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TWO MINOR METHODS FOR

FINDING EXOPLANETS

A s we described in previous chapters, astronomers have

found exoplanets with four major techniques—­transit
and radial-­velocity observations, gravitational lensing,
and direct imaging. They have also used a fifth method, the exact
timing of pulsar radio emission, to discover a few unusual and
anomalous pulsar planets. In the interest of completeness, we
should now add four more search methods, two of which have so
far proven unsuccessful, while the other two—­orbital brightness
modulation and starlight polarization—­have actually provided
us with a few more exoplanets. This ­will bring the number of suc-
cessful techniques to seven, with at least two more awaiting the
crown of consummation.

Radio Observations: A Fine Idea Fails

Radio astronomy, which sprang quickly from technological ad-

vances introduced during the Second World War, has added

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