.

121. Dust Sheets.—A few clean wrappers, known as dust sheets, are necessary
articles in the complete equipment of the polishers’ workshop. Unbleached calico of
stout texture will be found satisfactory material for these dust sheets, which are
employed for covering up finished work or for laying on the bench when finishing
delicate articles.

122. Temperature of Polishing Shop.—The air of the shop should be free from
moisture, and the best results are obtained when the work is done in a warm, dry
atmosphere. This is because all polishes or varnishes consist of gums dissolved in
spirits, and the evaporation of the spirit from the solution leaves the gums thinly
distributed over the surface of the wood. Dampness in the air prevents the drying of
the polish or varnish with the desired glossy brightness, as the moisture combines
with the gums while in their soluble state, causing the work to become what is
technically known as chilled. A satisfactory minimum temperature for the polishing
shop is about 65° F., which should be maintained in cold weather by the aid of
heating apparatus. Hot-water radiators or steam coils afford greater safety from fire
risks than even a closed stove, since there is then no risk of igniting the spirit so
largely used in polishing work. If gas rings are employed to heat vessels containing
stain or polish, precautions should be adopted to minimize the risk of fire.
 123. French-Polishers’ Tools.—Few tools other than those used in the actual
process of polishing will be required, the work necessitating them being the
dismantling previous to polishing of the article in hand, its fitting up after the
completion of the work, or the cleaning up of a faulty surface. For these purposes
two screwdrivers will be required, one of medium size for taking work apart, and a
smaller one for taking off brass or other fittings or the small doors of cabinets. A
light hammer, a pair of pincers,
and a steel scraper are also
needed, the latter being about 4
inches long by 3 inches wide. A
cork rubber is also necessary.
For the actual polishing process,
the only tools that will be required, with the exception of the rubbers, which will be
hereafter described are an assortment of brushes.

The outfit should include a dusting brush; brushes for use in staining; a tightly
bound sash tool for oiling or cleaning carved work, for which, however, the ordinary
stencil brush may be substituted with advantage. Brushes of camel’s hair are
needed for coating turned work and also for applying colours when matching up.
The sizes of large camel’s-hair brushes, or mops, are expressed in numbers, the
higher the number the larger the mop. The size corresponding to a given number
may vary with different makers, and while some firms make sizes from 1 to 16,
others only make from 1 to 9. The pattern of mop that is most favoured is shown in
Fig. 42, it being found in practice that a more even coating can be applied when the
mop is bound in quill owning to the springiness of that material. Camel’s-hair
pencils will also be required in various sizes.

124. Care of Brushes.—The proper use and care of brushes are matters of very
great importance where efficient work is to be done. Brushes used with water stain
should be thoroughly washed out when done with, otherwise the stain left in the
brush may prove disastrous to the work on which it is next used. Camel’s-hair mops
need rinsing out with methylated spirits at the first time of using, there being always
a few loose hairs left in their manufacture ; after use they should again be rinsed in
the spirit, the hair straightened out in a natural manner, and the brush laid on its
side. The latter precaution is necessary owing to the soft nature of the hair, which is
rendered unshapely if left standing in the vessel in which it has been used. Camel’s-
hair pencils should be treated in the same way.

POLISHING-SHOP SUNDRIES
125. The materials used by the French polisher include French polishes of
several kinds; various hard varnishes ; dry pigments of many colours ; dyes and
stains that are soluble in spirit ; other dyes soluble in water and consequently
known as water stains ; several kinds of gums ; raw and boiled linseed oil, together
with many reliable substitutes for the raw oil that are produced by different makers;
turpentine; different sorts of alcohol; and also benzine. Such articles as plaster of
Paris, tallow, pumice stone, and beeswax are required in preparing a surface for
polishing. Various chemicals are necessary, including the following : American
potash, or its purer form, American pearlash ; ammonia ; bismuth, in the form of
bismuth oxychloride, the metal being in a white powder; oxalic acid, or salts of
lemon ; nitric acid, or aquafortis ; hydrochloric acid, also called muriatic acid or
spirits of salts ; and sulphuric acid, or vitriol. Glass paper of varying coarseness is
used, the most common grades being the very fine ones, such as No. 000, or flour
glass paper, and No. 0. For rubbing and dabbing, the polisher requires wadding, fine
white rags, tow or hemp fibre, felt, etc. The use of the various materials will be
described in connection with the operations in which they are employed.

POLISHES AND STAINS

GUMS USED IS FRENCH POLISH

126. Shellac.—Formerly, French polish was made in the workshop by the man
who used it, but it is nowadays obtained through wholesalers from manufacturers
who specialize in the production of polishes and varnishes. To make the polish,
gum lac is dissolved in alcohol, the process being expedited by agitating or shaking
the solution ; heat has a softening effect on gums, and the manufacture of French
polish or spirit varnish is facilitated by standing the vessel in a bath of hot water or,
preferably, of hot sand. Lac, or gum lac, is the resinous exudation of certain East
Indian trees following the puncture of the branches of those trees by the lac insect.
The granular particles of gum, when separated from twigs, eggs, and dead insects by
steeping in water, constitute what is termed seed lac. The seed lac is melted in
boiling water and poured out on a cool surface, forming brittle, semi-transparent
flakes of a deep orange colour, which constitute the shellac of commerce. From its
colour, this particular variety is known as orange shellac by the French polisher the
thin flakes are easily dissolved, but as it is liable to show a muddy or opaque
appearance when used in any quantity, the orange shellac should not be used in
polishing work that is desired to be clear and transparent. If shellac is re-melted
purified, and made into circular cakes some 2 or 3 inches in diameter, it becomes
button shellac, or button lac, which is most desired by French polishers, since it
affords the requisite transparency of finish ; the colour of button lac is orange
yellow, but clearer than that of ordinary shellac. Garnet shellac is another variety
of gum lac, forming a polish of a rich brown colour. It comes in cakes of irregular
shape, rather smaller than those of button lac, of a deep reddish-brown colour.

127. White Shellac—White, or bleached, shellac is obtained by melting the

commercial shellac and bleaching it with different acids while in a plastic condition
; the resulting product is in the form of thick sticks or rods, which are very porous.
Owing to the use of these acids and the presence of moisture in the shellac when
bleached, this particular variety of lac must receive special treatment. White shellac
quickly deteriorates when exposed to the air, and directly it is received should be
immersed in water and kept there until required for use. The lac is then broken into
small pieces and thoroughly dried. To give absolute assurance of freedom from
moisture, the dried white shellac should be rinsed in methylated spirits.

128. Gums Other Than Shellac Used in Polishing.—Various gums other than
shellac are used in the making of French polish or in parts of the polishing process.
Gum sandarac, or sandarach, is a pale yellow resinous gum that exudes from a
North African tree of the pine species. Gum mastic is a pale resin that is obtained
from the mastic tree, an evergreen found in Mediterranean countries. Gum arabic is
the gum formed by exudation of the sap of various species of acacia ; it is a very
clear and pale yellowish substance. Benzoin, or gum benjamin, is a fragrant
resinous gum that flows from certain spice-trees in Sumatra : it is used by polishers
for imparting a quick-drying glaze.Copal is a hard, amber-like resin, obtained from
various trees ; there are three chief varieties which exhibit certain differences from
one another, obtained respectively from Brazil, the East Indies, and Zanzibar.

OILS USED IN FRENCH POLISHING

129. The oils used in the polishing processes are raw and boiled linseed oil,
turpentine, and nut oil. Raw linseed oil is that most commonly used, and is largely
employed in the preliminary oiling process, described later, to intensify the figure
and colour of the wood and also to darken its colour. For mahogany work, red oil is
commonly used to produce these effects, the oil being obtained by steeping alkanet
root, which is the root of a plant yielding a red colouring matter, in raw linseed oil.
Boiled linseed oil is used in polishing work in the composition of fillers only.

Raw oil is also used as a lubricant on the rubber in the final stages of the
polishing process to assist in the even distribution of the coating of gums and to
prevent the rubber from sticking when it is used in polishing. Nut oil is used in
similar fashion as a lubricant in connection with any work where a purity of colour
is desired.

VEHICLES FOR POLISH

130. Alcohol.—The ordinary alcohol of commerce is known as grain, or ethyl,

alcohol. As alcohol readily absorbs moisture from the air, it is difficult to obtain it
perfectly free from water, and the spirit is therefore usually spoken of in terms of
the percentage of absolute alcohol, or alcohol that is quite free from water.
Rectified spirits of wine, containing about 90 per cent. of alcohol, or 90° strength, is
the purest form of alcohol used in polishing.

Methyl, or wood, alcohol is obtained from wood spirit by repeated distillation

and purification, the final product being variously known as crude methyl alcohol,
wood alcohol, or wood naphtha. This form of methyl alcohol, while being more
costly than ordinary spirit, is quicker in drying.
 131. Methylated Spirits.—Beverages containing grain alcohol are heavily taxed
in most countries, and to obtain the partial or entire remission of these taxes from
alcohol intended for industrial purposes it is necessary to denature the spirit, or
render it unfit for use as a beverage. The usual method of denaturing is by adding a
specified percentage of wood alcohol, which is more or less poisonous ; further, to
prevent the chemist from separating the wood alcohol by distillation, a proportion of
petroleum naphtha or of benzol is added, the product being termed methylated
spirits.

Methylated spirits should be kept in a cask or in stone or glass vessels, as metal

has a deleterious effect which, though not apparent in the liquid, causes the shellac
immersed in it to be darkened somewhat and to partake of a greenish tinge. To
prevent the evaporation of the spirits, the vessels should be kept securely corked.
Various Local Government and Inland Revenue regulations govern the sale and
storage of spirit in the United Kingdom, the maximum amount allowed without
special permit being 4 gallons. This permit is readily granted free of cost on official
inspection and submission of proof of secure storage under lock and key, and of the
use of the spirits for commercial or industrial purposes, but not for retailing. Many
manufacturers, to avoid complications with the Inland Revenue authorities, mix
shellac with the methylated spirits in the proportions of about 2 ounces of gum to 1
gallon of spirit, thus altering the composition of the liquid, which is then termed
methylated finish.

COMPOSITION OF FRENCH POLISHES

133. Recipes for Clear Polish.—What is known as clear polish is that consisting
solely of gums dissolved in spirit, without the addition of any colouring matter
whatever. Various recipes, for clear French polish are given here, it being left to the
personal judgment of the polisher to add the ingredients other than lac and spirit,
since some authorities hold that no gums but lac should be employed. Gum
sandarac, however, has hardening properties, while gum benzoin imparts a brighter
gloss. To make button . . polish, or clear polish from button lac, 2 pounds of button
shellac may be dissolved in 1 gallon of methylated spirits. The shellac should be
broken up into small pieces before mixing.

Another recipe, frequently adopted, specifies that 2 pounds of button shellac be

dissolved in 1 gallon of methylated spirits or 1 gallon of wood naphtha, together
with 1 ounce of gum sandarac and 1 ounce of gum benzoin. If preferred, gum mastic
or gum arabic may be substituted for either the sandarac or the benzoin or for both
The gums sandarac, mastic, and arabic must be powdered finely before mixing ; the
gum benzoin, being of a gritty nature and leaving much woody residue, is mixed in a
separate vessel and carefully strained through muslin before adding to the polish.
All polish must be strained through muslin after making, in order to remove any
impurities, and should at all times be well shaken before being used. The use of
wood naphtha or wood alcohol, in place of methylated spirits, renders the polish
sharper, or quicker in drying, but its use requires greater knowledge of the
intricacies of the polisher’s art.

133. By substituting either white, orange, or garnet shellac for the button lac,
clear polish of a corresponding name can be obtained. Button polish is of a very
pale brown tinge, and when of good quality should be perfectly transparent on
wood. Orange polish, more commonly termed brown polish, is slightly opaque, as
it is made with the orange lac, the cheapest form of shellac. Garnet polish is used
to impart a rich golden-brown colour, or to add warmth to the tone of walnut or oak.
White polish, made from bleached shellac, is employed in polishing the very light
woods and is also used over delicate inlays ; when work is finished in black or
ebony, white polish is used above the black surface, as the other polishes would
impart a greenish tinge if used. When white polish is allowed to stand for any
considerable time, a separation takes place in the liquid, the clear arid transparent
upper portion from which the muddier part has settled being often called toppings.
The toppings are carefully decanted for use as transparent polish on very delicate
work.

134. Gas Black.—A most useful black pigment, highly esteemed in polishing
work, is that known as gas black. The flame of an ordinary gas burner is allowed to
play on the bottom of an iron vessel containing clean water, and the soot that
collects on the bottom of the vessel is scraped off for use as gas black. Gas black
is generally considered the densest black obtainable for use in polishing, but in
ebonized work its colour is intensified by combination with aniline spirit black, a
colouring substance in the form of a powder. Gas black should be stored for use in
tins having a dose-fitting cover.

135. Coloured Polishes.—French polish may be coloured by the use of a

variety of pigments, and any aniline dyes may be employed to impart the desired
shades. Still, while red and black polishes are constantly used by polishers, the
other colours are rarely required. What is known as red polish is made by a
decoction of sandalwood in either button or white polish. Sandalwood, which is
often termed sanderswood, is obtained in the form of a reddish sawdust, and this is
tied in a porous calico bag and allowed to soak in a vessel containing polish. Two
ounces of sandalwood sawdust should be sufficient to colour 1 pint of polish.

The polish known as black polish is made by mixing aniline spirit black with
white polish. With ebonized work, a good grounding is formed by the use of button
or white polish coloured with gas black. Over this is used the polish coloured with
spirit black, thus ensuring a deep ebony shade.

PREPARING WORK TO RECEIVE POLISH

CLEANING UP THE WORK

136. Work, as received in the polishing shop, has to undergo several processes
preparatory to the actual application of the polish. Generally speaking, the article
will come in a fit condition for the preparatory processes, but often a few defects
will demand attention. Such defects are usually small and easily remedied but, if
overlooked or neglected until some progress has been made with the polishing
operations, their removal will be rendered more difficult or, perhaps, impossible.
Chief among such blemishes is a roughened surface caused by a humid atmosphere
and known as grain rising. If the surface is free from plane marks or other
irregularities, which should be removed by the woodworker, grain rising can be
remedied by the use of very fine glass paper backed by the cork rubber. Bruises on
the surface, known in different parts of the country as dents or as delves, may also
call for attention, or there may be a slight lifting of the veneer ; these defects are
usually rectified by the woodworker. The scraping and glass-papering performed by
the polisher are known by him as cleaning up or papering up.

STAINING

137. Effects of Stain on Various Woods.—After cleaning up, the next

preparatory process is the staining of the wood, if the piece requires to be stained.
Great care is necessary in spreading the stain evenly and uniformly over the work,
and if the article must be finished to a particular colour or to match a definite
pattern, the exercise of a certain amount of judgment will be called for. It is an
excellent rule in staining to keep on the light side of the pattern, that is, to leave the
stained work a shade lighter in tone than the pattern with which it is required to
match. This is by far the safer plan, as the work can easily be darkened down to the
required tone while it is a difficult matter to lighten a colour that proves too dark.
Stain should always be tested on a cutting of wood of the same texture as the work.
It will be observed that woods of a porous or spongy nature will take the stain more
readily than close-grained stuff, and for a similar reason end grain will absorb more
stain and become darker than the face side of the wood. Great care should be
exercised in staining articles made up of different grades of wood.

138. Bichromate of Potash Stain.—The aqueous solution of bichromate of

potash is very extensively used as a darkening agent for oak and mahogany. It is
less frequently used on oak, as it causes the wood to take on a reddish tinge, but the
redness is not so objectionable when a weak stain is used. A well-equipped
workshop will have the bichromate of potash stain made up in three different
strengths, namely, strong, medium, and weak. These strengths will be found useful
in obtaining standard or recognized colours without special preparation, the strong
solution being used to produce the colour termed Chippendale, the medium solution
for Sheraton colour, and the weak solution for sundry purposes. To make the stain
the crystals are crushed to powder, put into an earthenware vessel, and boiling
water poured on top of them. Three to six ounces of bichromate to 1 gallon of water
will be found sufficient. The strength of the crystals varies, and for this reason no
definite proportions can be given, but the stain should be tested on pieces of wood
until the correct full strength has been obtained. The medium and weak solutions
are obtained from the strong solution by diluting it with, respectively, one-third and
two-thirds the quantity of water. Bichromate of potash stain should neither be made
nor stored in iron vessels.

139. Oak Stain.—While there are numerous varieties of stains intended for
different purposes, it is not customary to keep in stock those kinds that are
infrequently used. In ordinary shops, there are three or four stains that are made and
stored in reasonable quantities, since they are in general and constant demand. In
addition to the bichromate of potash stain, already referred to, the common stains
and that known as oak stain, and that termed black stain. Oak stain is used to
obtain brown shades of that wood. The following recipes for oak stain can be
recommended : 1. Boil together 1 gallon of water, 1 pound Vandyke brown, and
either 1 pound American potash or 7 pint liquid ammonia.

2. Boil together 1 gallon of water, 12 ounces Vandyke brown, 1 ounce bichromate

of potash, and either 3 ounces American potash or 3 ounces liquid ammonia.

The stain is modified, or made lighter, by the addition of more water. The mixture
should always be well agitated before use, the pigment partly settling to the bottom
of the vessel in course of time. Brushes made of hair should not be used in mixtures
containing a large proportion of American potash, but could be used with stains
containing the proportions of potash just mentioned, provided that they were not left
in the stain. The potash in the mixture serves as a mordant, that is, it causes the
stain to bite deeply into the wood. Other popular mordants are ammonia and
common washing soda.

140. Black Stains.—One recipe for a black stain is as follows : Boil 1 pound
logwood in 1 gallon of water ; add 3 ounces verdigris and 1 ounce copperas ; strain
the mixture and put in 1 pound rusty iron filings ; apply at least two coats of the
stain.

The black stain most frequently employed is that known as French black stain,
which is procured ready made from the usual suppliers of polishers’ requisites, in
quantities from 1 pint upwards.

141. Spirit Stains.—Various dye-stuffs may be dissolved in methylated spirits to

produce spirit stains for wood. Practically all the aniline dyes are available, notably
aniline black. The colouring matter of such materials as sandal wood may also be
extracted by simple soaking in spirit. A spirit stain penetrates the fibres of the wood
more readily than a water stain and so a mordant is not required. Spirit stains have
the advantage of drying almost immediately after application, leaving the surface
ready for varnishing or polishing without loss of time.

142. Applying Stain.—It is best to apply stain with a brush, spreading the liquid
evenly all over the work and taking care that no places are missed. Before the stain
dries, the excess is wiped off with a cloth in an even manner, and in the direction of
the grain ; this wiping will assist in the production of a uniform colour. It is
sometimes difficult, especially with mahogany, to distinguish the exact colour of the
wood after staining it all over : so, to ascertain if a further staining is necessary, a
small piece of wadding damped with methylated spirits is passed over the work.
The wetted surface of the wood will then clearly show up the exact tone of colour,
but this course must only be adopted where water stain has been used. It
occasionally happens that certain parts of the wood will gradually turn very dark
under the action of the stain ; this defect must be remedied by bleaching before
going any further. The process of bleaching will be described in subsequent articles.

FILLING UP THE GRAIN

143. Process of Filling In.—Wood fillers are substances used to fill up the grain
of the wood, without in any way altering the surface, so as to prevent the
absorption, or sinking in, of the polish or varnish. Various materials are used for the
purpose of filling in, as it is termed, such as plaster of Paris, tallow, whitening, etc.,
colouring pigments being added that will correspond to the colour of the wood
worked on. Various patent fillers are readily obtainable which are already coloured
to correspond to the woods they are to be used on ; the chief requisites for any
wood filler are that it should be soft enough to run into the small pores of the wood
that its colouring should render it unnoticeable after use, and that it should set hard
and firm.

These wood fillers are made with different bases, such as water, turps, oil, or
spirits, and it is an imperative rule wherever a stain other than chemical has been
used that the liquid composing the filler must not be the same as that with which the
stain has been made. If this precaution is neglected, as, for instance, in using a filler
made with water on wood previously treated with a water stain, it will be found that
some of the stain has been washed from the wood. Such washing away may,
however, be prevented by giving the work a thin coating of French polish before
beginning to fill in, this fixing the stain, as it is termed.

144. Tallow Filler.—The most reliable of home-made fillers is known as filling-

in fat, and is composed of tallow and plaster of Paris together with a suitable
colouring pigment. Approximately, the proportions should be 2 parts of plaster to 1
part of tallow,but care must be taken to add sufficient plaster to
render the filler firm enough to rub into the pores of the wood and
not to rub out. Only the finest quality of plaster should be used,
and in all fillers the greatest care must be exercised to ensure the
absence of grit. The pigments used to colour different hardwoods
are as follows: For light mahogany, rose pink; for dark mahogany,
rose pink and Vandyke brown ; for walnut, either rose pink or
brown umber. In each case, the colouring matter should be used in
the dry or powdered state, and the pigments referred to may be
used with any kind of filler. When using filling-in fat, a rubber is used similar to that
illustrated in Fig. 43, the rubber being fashioned out of a piece of felt or the like,
firmly rolled up and bound together so as to present a hard flat surface to the wood
worked over. Small mouldings and carvings are not filled in, unless there are large
surfaces to be left in relief in the carvings.
The method of holding and working the
filling-in rubber is shown in Fig. 44.

145. Water Filler. The material that is

spoken of as a water filler is simply plaster
of Paris rubbed into the pores of the wood.
The plaster is mixed in a dry state with the
chosen colouring matter, and a rag well
moistened with water is dipped into the
powder, the plaster being rubbed into the
wood with a quick circular motion of the
rag. Only a small surface of wood must be
dealt with at one operation, as the plaster
sets very rapidly, especially in warm weather, and the excess of filler is then
extremely difficult to remove. The water filler is the simplest and easiest in use, the
only drawback being its liability after many years to turn grey, thus disclosing its
presence in the wood.

146. Oil Filler.—The slow-drying filler, known as an oil filler, which is similar in
its form and substance to many of the patent filling preparations on the market, is a
mixture of boiled linseed oil, whitening, colouring pigment, and turps. The whitening
is powdered and mixed with the pigment and boiled oil to form a thick paste, being
reduced to the proper consistency for working by the addition of turpentine as
required.

147. Foozle. A filler made of oil and polish and known by the workshop name of
foozle is composed of equal quantities of raw linseed oil and French polish,
sufficient plaster of Paris being added to form a paste. Very little colouring matter
is required, but when foozle is made it is customary to use one of the standard
coloured French polishes as an ingredient to tint the mixture.

148. Wiping Off Filler.—The removal of surplus filler from the surface of the
wood is termed wiping off. When tallow-filler is employed, the surplus fat is
removed as far as possible by a wooden
scraper made in the same shape as the
ordinary steel scraper, the fat taken off being
returned to the vessel for further use. The
method of handling the wooden scraper
preparatory to wiping off is shown Fig. 45;
special attention should be paid to the angle at
which the scraper is held to the work. The
actual wiping is done with tow, which is held
to be the best material for the purpose, with
fine shavings, or with old rags. In cleaning out
corners, what are called quirk sticks are used,
as shown in Fig. 46 (a) and (b); a quirk stick
 is simply a short piece of round hardwood cut
to a sharp point as in (a), or a rectangular
piece cut to a chisel edge, as in (b). The wood
must be wiped off to a perfectly clean surface
before it can be
ready for polishing. Work filled in with the water
filler must be wiped off very speedily, on account of
the rapid setting of the plaster.

149. Brushed Filler.—A good filler, which is

advantageously used where it is desired to proceed
rapidly with the work, is made from powdered
whitening mixed into a thick paste with japanners’
gold size and suitable colouring. This composition is
on the lines of various American patent fillers. The
paste when required for use is thinned with turps to
the consistency of ordinary paint and is applied with
a brush, which is conducive to rapid work. After
brushing on the filler is allowed to stand for a few
minutes to dry and partly set, and is then well rubbed
off with coarse rags or with tow. The brushed filler
must be rubbed off promptly as soon as it has begun to set, for if left too long the
surplus will become too hard for easy removal by rubbing.

OILING IN

150. Process of Oiling In.—Work on which water filler has been employed must
be allowed to become perfectly dry before proceeding further with it. The surface is
then oiled in, or lightly smeared over with a soft rag moistened with raw linseed oil.
If other fillers than those with a water basis have been used, the oiling-in process
will not be required, but the oil may be used without detriment over any class of
filling if a slight darkening of the tone is desired. It should always be remembered
that linseed oil, while indispensable, is the greatest enemy of the French polisher
and the use of this agent must therefore be regarded as a necessary evil. The oil
should be employed as sparingly as possible, since if too much is used it will work
through the coating of polish in the form of sweat, thus spoiling the appearance of
the work.

151. Use of Oil.—Carved work is rarely oiled in unless the wood is unusually
light in colour, as carved surfaces have a tendency to turn darker than flat surfaces
under oil. All hardwood? except those that are desired to remain very light, are
oiled in with the object of enhancing the colour and figure of the wood. In the case
of wood that has not been stained, oiling is always the last process after papering
up, and an application of oil is always necessary after the use of water filler, even if
oiling in has been performed at an earlier stage of the processes.
 Many polishers oil in all dark parts of mahogany before applying the stain, as this
prevents the stain from taking full effect on such parts were this preliminary oiling
not done, it would be necessary to apply a lighter shade of stain to the dark parts of
the wood in order to ensure the necessary uniformity of tone and the use of the oil
thus obviates much difficult work. The use of oil preparatory to staining is also
advocated with mahogany as a preventive against the rising of the grain of the wood
through the employment of water stain. All the surplus oil must be wiped off with
scrupulous care, especially from crevices and corners.

APPLICATION OF FRENCH POLISH

PREPARATION AND CARE OF RUBBERS

152. Material for Polish Rubbers.—French polish is applied to woodwork from

a saturated piece of wadding that is covered over with a piece of clean linen or
cotton cloth. The wadding, which is never referred to by polishers under its other

well-known name of cotton wool, is supplied in sheets or in bundles.Sheet wadding

has a kind of skin on each side enclosing the mass of soft cotton; the width of the
sheet is usually about 27
inches and it is made up in
rolls containing a length of
12 yards. The bundle
wadding has no skin, and it
consists of a thick fleece of
soft cotton wool folded into
a bundle; it is considerably
cheaper than the other
variety for the purposes of
the polisher, and is often
known as pound wadding
since it comes in 1-pound
bundles. The rags used for
polishing are old linen or
cotton, without holes through
which the polish might escape, and free from fluff or starch. Bleached cotton calico,
properly cleansed and washed, forms the best rags those required for polishing must
be fairly open in texture when held to the light, while those used in the operation
known as bodying must be
of a more open texture and
of a finer nature than that
used in the finishing
processes. Rags are usually
sold by weight, the average
London price being about
6d. per pound for cleansed
white rag; coloured rags are
cheaper and may be used, if
desired, on unimportant
 work, seeing that the colours
are not likely to wash out of
the fabric with the spirit.

153. Making the Rubber.—The quality of the work depends to a great extent on
the shape of the rubber used by the polisher.The proper method of forming a
shapely rubber is shown in
Figs. 47 to 53. Some
wadding is worked into a
pad of about the desired size
and shape, as shown held in
the left hand of the operator
in Fig. 47, it being eminently
desirable that the sole, or
working surface, is smooth
and unwrinkled, while the
outline of the rubber
resembles that of a flattened
pear. The polisher wets the
wadding with polish or other
liquid from a bottle held in his right hand, as shown in the illustration, it is advisable
to keep the bottle corked, with a notch running lengthwise of the cork on one side,so
that the contents of the bottle may be lightly sprinkled on the sole of the rubber. The
notch in the cork of a spirits
bottle must be rather smaller
than the notch in the cork of
a polish bottle since the
spirit is more volatile.
Although the operation of
wetting the rubber is known
as dipping up, the wadding
or rubber should never
actually be dipped in the
polish, but be sprinkled on
from a bottle; if the polish is
exposed to the air an open
vessel for dipping up, it will
deteriorate.

154. The wadding having

been wetted, it is covered
with a piece of rag while still
held in the left hand of the
polisher, as shown in Fig. 48. The rubber in formation is drawn tightly to a point
between the forefinger and, thumb of the right hand, and the rag is folded over the
back of the rubber. The
 beginning of this folding
operation is shown in Fig.
49; about three folds are
taken in this manner, the
turning in of thefolds being
shown in Fig. 50. The loose
corners of the rag are
gathered together, as
illustrated in Fig. 51, and are
twisted sharply round one
another to secure them ; this
twisted portion fits in the.
hollow of the palm, as shown
in Fig. 52, in which the
polisher is holding the
completely formed rubber,
sole upwards, in his right
hand. The method of holding
the rubber during actual polishing operations is clearly shown in Fig. 53, the rubber
being held between the thumb and the second and third fingers, the toe, or point, of
the rubber being in line with the forefinger, as shown, thus enabling the rubber to be
worked into any corners.

155. Care of Rubbers.—All rubbers used in French polishing should be kept in

an air-tight tin when not in use, since otherwise they will quickly harden through the
evaporation of the spirit and thus become unfit for use. Several tins must be
included in a proper equipment, as the rubbers for each stage of the polishing
process must be kept separate from those used during the other stages ; the rubbers
used for coloured polish must also be stored separately. Rubbers may not be used
indiscriminately for all kinds of polish, as this renders likely the production of bad
and discoloured work, more especially where white polish is employed.

SKINNING IN

156. Fadding or Skinning In.—After oiling in the surface of the work. it is

rubbed perfectly smooth with fine glass paper, care being taken if water filler has
been used that the white grain left by the plaster of Paris has quite disappeared
under the oil treatment. When smoothing with glass paper the polisher must be
careful not to take off any arrises, or sharp edges, in the wood, since in that case the
stain would be cut through, leaving a mark of lighter colour than the remainder of
the surface. When the wood is quite clean and free from all traces of filler and
superfluous oil, the actual work of polishing is proceeded with, the operation of
putting on the first coat of polish being known either as skinning in, from the
circumstance that a skin of polish is thereby applied to the bare wood, or as
fadding in, from the class of rubber employed. A fad, in French polishing, is the
wadding from an old rubber used without any covering rag. It is essential that the
sole, or working surface, of the fad shall be quite smooth and compact from use, as
any roughness will be detrimental. Failing a suitable fad, a clean new rubber must
be made, very firmly rolled and used with a covering rag.

157. The wadding is lightly charged with polish, enough being used to permit the
fad to be worked freely and easily, and the rubber is then worked backwards and
forwards over the surface of the wood in the direction of the grain until a thin
transparent surface is produced. Very little pressure must be exerted on the fad, and
no attempt should be made to use the rubber with a circular motion at this stage.
The zigzag course of a fad during the operation of skinning in is indicated in Fig. 54
; the polisher begins at
a,works along the way of the
grain to b, then back to c,
and so on until the whole of
the surface has been
traversed and the fad
reaches d. It is imperative
that one application of polish
shall be allowed to dry
before another application is
worked in. When skinning in
with a zigzag motion similar
to that shown in Fig. 54, the
part a will be sufficiently dry to be worked over again by the time the polisher has
brought his fad to the point d so that the work of putting on the second coating can
be begun at once. The beginner should take note of the strict rule, to be observed in
all processes, whether preliminary or finishing, that the rubber or the fad must never
be brought to a standstill on the surface of the work.

158. Defects Observable After Fadding.—Defects that are observable during

the process of skinning in, or after its completion, are chiefly what are termed whips
or else the fault known as tearing up of the polish. Whips are streaks or splashes
of polish caused by its squeezing out from the sides of the rubber the polish in
consequence being unevenly distributed with irregular thickenings on the edges of
the zigzag path of the fad. The tearing up of the skin of polish is caused either by
having the rubber too wet or by going too frequently over a part of the work without
allowing an adequate time for previous applications to dry ; the skin adheres to the
rubber and is torn off.

If the fadding has been properly executed, it will be noted that the rubber has
taken up a certain amount of oil from the surface of the wood and at the same time
has deposited in its place a thin coating of shellac, since the spirit has evaporated
during the drying of the liquid. The use of an uncovered fad permits of the wadding
covering a larger surface than when in its wrapped state.

159. Rectifying Imperfections.—When the work has been all gone over with the
fad, the article is stood on one side to harden, before undergoing the next stage of
the polishing process. On rubbing the flat of the hand across the grain, after skinning
in, a slight roughness will be discernible on the surface ; this is due to a little grain
rising through absorption of the polish and also to a certain streakiness in the
application of the skin owing to the fad having been moved in straight lines. As
soon as the skin is sufficiently hard, these little roughnesses are removed with glass
paper. Any other faults that are noticeable in the surface should now be rectified.
These are most commonly places where the grain is is hungry or imperfectly filled,
or other places slightly bruised. The hungry places are remedied by the application
of a little filler to close the pores, and the bruises are filled with stopping, a
composition of beeswax and resin coloured with an appropriate pigment. When the
imperfections have been rectified, the whole surface is smoothed over with fine
glass paper, and dusted off.

BODYING IN

160. Manipulation of Polishing Rubber.—When the preliminary coat of polish

has been applied by fadding in, the next process consists of bodying, or bodying in,
the work, and has for object the application of a body of polish on the surface of the
work, as may be gathered from the name of the process. The size and shape of the
rubbers used in bodying are of great importance ; experience is, of course, the best
guide to the proper sizes of rubbers suitable for pieces of different dimensions.
Since the pointed extremity of the rubber is called the toe, the rounded extremity of
the sole is called the heel of the rubber. The polisher sprinkles a little polish on the
wadding from a bottle held in his right hand ; the covering rag is then bound round
the wadding to form the desired shape and size of rubber, which is applied to the
work in the same zigzag manner as employed in skinning in. By so doing the wet
rubber is made to discharge some of the polish it contains and is given a flatter and
more even sole for the circular motion of polishing ; in Fig. 55 is shown the nature
of this motion, the rubber describing a
series of interlaced loops. The pressure
on the rubber must be very light at
starting this circular motion, since
otherwise polish will be exuded from the
rubber, producing semicircular whips
that will temporarily deface the work.
The polisher usually refers to the
operation of working out a wetted rubber
as one rubber ; if the rubber is wetted or dipped up three times on a piece of work
he has used three rubbers, and so on.

161. Use of Oil as Lubricant.—In addition to the polish bottle, it will be

necessary to have at hand a small shallow vessel containing raw linseed oil for use
in lubricating the rubber. As soon as the polisher has worked out the excess of
polish and is ready to begin the circular polishing motion, he applies a little raw oil
to the sole of the rubber with a finger of his left hand, which he has dipped into the
saucer containing the oil. Sufficient oil should be put on the sole of the rubber to
make a very faint smear on the surface. The pressure on the rubber is light at first,
but is gradually increased as the rubber becomes drier ; each time it becomes dry
the rubber is wetted with more polish, the process being continued until a sufficient
body has been worked in. The rubber should not be lifted off the middle of the
surface, but should be gently glided off at the end or side. Further, the light smear of
lubricating oil must be removed with a dry rubber if the bodying is not finished at
the time work is stopped.

162. Excess of Oil.—Beginners, as a rule, have a tendency to use too much

linseed oil. The excess of .oil prevents the polish from hardening and becoming set
and the next wet rubber that goes on will tear, or break up, the previous coat. Thus,
instead of going straight ahead with his work, the polisher will have

to put it aside until such time as it may have hardened sufficiently to undergo the
process of cutting down, by which term is understood a more or less severe use of
sharp glass paper backed up by the cork rubber to remove the irregularities of the
surface. By easing down, on the contrary, is understood the use of fine glass paper
already worn almost smooth. The method of using the cork rubber is shown in Fig.
56. To ascertain whether too much oil has been used, a finger can be drawn across
the face of the polish. If a greasy mark appears, the oil is in excess and the
superfluity must be wiped off, but if only a faint sign appears there is no excess of
oil and the work can proceed. Another indication of an excess of oil is given when
the sole of the rubber becomes shiny while still charged with polish. Although this
latter sign may also be caused by using rag that has too close a texture or is too
thick to allow the polish to come through readily, yet the true cause may soon be
detected. Any excess of oil on the surface of the work should be removed before
using the rubber again, by very slightly damping a duster with methylated spirits
and wiping off the superfluous lubricant.

163. Fault of Ropiness.—Another common fault of beginners in polishing is the

production of what is termed ropiness or wiriness, in which the polish on the outer
edges of flat surfaces appears in ridges instead of being smooth and level. This
fault is caused by working the edges in the manner indicated in Fig. 57, in which the
circular motion has been properly carried out in the middle of the work but the
edges have either been neglected or else the rubber has been carried straight along
them, as indicated by the dotted lines a
and b. Working the rubber in circles to
the edge of the work should be
assiduously practised, and it will be
found easier to do so if the heel of the
rubber is used more than its toe. To
remedy ropiness, the work should be
allowed to harden, the ropy parts gently
eased down, and rebodied.

164. Bare, or Hungry Edges.—In polishing any flat surface, the commonest
defect is what may be called bare, or hungry, edges. There is an inequality of
surface, the centre being fairly well bodied, but the outer edges are practically bare
of polish. If this defect is noticed, it must be rectified at once, the best plan being to
let the work stay on one side until the polish has hardened, after which the surface
is gently levelled down all over with very fine glass paper. The application of a
spot or two of oil to the surface of the glass paper will assist in the cutting-down
process, while it will also prevent the polish from adhering to the paper. The bare
edges are then levelled up by the application of several wet rubbers, the polisher
working inwards from the edges toward the middle and exerting more pressure on
the rubber when covering the bare places.

165. Allowance for Sinkage.—Having obtained a smooth, full, and even surface,
the polisher puts the work aside to allow the body to sink ; this is explained by the
circumstance that the polish sinks into the wood as it hardens, the pores especially
showing the sinkage where the. polish has been more readily absorbed. Owing to
this cause, work cannot be satisfactorily finished at the bodying stage, but if it is
desired to finish off the work at the next stage of the process, the body just
described must have considerable substance to allow for sinkage. Work that has
been papered down with a view to the removal of surface defects cannot be finished
off in one operation only, since the marks made by the glass paper are liable to
show through the finished surface. Special work that requires an extra finish is
termed half-bodied when the body coat has been applied ; after the expiration of an
allowance of 24 hours for sinkage and hardening, the half-bodied work is papered
down with a cork rubber and No. 0 or flour glass paper until a smooth and even
ground is obtained, after which bodying operations are recommenced.

166. Use of the Pumice Pounce.—In the process of bodying very open-grained
wood, such as oak, it is frequently the practice to work powdered pumice stone
with the polish. The pumice, reduced to a very fine powder, is contained in a bag
known as a dolly or as a pumice pounce, which is made from a fine rag of close
texture, permitting only the finest particles to escape when the pounce is shaken
over the work. The application of pumice by this method requires great discretion,
and it should never be dusted on when a newly wetted rubber is being used, since a
certain amount of pressure must be exerted on the rubber to work the pumice
powder in, while the rubber must be very lightly worked immediately after dipping
in. As soon as the rubber has been worked a little dry, a very small quantity of
pumice may be applied by the pounce to four or five spots on the surface, such as
near each corner and in the middle of a rectangular piece, and this is worked in over
the whole surface by the rubber. If too much pumice is applied, the surface will
become rough and need to be smoothed down again with glass paper.

BODYING UP

167. Definition of Bodying Up.—The process of bodying up may be defined as

the second stage of bodying, the object being to make up sinkage and produce a
smooth substantial surface that will last ; although in cheap and inferior work
bodying up may be omitted altogether, the process is most essential to good work.
It is necessary before bodying up to remove all roughness of the surface, and any
easing down that may be required should be completed; places that have been cut
down to an exceptional depth should be re-bodied and allowed to stand and harden.
It is always advisable, if possible, to allow several days to elapse between bodying
in and bodying up a piece of work, since greater security is thereby afforded against
sinking in the finished work. The rubbers used by the polisher for bodying up
should be selected from rubbers that have been much used for bodying in, and
which have been worked out thoroughly dry at the end of that process. The wadding
hearts, or cores, are never unravelled nor crumpled in any way, but are kept shapely
for use when required. The covering rags used with the rubbers for bodying in are
removed and replaced by other rags, which should be of rather closer texture than
those employed in the earlier stages of bodying.

168. Working Rubber in Bodying Up.—In working the rubber when freshly
dipped up, during the bodying-up process, -only a very light pressure is applied,
thus avoiding the production of whips that will show plainly on the finished surface.
- The rubber should be worked in closely, looped circles that cover the whole of the
surface, the course of the rubber being occasionally varied by taking it straight
across and through the circular smears already formed, as indicated by the straight
lines in Fig. 58. This operation is repeated until the polish is quite worked out of
the rubber and evenly distributed over the work. As the rubber gets drier the
pressure is gradually increased until the polish is exhausted; the amount of oil used
as a lubricant must be as limited as possible. A transparent smear, known as the
silver smear, must always be present during bodying up, and is gradually reduced
and made more transparent during the
process until near its end the smear has
 been almost entirely worked away. When
sufficient polish has been put on the
piece, to produce a smooth body, the
polish is weakened by the addition of
spirit as it is applied to the rubber, a few
drops of spirit being put on the rubber
first before the polish is poured on it, the
spirit having a tendency to work the polish out of the rubber. The smear appears
and vanishes as the rubber works over the surface. The last rubber used in bodying
up is worked until it is dried out and the surface left quite free of smears. If there
are any rubber marks or whips in the work they will now be apparent, and their
presence is a sign of inferior workmanship, for they must be removed, possibly by
cutting down, which will entail a second bodying up.

169. Avoidance of Rubber Marks.—The inclination of the beginner is to add

more oil in order to obtain a smear, but this course will be found disastrous. If the
sole of the rubber is examined when the smear has worked off it will invariably be
seen that the rubber has become hard and glazed. This glaze is caused by oil
adhering to the cloth because there is no spirit in the rubber to mix with the oil and
produce a smear. The remedy consists in recharging the rubber and taking a clean
part of the rag for covering the sole. As a precautionary measure against the
production of rubber marks and whips, it is advisable, after dipping up and covering
the rubber with rag, to press the sole firmly on a clean surface, such as the back of
a piece of glass paper, thus distributing the polish in the rubber equally over the
surface of the latter.

170.Prevention of Chilling.—Damp air affects the gums composing spirit polish

and varnish, causing them to turn white or milky and producing the condition termed
chilled. Where it is imperative that the work should be proceeded with in an
uncongenial atmosphere, the use of naphtha polish, or that made with wood alcohol,
will be found of great advantage owing to the very rapid drying of that particular
spirit. Another helpful measure is the warming of the polish while being used, the
employment of warmed naphtha polish largely preventing chilling. It must be
understood, however, that nothing can be a satisfactory substitute for a work place
properly warmed.

FINISHING

171. Spiriting Off.—After a piece of work has been finally bodied up and the
polish allowed to harden, it is ready for the finishing processes. The operation
known as spiriting off, drying out, or finishing out produces the highest degree of
finish obtainable by the standard methods followed in the United Kingdom. The
work is first dusted, and then given two or three rubbers of half-and-half, which is
a mixture in equal proportions of polish and methylated spirits. This dipping-up
mixture is further slightly diluted for one or two subsequent rubbers, each being
worked out until the rubber is thoroughly dry ; hence the application of the term
drying out. The movement of the rubber throughout the spiriting-off process is
rapid, but with the application of very firm and even pressure. The polish that is
used in the composition of the half-and-half depends on the judgment or taste of the
polisher ; although white polish is probably employed most often, many men find
they can do better finishing work with other kinds. The number of rubbers of half-
and-half used depends on circumstances, and also on the skill and experience of the
polisher, a good man being often able to finish out a piece with two rubbers of half-
and-half followed by one rubber damped with spirits only.

172. Special rubbers are used for the final stage, in which spirit alone is applied.
These are made from clean white flannel doubled and folded on itself to produce a
smooth unwrinkled sole and a pointed toe to work into the corners. The rubber is
covered with two or three thicknesses of rag, which are removed one at a time as
they become dry. In no circumstances should these spirit rubbers be used with
polish. The spirit rubber, after the damping has been performed, should be pressed
on a clean surface to cause the spirit to penetrate beneath the surface of the rubber
and not to leave the latter wet. Care must be exercised in applying the spirit to the
rubber, for unless the quantity is rigorously limited there is danger of burning the
polish underneath ; that is to say, the spirit being a solvent of the gums composing
polish, any excess will tend to soften the body of polish, causing the surface to lose
its brilliancy and become dull, while a second wet rubber may actually dissolve the
damaged place so that the polish tears up. When the surface is approaching a
finished condition, the rubber is moved along the grain and not across it nor with
any circular motion. The work may be finally floated up, by which is meant the
rubbing of a few drops of spirit into the smooth face of a rolled-up piece of rag that
is then gently but swiftly passed over the surface. Some workmen use a few drops
of glaze in the final spiriting rubber with great advantage.

173. Glazed Finish.—The operation of spiriting off is extremely difficult of

performance on small mouldings and turnings; hence, recourse must be had to other
processes whereby the necessary bright and glossy finished surface may be
obtained on such parts. Glaze is made by digesting gum benzoin in methylated
spirit, in the proportion of 6 ounces of gum to 1 pint of spirit ; the mixture is
carefully strained before putting in the bottle for use. Glaze is not used as much in
modern practice as was formerly the case ; many cheaper substitutes are also used
in the present day, such as toppings and combinations of cheaper gums, such as
copal, mastic, and arabic. A glazed finish is not obtained through friction as is the
case in spiriting off, the glaze being simply laid on with a clean rubber, this being
made rather wetter than is the rule with polish. The glaze is then laid on in the form
of a varnish by a few quick strokes of the rubber in the direction of the grain of the
wood.

174. Stiffing Up.—In the language of the polishing shop, a surface is said to be
stiff when it is free from oil. Stiffing up is the term applied to an expeditious
modern process of finishing off polished work in which the oil is taken off the
surface by means of the polishing rubber, working parallel with the grain of the
wood. The preliminary processes are the same as those already described, namely,
filling in, fadding, and bodying ; after bodying in, the work is laid aside to permit of
sinkage and hardening, and is then taken up for stiffing up. Sometimes the work is
allowed to become quite hard, is well cut down with fine glass paper, and is re-
bodied twice before stiffing up ; but cutting down is not usually resorted to. The
ordinary wadding rubber is used, and the early portion of the finishing process is
practically a repetition of the bodying operations, but especial care is taken in
working the two last rubbers to ensure that no visible marks are left in the surface.
The final rubber is not wetted so heavily as in bodying, and is worked in straight
lines parallel with the grain, endeavours being made gradually to work away all oil
so as to leave a stiff surface. Different methods are adopted for the manipulation of
the final rubber in stiffing up, according to the kind of polish that is being used or to
the judgment of the polisher, a few drops of spirit being added at times while the
final rubber may be dipped up with garnet, white, or transparent polish, in
accordance with the experience or taste of the workman. The rubbers are not
worked dry during this method of finishing ; they are also left soft, and not firm and
compact as are the rubbers used when bodying up and spiriting off.

STOPPING

175. Stopping for Unpolished Wood.—During the course of polishing, various

defects may become apparent in the wood, such as dents or bruises caused by
accident, or by knocking small piece off a corner ; natural defects in the wood may
also be revealed. Dents and bruises may be filled up with a stopping adapted to the
wood worked on. Where the wood is in the white, or unpolished, a very hard
stopping should be employed, or a stopping at least as hard as the wood itself. The
stopping is procurable at any cabinet-makers’ supply stores in sticks of convenient
size, or it may be made by melting together in an iron vessel equal proportions of
pure beeswax and resin, to which sufficient colouring matter is added to produce
the desired shade. Common sealing wax of the required colour may also be used.
On light-coloured woods, shellac alone will form an efficient stopping. To apply
these stoppings, an old flat file should be heated, and with this sufficient stopping
should be melted from the stick to fill the hollow and worked in while it is in a
plastic state. At the expiration of a few minutes’ time, the stopping will have set,
and can then be smoothed down level, using the flat cork rubber with medium or
fine glass paper.

176. Stopping for Polished Wood.—A slightly softer stopping than that already
described must be used on work that is polished and which it is not desired to clean
off down to the bare wood. If ready-made stopping is not used, a suitable
composition may be made by melting in an old spoon 3 parts of pure beeswax to 1
part of powdered resin, mixing in colouring matter to the desired shade while hot.
This stopping should be taken from the spoon while hot, and worked into the holes
or hollows with a hot file or other tool. When set, the composition is gently cleaned
off level with well-worn fine glass paper.

177. Colouring Stopping.—A list of suitable pigments for colouring stopping to

match different woods is here given ; in all cases, the dry powdered form of pigment
should be used. To colour stopping to match Chippendale mahogany, use equal
amounts of Vandyke brown and Venetian red ; Venetian red should be used if
matching light mahogany. To match walnut, the stopping should be coloured with
Vandyke brown, yellow ochre being used for satin walnut. For fumed oaks the
stopping may be made of white wax -and amber resin, coloured to match the shade
of the wood with either yellow ochre, gas black, Vandyke brown, or brown umber.
Stopping for ebony is coloured with gas black or with vegetable black.

TREATMENT OF CARVINGS AND MOULDINGS

178. Preparation of Carved Work for Polishing.—Special care must be taken
in staining carved work, since the numerous edges of the carving expose much end
grain, which will absorb the stain more readily than the less porous face of the
wood. It will be found advantageous to weaken the stain for the carved portions.
After staining, the carving should be made perfectly smooth by the aid of worn
glass paper, and an old nail brush will be found of great assistance in smoothing the
small parts where the use of glass paper would be inadmissible on account of
possible damage to the sharp edges, which must be retained. Carvings should not be
oiled unless it is necessary to obtain a specified colour, and in that case the oil is
diluted with an equal quantity of turpentine.

179. Dry Shining.—It is inadvisable to put any body of polish on carvings, as by

so doing the clear-cut lines and sharp arrises would be obliterated. Where not
otherwise specified, carved work is best left dry shined. Dry shining is a process
much resembling skinning in, and the term implies the working up to a finished
surface of a thin coating of polish by means of a fad. The same process is often
referred to as egg-shell finish, on account of the thinness of the body of polish; the
American term for this is mission finish. It is advisable to give the carvings a coat
of half-and-half with a brush as soon as they are ready to receive the polish ; this
will ensure the coating of all the quirks and recesses with polish. After this, the
carvings will be worked up with ordinary polish applied with a half-dry fad.
Although the work will resemble skinning in, dry shining is a finished process and
so the surface must be produced absolutely free from any traces of oil or
stickiness.

180. Polishing Turned Work.—Turned work is filled in by the polisher in the

usual manner whenever it is possible, but if a small piece off a corner ; natural
defects in the wood may also be revealed. Dents and bruises may be filled up with
a stopping adapted to the wood worked on. Where the wood is in the white, or
unpolished, a very hard stopping should be employed, or a stopping at least as hard
as the wood itself. the stopping is procurable at any cabinetmakers’ supply stores in
sticks of convenient size, or it may be made by melting together in an iron vessel
equal proportions of pure beeswax and resin, to which sufficient colouring matter is
added to produce the desired shade. Common sealing wax of the required colour
may also be used. On light-coloured woods, shellac alone will form an efficient
stopping. To apply these stoppings, an old flat file should be heated, and with this
sufficient stopping should be melted from the stick to fill the hollow and worked in
while it is in a plastic state. At the expiration of a few minutes’ time, the stopping
will have set, and can then be smoothed down level, using the flat cork rubber with
medium or fine glass paper.

turned piece contains a number of flutes and other details that would tend to
retain a surplus of filler, this process is dispensed with. It is a good rule to fill in as
much as possible, and the polisher must exercise considerable judgment respecting
the parts on which filling in is omitted. Large turned pieces are most easily polished
in a lathe, but this method of procedure is generally impracticable owing to the
turnings being fitted up into the articles of which they form a part. It is a good plan
to work the polish on turnings by the use of an old rubber as a fad, since in the
circumstances the rubber will work better if not covered with a rag ; care must be
taken, that the fad has a smooth face and that no loose thread nor fluff is liable to
become detached and stick to the work. The turning is bodied in the usual manner, a
little oil being used as already described. If so desired, turned work may be given a
thin coating of varnish after having been skinned in ; when this is done, the work is
put aside for the varnish to dry hard, the surface is then eased down, and the
bodying is afterwards completed in the usual way. In good work, the turnings are
spirited off wherever possible, the small details being lightly glazed and finished off
with a spirit rubber. Work of an inferior quality is merely stiffened off.

181. Polishing Mouldings.—Mouldings are not filled in preparatory to polishing

unless the sections are large enough to permit of their thorough cleaning out. If the
moulding is filled in, care must be taken that the wiping-off or cleaning processes
do not injure any of the details ; every effort must be made so that the members of
the mouldings show up sharply and clearly after polishing, a sure indication of
faulty workmanship being seen when the changes of section instead of being sharply
defined are partly filled up with polish and rounded. Glass-papering must be very
carefully performed to preserve the sharpness of the arrises, especially with stained
work, as explained elsewhere. In all other respects, the process of polishing
mouldings is similar to that already advised for turned work. When polishing
mouldings or small work generally, it is advisable both for ease in working and for
economy of time to operate on a number of pieces together. By this means a
uniform body and tone of colouring are given to all pieces. Mouldings can be given
a cleaner finish if polished in lengths, being simply touched up after having been
mitred or fitted into position.

182. Bleaching.—The polisher frequently receives work in which there is an

exceptionally dark part that requires to be made lighter in colour, or in which there
are stains that must be removed. For this purpose a bleach is used, the most
common bleaching agent being oxalic acid, or salts of lemon. This acid, which is a
strong irritant poison, is obtained in crystals, and the bleach is made by dissolving 1
ounce of these crystals in 1 pint of methylated spirits ; water may also be used for
making the solution if desired. The bleach is generally applied with a piece of
wadding, but it is a much better plan to use a brush, since that avoids the risk of
acid getting on the fingers. As soon as the bleach has taken effect it should be well
rinsed off the wood, as its presence will be deleterious both to the wood and to the
ultimate colour and body of the polish. If the bleach has beenmade with spirits, the
rinsing should be done with spirits,
bleach made with water being rinsed off
with that liquid.

183. Use of the Besom.—While

finishing polished work, it is frequently
found that small specks of dust, termed
nibs or lice by the workmen, work in on
the body of the polish, thus rendering the
finish faulty. To obviate the need of
glass paper, which, however fine, would
cause scratches, a tool termed a besom
is used to remove the nibs ; its
appearance and method of use are shown
in Fig. 59. The besom is made from a
strip of felt that has been well soaked in
raw linseed oil and which is tightly rolled
up while wet, the end being secured by a
few stitches with stout thread. The roll is
then allowed to become quite dry and
hard, after which its sole is dressed down to a perfectly-smooth surface. This is
done by roughly trimming one end level with a sharp knife, after which it is rubbed
down to smoothness on a piece of glass paper stretched on a flat board. When in
use, the sole of the besom is moistened with raw oil and a few grains of pumice
powder are shaken over it. The besom is then gently applied to the uneven surface
in the manner shown in Fig. 59, and the little excrescences are speedily removed
without injuring the polish. It is better to work the besom with the grain than with an
irregular or circular motion.

POLISH REVIVING

184. Sweat on Polished Surfaces.—The term sweat is very generally applied to

the effects that are produced by oil from the pores of the wood working through the
polish. At first, it presents a dull, greasy, cloudy appearance characterized as
bloom; if this is not promptly dealt with, the oil may harden into minute veins or
excrescences incrusting the surface over the larger pores, the name of sweat being
usually employed to distinguish this more advanced stage of deterioration. There
are many causes of sweat in polished work, the principal being the use of an excess
of oil during the various stages of the polishing process ; the wood may .also
possess a very open grain that has absorbed oil very quickly during polishing.
When the sweat appears as a bloom, and first begins to cloud the lustre of the piece,
it may easily be removed by the use of a suitable reviver, or liquid composition for
restoring brilliancy to polish, applied with a soft cloth and well rubbed in. If the
exudations of oil are allowed to harden and form incrustations it will be necessary
to repolish the work. Many polishes and oils are stated by their makers to be non-
sweating, and the use of such may possibly be advantageous, but the evil of
sweating is best avoided by careful manipulation and good workmanship. If
reasonable attention is paid to polished work and it is treated with reviver at regular
intervals, the surface will maintain its lustre.

185. Methods of Reviving Polish.—The most expeditious method, for the

practical man, of reviving French polish consists of lightly washing the polished
surface with a very weak solution of washing soda in water, wherever necessary ;
the work is then smeared with an oily piece of wadding, is wiped off with a clean
rag, and the surface is finally floated up with a few drops of spirits on a soft cloth
until all smears are removed. This method is as effective as any polish reviver
possibly can be, but with inexperienced hands its adoption is attended by risk of
injury to the surface owing to possibly incorrect application of the spirits during
floating up. The various ingredients composing revivers, other than those already
mentioned, are usually vinegar, turpentine, and butyr of antimony. The vinegar has a
slight cleansing action on the surface to which it is applied, and assists in keeping
the oil in solution; turpentine assists in removing any grease present on the work and
also helps to dry the oil. The butyr of antimony is added as a combining agent,
preventing the various ingredients of a reviver from separating out ; it is a strongly
acid liquid, poisonous in its properties, which is really a solution of antimony in
hydrochloric acid. Some polishers use the latter acid, under the name of spirits of
salts, as an ingredient in revivers instead of butyr of antimony.

186. Recipe for Polish Reviver.—A polish reviver, suitable for application to
new work, and which can be used by inexperienced persons, is composed of equal
quantities of raw linseed oil, methylated spirits, turpentine, and vinegar. The
measured quantity of oil is first poured into a clean bottle and the vinegar is added
to the oil, the bottle being shaken until the two liquids have. thoroughly mixed
together. Old ale is sometimes advantageously substituted for the vinegar, the
quantity of ale being about 50 per cent. more than that of the vinegar it replaces.
The turpentine is next put in and, after the contents of the bottle have been well
shaken, this is followed by the methylated spirits. Butyr of antimony is added to the
mixture in the proportion of 2 tablespoonfuls to 1 pint of reviver. The reviver must
be well shaken each time before using, a few drops being put on a piece of wadding
and well rubbed on the furniture, finishing off the operation by polishing with soft
cloths,

GERMAN POLISH

187. The method of treating polished work, known as German, or glass, finish,
differs materially from the practice of finishing by spiriting off already described. In
the German process, a little pumice powder is dusted on the rubber at each dipping
up when bodying ; the powder is dusted over the wadding, the latter is wetted with
the polish, and the covering rag is then wrapped round the rubber in the ordinary
way. The process of finishing is carried out much in the manner customary in the
United Kingdom, except that the application of the spirit rubber is omitted, while
considerable pressure is exerted as the rubbers dry. For the final operations in
finishing, vitriol is diluted with clean fresh water in the proportion of 1 teaspoonful
of acid to 1 pint of water ; and a pounce containing the preparation variously known
as Berlin, or Vienna, chalk is also necessary. The diluted vitriol is kept in a bottle,
which should have a glass stopper, since acid would rot away a cork ; the bottle
must be well shaken before use. The solution may be applied in various ways, a
good plan being to moisten a small piece of wadding which is dabbed here and there
over the surface to be finished. The chalk is then dusted over the moistened places,
and vitriol and chalk are kneaded into the surface with the heel of the open hand,
palm downwards, the hand being worked in all directions. This finishing process
leaves a highly polished surface, known from its crystal clearness and brilliancy as
a glass surface. Some polishers substitute powdered cuttlefish bone for the pumice
powder used in dipping up, while rotten-stone is used in the same way, but only on
dark-coloured woods.