Cargo Operation Book

PUBLICATIONS
VISION
DIGITAL
ONLINE
MAR041
MARITIME STUDIES
Master Class 3
CARGO
OPERATIONS
Learners Guide
w w w. w e s t o n e . w a . g o v. a u
CARGO OPERATIONS
Learner’s Guide
Book 1
Copyright and Terms of Use
© Department of Training and Workforce Development 2016 (unless indicated

otherwise, for example ‘Excluded Material’).
The copyright material published in this product is subject to the Copyright Act 1968
(Cth), and is owned by the Department of Training and Workforce Development or,
where indicated, by a party other than the Department of Training and Workforce
Development. The Department of Training and Workforce Development supports
and encourages use of its material for all legitimate purposes.
Copyright material available on this website is licensed under a Creative Commons

Attribution 4.0 (CC BY 4.0) license unless indicated otherwise (Excluded Material).
Except in relation to Excluded Material this license allows you to:
 Share — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format

 Adapt — remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even
commercially
provided you attribute the Department of Training and Workforce Development as
the source of the copyright material. The Department of Training and Workforce
Development requests attribution as: © Department of Training and Workforce
Development (year of publication).
Excluded Material not available under a Creative Commons license:

1. The Department of Training and Workforce Development logo, other logos and
trademark protected material; and
2. Material owned by third parties that has been reproduced with permission.
Permission will need to be obtained from third parties to re-use their material.
Excluded Material may not be licensed under a CC BY license and can only be used
in accordance with the specific terms of use attached to that material or where
permitted by the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth). If you want to use such material in a
manner that is not covered by those specific terms of use, you must request
permission from the copyright owner of the material.
If you have any questions regarding use of material available in this product, please
contact the Department of Training and Workforce Development.
Training Sector Services

Telephone: 08 6212 9789
Email: sectorcapability.ip@dtwd.wa.gov.au
Website: www.dtwd.wa.gov.au
First published 2003
ISBN 0 7307 9078 9
© WestOne Services 2003
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of WestOne Services.
Whilst every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the
information contained in this publication, no guarantee can be given
that all errors and omissions have been excluded. No responsibility for
loss occasioned to any person acting or refraining from action as a
result of the material in this publication can be accepted by WestOne
Services.
The Open Training and Education Network of the NSW Department of

Education and Training participated in developing this product.
(Prepared by Manjur Khan, Joe Sauzier, Ian Gray and Raza Kirmani.)
Published by and available from
WestOne Services
Prospect Place West Perth WA 6005

Tel: (08) 9229 5252 Fax: (08) 9229 5292
E-mail: training.pubs@westone.wa.gov.au
Website: www.westone.wa.gov.au
MAR041 CARGO OPERATIONS LEARNER’S GUIDE
Contents
Introduction
Section 1 SAFE CARRIAGE OF CARGO, PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE
Unit 1.1 Ship responsibilities and obligations with regard to the carriage of cargo
1.1.1 Ship owner’s responsibility
1.1.2 Master’s responsibility
Unit 1.2 Basic concepts of cargo carriage

1.2.1 Suitability of vessels
1.2.2 Some common types of vessels
Unit 1.3 Terms used to indicate cargo quantity
Unit 1.4 Methods of determining cargo quantity

1.4.1 Tallying, weighing and ullaging
1.4.2 The draft survey
Unit 1.5 Ballast management

1.5.1 Risks involved with the exchange of ballast water
1.5.2 Preventing the transfer of harmful aquatic organisms
1.5.3 Ballast Water Management Guidelines
Unit 1.6 Principles and practice of safe handling, stowage and carriage of cargo
1.6.1 Basic principles of cargo handling, stowage and carriage
1.6.2 General cargo
1.6.3 Unitised cargo
1.6.4 Containers
1.6.5 RO-RO cargoes
1.6.6 Refrigerated cargo
1.6.7 Solid bulk cargo
1.6.8 Liquid bulk cargo
1.6.9 Liquefied gases
1.6.10 Offshore supply vessels
Section 2 REGULATIONS GOVERNING CARRIAGE OF CARGO AND CARGO GEAR
Unit 2.1 International regulations pertaining to the carriage of timber deck cargoes
2.1.1 Main danger associated with the carriage of timber deck cargoes
2.1.2 Stability criteria for vessels carrying timber deck cargoes
2.1.3 Precautions necessary when carrying timber deck cargoes
Unit 2.2 National and international regulations pertaining to the carriage of grain cargoes
2.2.1 Legislation in place
2.2.2 IMO Grain Rules
2.2.3 Risks associated with the carriage of grain
2.2.4 Reducing the effect of grain shifting
2.2.5 Vessel’s stability
i
CONTENTS
Unit 2.3 National regulations governing the carriage of livestock

2.3.1 General on board care of livestock
2.3.2 Marine Orders Part 43
2.3.3 Stability criteria for vessels carrying livestock
2.3.4 Restriction on the carriage of livestock
Unit 2.4 Requirements as per Marine Orders Part 32 with regard to cargo handling
equipment
2.4.1 Importance of Marine Orders
2.4.2 Outline of Marine Orders Part 32
Section 3 SAFE HANDLING, STOWAGE AND SECURING OF CARGO
Unit 3.1 Hold and tank preparation procedures for the reception of various cargoes
Unit 3.2 The methods of de-odorising and fumigating holds

3.2.1 Reasons for fumigating
3.2.2 Fumigation
3.2.3 Two ways of fumigating a compartment
3.2.4 Precautions to be taken when fumigating a compartment
3.2.5 De-odorising
Unit 3.3 Methods of handling and stowage of cargo using machinery

3.3.1 Handling of bulk liquid
3.3.2 Handling of bulk cargo
3.3.3 Handling of containers
3.3.4 Handling of cargo on RO-RO ships
3.3.5 Handling of heavy lifts
Unit 3.4 Importance of cargo securing

3.4.1 Securing of general cargo
3.4.2 Securing of cargo on RO-RO ships
3.4.3 Securing of containers
3.4.4 Securing of heavy loads
3.4.5 Marine Orders Part 42 - Cargo stowage and securing
Unit 3.5 Dunnage - its types and functions

3.5.1 Types of dunnage
3.5.2 Functions of dunnage
Section 4 SAFE CARRIAGE OF IMO DANGEROUS CARGO
Unit 4.1 Safely handle, stow and carry dangerous goods
Unit 4.2 Terminology used in the carriage of dangerous goods
Unit 4.3 Classification and marking of dangerous goods

4.3.1 Labels
ii
Unit 4.4 Precautions that should be taken during the loading, carriage and discharge of
dangerous goods
4.4.1 General fire precautions to be taken when carrying dangerous goods
4.4.2 Segregation
4.4.3 Packing
Unit 4.5 The IMDG Code and its contents

4.5.1 Consulting the IMDG Code
Unit 4.6 Safety precautions and procedures during cargo operations as per Marine Orders
Part 41
4.6.1 Action in the event of leakage or spillage
4.6.2 Procedure to follow when shipping dangerous goods
4.6.3 Proposed loading plan and final stowage plan
Section 5 CARGO CARE
Unit 5.1 Importance of cargo care
Unit 5.2 Cargo damage: its causes, effects and prevention
Unit 5.3 Temperature control of reefer cargoes

5.3.1 Methods of carriage of reefer cargoes
Unit 5.4 Sweat: its causes, effects and prevention

5.4.1 Definitions
5.4.2 The Famous Can
5.4.3 Moisture control
5.4.4 Examples of ship sweat and cargo sweat
5.4.5 Information necessary before deciding whether to ventilate or not
5.4.6 Ventilate or not ventilate?
Unit 5.5 Cargo contamination: its causes, effects and prevention
Unit 5.6 Checklist – Routine procedures for the loaded voyage
Unit 5.7 Cargo damage survey procedures

5.7.1 The independent marine surveyor
Section 6 CARGO WATCH IN PORT AND OOW
Unit 6.1 Duties of the OOW with respect to cargo operations
Unit 6.2 Hatch and cargo gear preparations
Unit 6.3 The watchkeeper’s responsibility with respect to crew, stevedores and visitors
Unit 6.4 Recommended safety procedures with respect to port watchkeeping
Unit 6.5 Taking/ handing over a port watch
Unit 6.6 Importance of establishing and maintaining effective communication
iii
CONTENTS
Section 7 DOCUMENTS ASSSOCIATED WITH CARGO AND CARGO GEAR
Unit 7.1 Features of cargo stowage plan
Unit 7.2 Pre-loading and cargo plan
Unit 7.3 Capacity, lashing and rigging plans
Unit 7.4 Importance of record keeping
Unit 7.5 The damage report
Unit 7.6 Important shipping documents
Appendix A Review Questions
Answers to Self-test Questions
iv
Preface
Introduction
This Learner’s Guide has been compiled in seven topics to cover the Master 3 syllabus for
Cargo Operations. A Learning Outcome is included at the beginning of each topic, so that you
will know what you are going to achieve at the completion of each topic.
There are self-test questions at the end of each section, to assist you to evaluate your
understanding of the Section you have completed.
The materials produced here are directly related to the syllabus and students should bear in mind
that this book is a guide only. Students are advised to obtain a copy of the recommended text
and references for detailed study to achieve a broader understanding of each topic.
Resource Book
This book contains 17 appendices on various topics relating to the materials discussed in the
Learner’s Guide, for further reference.
While studying each Section, you should constantly refer to your textbook and to the references
for that particular topic. Remember that, at the Master 3 level, you will be expected to show
considerable depth of knowledge on each topic.
Good luck with your studies.
Recommended Text
• NOTES ON CARGO WORK, by Kemp and Young, UK
Obtainable from any Govt. or Co-Op book shop.
Recommended Reading
• Bulk Carrier Practice – Isbester – NI Publication
• Watchkeeping Safety & Cargo Management in Port – Roberts – NI Publication
• International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals – Oil Companies International
Marine Forum (OCIMF) Publication
• Thomas' Stowage – the properties and stowage of cargoes. Thomas, Agnew, Cole.
These publications are available at TAFE libraries.
Recommended References
• Marine Order Part 32
• Marine Order Part 28, 33, 34, 41, 42 and 43
• STCW ’95 Code
• Navigation Act 1912:
▪ Division 9 – Containers
▪ Division 10 – Dangerous Goods, Livestock, Grain Deck and other cargoes
▪ Division 12 – Ships carrying or using oil
▪ Division 12A – Ships carrying Noxious Liquid Substances in bulk
• Code of Practice for the Safe Loading and Unloading of Bulk Carriers
• Australian Offshore Support Vessel Code of Safe Working Practice (OSV Code)
v
PREFACE
• Code of Safe Working Practice for Australian Seafarers

The above publications can be found through the AMSA website, or could be purchased from
the Commonwealth bookshop in your capital city.
You can order charts, references and textbooks by telephone through TAFE bookshops and boat
bookshops
or
over the World Wide Web from:
Kelvin Hughes Chart Services
www.bookharbour.com
The latest and most up-to-date version of Marine Orders and Marine Notices can be down
loaded from AMSA Web site at www.amsa.gov.au
NOTE: For your convenience, certain extracts from the above have been included in the
Learner’s Guide or Resource Book and we are grateful to the Australian Maritime
Safety Authority for permission to reproduce these. You should note, however, that
such materials are subject to change and, in all cases, you should check that you have
the most recent version (see AMSA website).
USE OF MATERIALS SUBJECT TO COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA COPY-

RIGHT
“All extracts from statutory instruments herein are reproduced by permission but do not purport
to be the official or authorised versions. They are subject to Commonwealth of Australia copy-
right. The Copyright Act 1968 permits certain reproduction and publication of Commonwealth
statutory instruments. In particular, section 182A of the Act enables a complete copy to be made
by or on behalf of a particular person. For reproduction or publication beyond that permitted by
the Act, permission should be sought in writing. Requests should be addressed to
Commonwealth Copyright Administration, Department of Communications, Information
Technology and the Arts, GPO Box 2154, Canberra ACT 2601, or posted at http://www.dcita.
gov.au/cca.”
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This core maritime subject has been extensively revised and adapted
through numerous editions and it is now difficult to identify copyright
material. Wherever possible, copyright releases have been negotiated and
we apologise for any errors or omissions in acknowledgements. Please
advise us of any.
vi
TOPIC 1
Safe Carriage of Cargo, Principles

and Practice
SECTION 1
MAR041 CARGO OPERATIONS LEARNER’S GUIDE TOPIC 1
TOPIC 1 Safe Carriage of Cargo, Principles and

Practice
Syllabus
Learning Outcome 1
On completion of this topic you should be able to demonstrate the knowledge of the principles
and practices applicable to safe carriage of cargo.
Assessment Criteria
1.1 Ship’s responsibilities and obligations with regard to the carriage of cargo is stated, with
reference to the following:
− make holds fit and safe for reception, carriage and preservation of cargo
− make the ship seaworthy
− properly handle, equip and supply the ship
1.2 Following basic concepts of cargo carriage are discussed:
− compatibility of cargoes
− suitability of cargo for the ship
− suitability of ship for the cargo
− whether the cargo can be safely stowed and secured on board the ship and
transported under all expected conditions during the intended voyage
1.3 Following terms used to indicate ‘cargo quantity’ are defined:
− bale volume
− grain volume
− dead weight
− tank volume
− TEU
− lane-metres
1.4 Methods of determining the cargo quantity including draft survey are outlined.
1.5 Importance of ballast management is explained and procedures outlined.
1.6 Equipment and instruments used in cargo quantity measurement are stated.
1.7 Principles and practice of safe handling, stowage and carriage of following cargoes are
explained:
− general cargo
− unitized cargo
− RO-RO cargo
− reefer cargo
− solid bulk cargo
− liquid cargo
− offshore supplies
1.1
TOPIC 1, SECTION 1 − SAFE CARRIAGE OF CARGO, PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE
1.2
SECTION 1 Safe Carriage of Cargo, Principles

and Practice
UNIT 1.1 Ship responsibilities and obligations with regard to the
carriage of cargo
Introduction
The shipping industry is the backbone of world trade with billions of tonnes of cargo being
transported over the oceans, across the lakes and waterways every year.
Carriage of Goods by Sea Act (COGSA)

The shipper and the shipowner enter into contracts so that no party is disadvantaged. This
contract is covered by an Act of Parliament known as the Carriage of Goods by Sea Act 1991.
In Australia this legislation has been amended by the Carriage of Goods by Sea Amendment Act
1997. The new act is currently based on the Hague Rules as amended by the Visby and SDR
Protocols. Together these are commonly referred to as the Hague-Visby Rules.
A Revised Version of the Hague-Visby Rules is known as the Hamburg Rules. However
Australia has not yet adopted it, and does not look favourably at the option.
COGSA stipulates the obligations, responsibilities and liabilities of the carrier and cargo owner
or shipper.
The Carrier
Definition: a ‘carrier’ can be defined as someone who, under a special contract, has received
goods for the purpose of carrying them from one place to another. Thus the carrier is
responsible for the goods while in his/her possession.
According to the Hague-Visby Rules, the term carrier includes the owner or the charterer of a
vessel who enters into a contract with a shipper. In more common terms – the shipowner.
Bills of Lading
Bills of Lading are documents which show that there is an agreement between shippers and
carriers. The Hague-Visby Rules are incorporated in all Bills of Lading issued for transporting
any cargo by sea. (See Figure 1.1)
1.3
Code Name:
Shipper Combined Transport BILL OF LADING
Negotiable B/L No.
Reference No.
Consigned to order of
Notify address
Place of receipt
Ocean vessel Port of loading
Port of discharge Place of delivery Freight payable at Number of original Bs/L
Marks and Nos. Quantity and description of goods Gross weight, kg Measurement, m3
Particulars above declared by Shipper

RECEIVED the goods in apparent good order and condition and, as far
Freight and charges
as ascertained by reasonable means of checking, as specified above
unless otherwise stated.
The carrier, in accordance with the provisions contained in this
document,
a) undertakes to perform or to procure the performance of the entire
transport from the place at which the goods are taken in charge to the
place designed for delivery in this document, and
b) assumes liability as prescribed in this document for such transport,
One of the Bs/L must be surrendered duly endorsed in exchange for the
goods or delivery order.
IN WITNESS whereof TWO (2) original Bs/L have been signed, if not
otherwise stated above, one of which being accomplished the other(s) to
be void.
Place and date of issue
Signed for the carrier

NOTE:
The Merchant’s attention is called to the fact that according to
Clauses 11 to 13 of this B/L the liability of the Carrier is, in most
cases, limited in respect of loss of or damage to the goods and
delay.
As agent(s) only p.t.o
Fig. 1.1 Combined Bill Of Lading
1.4
1.1.1 Shipowner’s responsibility

Under The Hague-Visby Rules and its subsequent amendments, the shipowner must before and
at the beginning of the voyage:
• make the ship seaworthy
• properly man, equip and supply the ship
• make the holds, refrigerating and cool chambers, and all other parts of the ship in which
goods are carried, fit and safe for their reception, carriage and preservation.
The Navigation Act 1912 states that a ship is deemed to be seaworthy when it is in a fit state as
to condition of hull and equipment, boilers and machinery, stowage of ballast or cargo, number
and qualifications of crew including officers, and in every other respect, to encounter the
ordinary perils of the voyage contracted. And also that the ship is not overloaded.
The shipowner must ensure that the crew employed are able to carry out the job properly, one of
the main tasks being to properly handle, stow, secure, carry and care for the cargo in their
possession. The equipment on board must be functional and fulfil the requirements of the cargo
carriage.
1.1.2 Master’s responsibility

The Master is the shipowner’s representative and as such is obliged to abide to the COGSA.
From the time the cargo is loaded it is the Master’s responsibility to see that it is properly
handled, stowed and carried. This responsibility is passed onto the ship’s crew, mainly the cargo
officers.
UNIT 1.2 Basic concepts of cargo carriage

Introduction
Cargoes normally carried by sea can be split into 3 main categories:
• bulk-dry or liquid
• break bulk – known as general cargo (cases, pallets, drums)
• containers.
1.2.1 Suitability of vessels

To carry these different types of cargo, different types of ships are used. Some vessels are
specialised for the carriage of only one type of cargo, eg Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) carriers,
while others are more versatile and can accommodate a variety of cargoes − eg general cargo
ships which can carry break bulk, containers, small quantities of liquid in bulk or even livestock.
This is to say that a particular type of ship is normally built to carry a particular type of cargo.
Its cargo handling equipment will be in relation to the cargo intended to be carried. Equipment
and machinery fitted will be in conjunction with the vessel’s proposed use. A good example will
be the amount and capacity of ballast pumps on a bulk carrier, where deballasting time is very
important when loading.
Any ship operator whether it is a ship owner or a charterer will be looking at the type of cargo
he has to carry before buying/ building or chartering a new vessel. The suitability of the vessel
is fully assessed for the particular job it is intended.
If the vessel is not suitable for a particular type of cargo, then the risk of damage to the cargo is
great. It could also be dangerous for the vessel to carry a cargo that is unsuitable for her. In
many cases, this could render the ship unseaworthy, thus not covered by any insurance. Big
damage claims might well follow.
1.5
One aspect that must not be overlooked is the safety of the cargo and the vessel. The ability to
fully secure the cargo on board must exist at all times. Vessels will normally incorporate
securing arrangements for the type of cargo carried as part of its standard equipment. The
securing equipment must be strong enough to withstand the normal perils of the voyage. This
does not mean that the equipment will be fail proof and will withstand all types of seagoing
conditions. The mariner still has to exercise caution and take measures so as to make the voyage
as safe as possible.
The Cargo Securing Manual, the Rigging Plan and the stability data of the vessel will help the
mariner in his job to make the voyage as safe as possible.
1.2.2 Some common types of vessels
Multi-purpose general cargo ship

A vessel suitable for worldwide trading in general cargoes, dry bulk, long steel products, grain
cargoes and containers. The vessel is normally equipped with cranes and/or derricks. This type
of vessel is making room for more specialised vessels. Still common in some parts of the world
such as the Asian sub continent and South America. A deadweight tonnage of around 25,000t
and capable of carrying in excess of 800 TEUS is not uncommon.
Fig. 1.2 General cargo ships
Coal carriers
Designed to carry coal in bulk in deep-sea trades. Can be gearless or can have its own cargo
gear. Facilities for monitoring the cargo temperature and gas emission will be part of the basic
equipment on board. The provision for pumping bilge water will also be present.
1.6
Coasters
All-purpose cargo carriers operating around the coast. Usually fitted with two holds and
cranes/derricks.
Combi carrier
Carry unitised cargo combining container and vehicular shipments. Is sometimes equipped with
cranes to facilitate the loading/discharging of heavy indivisible loads.
Container vessel
Becoming very popular as the container trade continues to expand. The biggest one is able to
carry 8000TEUS. Can be gearless and depend upon shore gantries for cargo operations. Some
do not even have hatch covers.
Fruit carrier
Similar to refrigerated vessels. Cool-air systems are installed to prevent fruits from over –
ripening. Fruits carried are bananas, apples, oranges, grapes etc. Fast voyage times are essential.
They normally trade from the Caribbean to Europe or Australia/New Zealand and South Africa
to Europe.
LNG
Most gas tankers now use a combination of foam and alloy metals to provide insulation between
the gas tanks and the ship's hull. The ALSOC ships (Australian LNG Ship Operating Company)
that operate the big LNG ships from the NW Shelf to Japan, have what is called the Moss-
Rosenberg system. These are aluminium alloy spheres that contain the liquid gas at a
temperature of about -160°C, at pressure of less than 2 bar. These spheres are supported and
connected to the hull by an "equatorial ring" construction – a steel alloy ring around the centre
of the sphere, and the spheres are insulated by foam and an aluminium cover.
Some of the smaller gas tankers, for example "Island Gas", are of the semi-pressurised type,
with steel tanks insulated with foam from the ship's hull.
OBO
Ore/bulk/oil carriers are multi purpose bulk carriers designed for switching between bulk
shipments of oil, bulk grain, fertiliser and ore trades. They are normally gearless, relying on
shore facilities for cargo operations. The size of an OBO can reach up to 270,000 dwt.
Fig. 1.3 OBO carrier
Car carriers
Designed for the carriage of cars, lorries/trucks and other wheeled units. Some of the big car
carriers can accommodate around 6000 cars. One important feature of these types of vessel is
the provision for extraction of fumes emitted from the vehicles as they are driven in and out of
the vessel.
1.7
Refrigerated vessels
Carry chilled or frozen cargo such as eggs, butter or meat. Have large insulated holds with
refrigerating machinery to maintain the cargo in good condition.
RO/RO vessel
Designed to carry road haulage vehicles and private cars. The vehicles can be driven directly on
or off the vessel. Does not need cranes or derricks for cargo handling. Usually in ports where
fast turnaround is the order of the day. A RO-RO vessel which made the headlines in the 1980s
was the Herald of Free Enterprise. The great danger with these types of vessel is the absence of
longitudinal divisions. Without these divisions, large surface areas are at risk of being flooded –
affecting the stability of the vessel.
Tankers
Range from the crude carriers to product tankers. Built for specific purposes because of the
range of different cargoes. Size varies from a few hundred tons to the ULCC (>350,000 dwt).
The tanker is thus a very specialised vessel. It is designed to deal with bulk liquid cargoes
permitting quick loading and discharge.
Fig. 1.4 RO-RO ships
Timber carriers
Have large hatches to accommodate the variety of big timber logs. Unobstructed holds and large
hatches facilitate cargo handling. Cargo is also carried on deck. They have special load lines as
they have to abide to more severe regulations because of the timber being carried on deck.
LASH vessels
LASH stands for Lighter Aboard Ship. This type of vessel is designed to carry several fully
laden lighters on deck. The discharge is carried by the ship’s own handling gear at anchorage.
UNIT 1.3 Terms used to indicate ‘cargo quantity’

Introduction
In the shipping world, the use of technical terms is very common. Thus when cargo quantity is
expressed, the terms below are frequently used.
1.8
Bale capacity: the total amount of cargo space available for the carriage of bags, bales, pallets or
boxed cargoes and does not include the space between the frames and beams. It is always
slightly less than the grain capacity.
Grain capacity: the total amount of cargo space available for the carriage of bulk cargo. It
includes the gaps between the frames and beams in the hold.
Deadweight tonnage: the amount of cargo, stores and fuel that a vessel can carry. It is the
difference between the summer displacement and the light displacement.
Tank volume: the total volume of the tank minus an allowance made for the frames and beams.
It is good practice not to fill the tank completely to allow for expansion of the cargo.
Broken stowage: the space that is lost in a ship by cargo of irregular shape or because of the
hold being irregular. It includes the space lost between cargo packages. It is expressed as a
percentage. If a cargo has a B.S of 5% this means that an additional 5% of the cargo volume
must be allowed for when allocating space for that particular cargo.
T.E.U: twenty foot equivalent unit – normal-sized container.
F.E.U: forty-foot equivalent unit.
Lane metres: a common measurement in RO-RO vessels where vehicles are carried. Because of
the different lengths of vehicles, it is easier to describe the space available as lane metres rather
than to state the amount of medium or small sized cars that the vessel can carry.
Stowage factor: the space occupied by one metric ton of that cargo. For example, the S.F of
clinker is 1.5 − this means that 1 tonne of clinker will occupy 1.5 cubic metres. It is also
expressed in cubic feet per tonne at times.
Expansion coefficient: the amount by which the relative density of a liquid will change per unit
temperature.
UNIT 1.4 Methods of determining cargo quantity

Introduction
Apart from cargo damage, there is no greater subject of dispute than that of cargo quantity.
Slight discrepancies might give rise to long legal battles between shippers and carriers.
1.4.1 Tallying, weighing and ullaging

Various methods are used to calculate the amount of cargo loaded and discharged; this depends
upon the vessel’s type, the type of cargo and existing facilities both on board and in the port.
The techniques range from the traditional tallying to draft surveys and electronic bar coding.
Tallying
Tallying is normally carried out in ports where the risks of short landing or pilferage exist. This
task is usually carried out by the Stevedore Company responsible for the cargo operations and at
times complemented by tallying by ship’s personnel. The figures are compared and this amount
will be entered on the Bill of Lading, which is the official carriage document. Tallying is
common in general cargo trades.
Weighing
Weighing of cargo is usually done ashore and the vessel rarely has the ability to check the
accuracy of the weights given. In general cargo trades where the weights are provided by the
shipper, the vessel can only estimate the accuracy of such figure by working out the volume of
the cargo and its stowage factor. The only other method that can be used by the vessel is the
draft survey. This will be discussed in detail later on.
1.9
Ullaging
Vessels carrying bulk liquid can cross check shore figures by calculating the volume of cargo
they have on board and thus the weight. Several types of gauges are available, one of the most
common being the float. As the height of the liquid rises, the ullage (the distance between the
liquid surface and the tank ceiling) decreases. This height is measured and tables consulted to
yield the volume occupied by the cargo. The temperature needs to be taken into consideration
because a variation in temperature will affect the density of the cargo. Worked examples of that
sort can be found at the end of this Section.
Any increase in temperature causes a decrease in the relative density (r.d.) of oil. In order that
the weight may be calculated, it is important that when ullages are taken the r.d. of the oil is also
taken. The change of r.d. due to a change of one degree in temperature is known as the r.d.
coefficient.
More modern methods are used to measure the ullage nowadays. Ullage is defined as the space
between the tank ceiling and the top of the cargo. Great care should be taken when ullaging as
the build-up of static electricity is a great source of danger to the vessel and its crew and cargo.
The sounding tapes used are specifically designed for ullaging petroleum tanks. Tankers
normally have ullaging and sampling ports that reduce the risks of explosion. Electronic means
of sounding the tanks are also used. This is common on modern tankers and makes use of
ultrasonic waves of energy to measure the level of the liquid. Then the tank calibration tables
are used and corrections for temperature and density are applied so as to obtain the exact amount
of cargo in that tank.
Fig. 1.5 Ullaging
The Stowage Factor of the cargo, the volume occupied by the cargo, the Broken Stowage, the
relative density of a liquid or its expansion coefficient are some characteristics that the cargo
officer must know to be able to carry out the calculation.
Using a calibration table
1.10
Estimation of volume in the case of an unsymmetrical tank can be a complex matter. Ships’
tanks are thus ‘pre-measured’ or calibrated when the ship is being built and the results tabulated
for easy-reference. Care should be taken when reading these tables as they could be referring to
the ullage or the sounding.
Sometimes corrections must be made depending upon the location of the ullaging or sampling
pipe if the vessel is listed or on a trim.
Various other types of cargo measurement exist, most of which use the same principles as
described above. Further reading is encouraged on the matter.
1.4.2 The Draft Survey
Overview of a draft survey

The object of the whole exercise is to find out the weight of the whole ship and then the non-
cargo weights. The difference between the two will give the weight of cargo.
It has at times been described as the most accurate kind of cargo measurement that exists for
bulk trades. Draft surveying is an art that is backed with science. It does require some practice
and special attention to small details as these can affect the outcome to a large extent.
Procedure
The procedure can be split into three main steps:
1. reading of drafts and soundings
2. extracting information from the hydrostatic tables
3. assessing the underwater volume.
Reading the drafts

The whole draft survey is based upon the reading of the drafts. Therefore no effort should be
spared in ensuring that these are as accurate as possible.
• The officer or surveyor must be as close to the draft marks as possible.
• The draft must be measured to two decimal places; ie to the nearest centimetre.
• The draft must be read at least at the six draft marks.
While the readings are being made, it is imperative that there is no transfer of liquid or
movement of any weight including rigging of cranes or other lifting gear.
In turbulent conditions, the wave pattern should be studied, and a mean of the highest and
lowest draft readings should be recorded. This should be done at least twelve times and repeated
for each of the draft marks.
Specialised draft measuring devices as illustrated in Figure 1.7 can be used to improve the
accuracy of draft reading. These can even be constructed on board using a piece of open ended
and clear hose.
In other instances, the use of a length of clear, rigid plastic tube stretching across the deck could
be helpful. The leeward side drafts are read, and the windward side drafts are calculated using
the improvised manometer.
1.11
Fig. 1.6 Draft measuring device
Modern vessels are fitted with draft gauges which operate electrically or by water pressure.
Note: Draft gauges are often unreliable and do not replace observation of draft marks.
Correcting the draft readings is necessary because the draft marks on the vessel do not normally
correspond to the perpendiculars and because the data from the hydrostatic tables are related to
the true mean draft.
Hydrometers used in the shipping industry
Confusion appears to have arisen concerning readings obtained from the two main types of
hydrometers used in the shipping industry.
Hydrometers are used in the industry for two different purposes to measure two distinct but
related quantities.
LOAD LINE HYDROMETERS
To assess whether a ship is overloaded in terms of the International Convention on Load Lines
1966, a government surveyor will use a load line hydrometer which measures specific gravity
(otherwise known as relative density). Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of density of the
sample (eg seawater) at temperature T1 to that of pure water at temperature T2.
This type of hydrometer, therefore, specifies two temperatures T1/T2, often 15°/15°C or
60°/60°F. If the seawater temperature varies significantly from T1 then a small correction
should be applied due to the fact that the hydrometer is not at its standard temperature and will
therefore have expanded or contracted slightly. The temperature correction is quite small and
only need be applied in extreme cases.
DRAUGHT SURVEY HYDROMETERS
The other main purpose for the use of hydrometers is in draught survey work. The draught
survey is carried out as part of the task to calculate the commercially accepted weight of cargo
aboard a ship. The purpose-made draught survey hydrometer is calibrated to give the
commercially accepted weight in kilograms of one litre of seawater. This is weight in air and is
often given the term "apparent density".
These hydrometers are calibrated at a standard temperature, but for draught survey purposes a
temperature correction is not required. While it is true that a small error is introduced due to the
hydrometer not being at its standard temperature, this error is compensated for by a change in
volume of the ship. This change is due to the same temperature difference but is of opposite
sign to the slight "apparent density" difference. Therefore, these two differences tend to cancel
each other out.
1.12
The rule, then, when carrying out a draught survey is to make no temperature correction to the
"apparent density" reading.
COMPARATIVE READINGS OF THE TWO TYPES OF HYDROMETER
The most commonly used load line hydrometers are those calibrated at 60°/60°F or 15°/15°C.
The difference in calibration temperature does not affect the result obtained.
The density of pure water at 15°C is 0.9991 kilograms per litre. A seawater specific gravity
reading of 1.025 on this instrument means that the seawater has an actual density of 1.025 X
0.9991 kilograms per litre or 1.0241 kg/litre. A one litre sample of seawater of this density will
weigh 1.0241 kilograms in a vacuum.
Commercial weights are those measured in air and one litre of seawater will, in air, have a
buoyancy force acting on it. This force is 0.0011 kilograms for every litre. The commercial
weight is therefore smaller than the weight in a vacuum by this amount. Therefore the one litre
sample will weigh 1.0241 - 0.0011 = 1.023 kilograms in air.
The draught survey hydrometer is calibrated to give this reading.
For the sample of seawater the load line hydrometer shows a specific gravity of 1.025 and the
draught survey hydrometer shows that the weight in air of one litre of seawater is 1.023
kilograms. Both are correct. Therefore a reading taken on a draught survey is required to be
altered by adding 0.002 to the reading to give the Load Line surveyor's specific gravity reading.
Ships officers, marine surveyors, draught surveyors and other persons involved in the loading of
the ships should be familiar with this difference so that no confusion arises in relation to
overloading, stability calculations or draught surveys.
The Hydrometer
The hydrometer is an essential piece of equipment in conducting a draft survey. It measures the
density of the liquid it is floating in. Without going into details of the equipment, attention is
drawn to the fact that several types of hydrometers exist and, unless the correct one is used,
errors can affect the final result. Attention is also drawn to Marine Notice 6/1988, published by
AMSA.
Fig. 1.7 A typical hydrometer
1.13
Care when using the hydrometer

• The equipment should be clean, free of oil on the surface.
• Use a clean container to collect the sample to be measured.
• Protect the container and the equipment from direct sunlight and sudden temperature
changes.
• Lower the hydrometer gently in the liquid, slightly pressing downwards and releasing it.
• Avoid parallax when reading the instrument.
Sampling
• The samples of seawater should be taken at different levels and at different positions.
• Mud in suspension can affect the density of water in some places.
• Do not obtain samples in the vicinity of outlets and discharges.
• Beware of stagnant water trapped between the ship and the dockside.
• Tidal variation also affects water density.
• Taking the density of the dock water must be done immediately after reading the drafts.
Extracting the hydrostatic data
When the drafts have been read and a mean has been obtained for the forward, midship and aft
draft, the arithmetical mean draft must be calculated.
The diagram below illustrates this. Note that a correction must be applied to the draft mark
readings if these do not correspond to the forward and aft perpendiculars. These corrections
usually found in ship's particulars.
AP FP
W1
CoD F L
W CoD CoT
AMD L1
Fig 1.8 Arithmetical Mean Draft(AMD)
Obtaining the True Mean Draft

It is a fact that a vessel trims about its Centre of Flotation. At this point, the vessel’s draft does
not change when the trim changes. For this reason, hydrostatic tables are calibrated for True
Mean Draft that is measured at the LCF.
To convert the Arithmetical Mean Draft to the True Mean Draft, a correction must be applied.
This is known as the layer correction. The layer correction is found by using the first trim
correction formula. This is as follows:
Trim × distance between midship and LCF
Layer Correction =
LBP
(Trim is in cm)
True Mean Draft = AMD + Layer Correction
Information from the hydrostatic tables
Entering the hydrostatic tables with the True Mean Draft, the following can be found:
• TPC (tonnes per centimetre immersion)
1.14
• MCTC (moment to change trim by 1 cm)

• KB (vertical distance between the Centre of Buoyancy and the keel)
• LCB (distance between the CB and aft perpendicular of midship)
• LCF (distance between the Centre of Flotation and aft perpendicular of midship)
• KM (vertical height of the initial metacentre above the keel) and, the actual displacement
can be found.
After obtaining the displacement and the relevant data corresponding to the true mean draft,
some corrections need to be applied. These are necessary if the vessel is not on an even keel or
is in dock water whose density is different from the one the tables are made for or if the vessel is
hogged or sagged.
The first trim correction
This is a function of the layer correction. It can be additive or subtractive as has been explained
above. However, the first trim correction must also be applied to the extracted displacement.
The formula below is used to find the correction needed:
Displacement correction (tonne) = Layer correction × TPC × 100
The second trim correction
This is necessary because the Centre of Flotation is different from the one specified in the tables
as the tables were made with the vessel on an even keel.
This correction is always additive.
Note: In this calculation trim is in metres.
The second trim correction is also known as the Nemeto formula.
50 × trim 2 × (MCTC2 − MCTC1)
Correction in tonnes =
Length BP
Where MCTC 2 = the moment to change trim at a draft of TMD + 50 cm.
MCTC 1 = the moment to change trim at a draft of TMD – 50 cm.
Worked example
If a vessel whose LBP is 114 m has a forward corrected draft of 6.34 m and an aft corrected
draft of 8.92 m, what would the second trim correction be according to the hydrostatic tables
provided above?
Calculated trim = 2.58 m
(6.34 + 8.92)
True Mean Draft = = 7.63 m
2
MCTC (+50) = MCTC for a TMD of 8.13 m = 320.02
MCTC (-50) = MCTC for a TMD of 7.13 m = 265.20
MCTC 2 – MCTC 1 = 320.02 – 265.20 = 54.82
(50 × 2.58 2 × 54.82)
Correction =
114
= 160.05 t
Density correction
The next correction is made if the vessel is floating in dock water whose density is different
from the one for which the hydrostatic tables are made.
1.15
Some tables are made for fresh water, others are made for sea water. If the density of the water
is different then the density correction must be applied.
Displacement × actual density of water
Correction =
Density of sea water (or fresh water )
Fig. 1.9
(From Bulk Carrier Practice – Isbester - courtesy of the Nautical Institute, London, UK.)
1.16
Draught to
baseline at Displacement TPC MTC 1 cm LCB LCF KMO KB
the LCF (tonnes) (tonnes) (t − m) (metres) (metres) (metres) (metres)
(metres)
4.00 9 875 29.5 213.3 −0.28 −0.30 15.60 2.16
4.10 10 170 29.6 214.5 −0.28 −0.34 15.39 2.22
4.20 10 466 29.7 215.7 −0.29 −0.39 15.18 2.27
4.30 10 763 29.8 216.9 −0.29 −0.44 14.98 2.32
4.40 11 062 29.9 218.1 −0.30 −0.50 14.80 2.38
4.50 11 361 30.0 219.2 −0.30 −0.56 14.63 2.43
4.60 11 662 30.1 220.4 −0.31 −0.63 14.47 2.48
4.70 11 964 30.2 221.5 −0.32 −0.70 14.31 2.54
4.80 12 266 30.3 222.7 −0.33 −0.77 14.16 2.59
4.90 12 570 30.5 223.9 −0.34 −0.85 14.03 2.64
5.00 12 876 30.6 225.0 −0.36 −0.93 13.90 2.69
5.10 13.182 30.7 226.2 −0.37 −1.02 13.77 2.75
5.20 13 489 30.8 227.5 −0.39 −1.11 13.66 2.80
5.30 13 797 30.9 228.8 −0.41 −1.20 13.55 2.85
5.40 14 107 31.0 230.1 −0.43 −1.30 13.44 2.91
5.50 14 417 31.1 231.4 −0.45 −1.40 13.35 2.96
5.60 14 729 31.2 232.8 −0.47 −1.50 13.25 3.01
5.70 15 041 31.3 234.2 −0.49 −1.61 13.17 3.07
5.80 15 355 31.4 235.7 −0.52 −1.72 13.08 3.12
5.90 15 670 31.6 237.2 −0.54 −1.84 13.01 3.17
6.00 15 987 31.7 238.8 −0.57 −1.97 12.93 3.22
6.10 16 304 31.8 240.5 −0.60 −2.09 12.87 3.28
6.20 16 622 31.9 242.4 −0.63 −2.28 12.80 3.33
6.30 16 942 32.0 244.3 −0.66 −2.37 12.75 3.38
6.40 17 263 32.2 246.4 −0.69 −2.51 12.69 3.44
6.50 17 586 32.3 248.6 −0.73 −2.67 12.64 3.49
6.60 17 909 32.5 250.9 −0.77 −2.82 12.60 3.54
6.70 18 235 32.6 253.3 −0.80 −2.98 12.56 3.60
6.80 18 561 32.8 255.9 −0.84 −3.15 12.52 3.65
6.90 18 890 32.9 258.6 −0.89 −3.33 12.49 3.71
7.00 19 219 33.1 261.5 −0.93 −3.51 12.45 3.78
7.10 19 550 33.2 264.3 −0.97 −3.69 12.43 3.81
7.20 19 883 33.4 267.3 −1.02 −3.87 12.40 3.87
7.30 20 217 33.6 270.7 −1.07 −4.08 12.38 3.92
7.40 20 554 33.8 274.5 −1.12 −4.31 12.36 3.97
7.50 20 892 33.9 278.7 −1.17 −4.56 12.35 4.03
7.60 21 233 34.2 284.1 −1.23 −4.88 12.33 4.08
7.70 21 576 34.4 290.1 −1.29 −5.24 12.32 4.14
7.80 21 921 34.7 296.5 −1.36 −5.61 12.32 4.19
7.90 22 269 35.0 303.3 −1.43 −6.01 12.31 4.25
8.00 22 620 35.2 310.5 −1.50 −6.42 12.31 4.30
8.10 22 974 35.6 317.8 −1.58 −6.83 12.31 4.36
8.20 23 331 35.9 325.2 −1.66 −7.23 12.32 4.41
8.30 23 691 36.1 332.6 −1.75 −7.62 12.32 4.47
8.40 24 054 36.4 340.0 −1.84 −8.02 12.32 4.52
8.50 24 420 36.7 347.5 −1.94 −8.40 12.34 4.58
8.60 24 788 37.0 354.9 −2.04 −8.77 12.35 4.64
8.70 25 159 37.2 362.1 −2.14 −9.13 12.37 4.69
8.80 25 533 37.5 369.1 −2.25 −9.47 12.38 4.75
8.90 25 909 37.8 376.1 −2.35 −9.79 12.40 4.80
9.00 26 288 38.0 382.9 −2.46 −10.10 12.42 4.86
9.10 26 669 38.3 389.5 −2.58 −10.39 12.44 4.92
9.20 27 053 38.5 395.8 −2.69 −10.67 12.46 4.98
9.30 27 439 38.7 402.0 −2.80 −10.93 12.48 5.03
9.40 27 828 39.0 408.1 −2.92 −11.17 12.50 5.09
9.50 28 219 39.2 414.0 −3.04 −11.40 12.53 5.15
9.60 28 612 39.4 419.8 −3.15 −11.63 12.56 5.20
9.70 29 007 39.6 425.5 −3.27 −11.83 12.59 5.26
9.80 29 404 39.8 431.0 −3.39 −12.03 12.61 5.32
9.90 29 804 40.0 436.4 −3.50 −12.21 12.64 5.38
10.00 30 205 40.2 441.6 −3.62 −12.37 12.67 5.43
10.10 30 609 40.4 446.8 −3.74 −12.52 12.69 5.49
Fig. 1.10 Example of hydrostatic table
1.17
Non-cargo deductibles
Now that the displacement of the whole vessel is found, the next step is to find out all non-cargo
deductibles on board. This consists mostly of fuel, fresh water and water ballast.
In this process, extreme care should be exercised when sounding the tanks, especially if the
vessel is trimmed – in which case a correction should be made to the sounding. Sounding
corrections usually published with ship's particulars.
The density of the liquid must be taken at the same time as the sounding. In some instances, the
temperature of the liquid in the tank must be ascertained.
Subtracting the non-cargo deductibles from the corrected displacement will give the amount of
cargo on board.
The Constant. This is a term that frequently causes confusion. It is the figure remaining when all
the non cargo deductibles have been subtracted from the true displacement, ie the difference
between the calculated light ship displacement (from the ship's particulars) and the actual light
ship displacement. It is called “the constant” because it is assumed to be unchanged from the
ballast condition at the commencement of loading until the end of the loading. The figure can
often change from voyage to voyage; this can be due to changes in stores and spares quantities,
inaccuracies in determining fuel and ballast amounts and reading drafts, and changes to the ship
structure (accumulation of paint over time, additions/removal of steelwork, etc).
Refer to the example of a cargo loading summary of the "Iron Newcastle" included in the
Resource book, Appendix 1. Following through the calculations, you will see the actual light
displacement given as 22704 tonnes, this being 454 tonnes more than the tabulated light
displacement – this 454 tonnes being the constant.
Summary
Summarising a draft survey:
1. Read the draft at all the draft marks.
2. Obtain dock water samples.
3. Find out density of dock water and average out if necessary.
4, Average draft readings for forward, midship and aft.
5. Correct draft readings for readings at perpendicular.
6. Find arithmetical mean draft.
7. Find out whether vessel is hogging or sagging.
8. Find out true mean draft by applying layer correction to AMD.
9. Extract data from hydrostatic tables, including displacement.
10. Apply first trim correction to extracted displacement.
11. Apply second trim correction to extracted displacement.
12. Apply density correction to extracted displacement.
13. Find out the corrected displacement.
14. Sound all the tanks and work out volume.
15. Find out density/temperature of liquids and calculate weights contained in each tank.
16. Subtract the deductibles from the corrected displacement.
17. The result is the amount of cargo on board.
There are other methods used to conduct draft surveys, all of which yield very slight differences
from the method outlined above.
1.18
A worked example is included in your Resource Book as Appendix 1. Please take some time to
familiarise yourself with them.
UNIT 1.5 Ballast Management

Introduction
Each year, over 120 million tonnes of ballast water is discharged in Australian waters. The
carriage of ballast on board provides the vessel with adequate stability, especially when the
vessel is only partly loaded. Ballasting and deballasting are important aspects of cargo
operations especially on bulk carriers, container ships and tankers.
On bulk carriers, good ballast management reduces the risk of causing excessive stress to the
structure of the vessel.
On tankers, ballast water is normally carried in dedicated tanks, reducing the risk of
contamination which would occur if it was carried in tanks normally used as cargo holds.
1.5.1 Risks involved with the exchange of ballast water

The carriage of ballast water, however, is not without inconvenience. Some harmful micro-
organisms are also transported as they live in that water. A number of exotic species including
fish, molluscs, worms and toxic algae are thought to have arrived in Australia through ballast
water. The introduction of non-indigenous marine species is now recognised as a significant
worldwide problem.
One typical example is dinoflagellates, a toxic species of algae that are harmful to the marine
environment.
These exotic species can cause problems such as:
• serious diseases and parasites which affect humans, animals and plants
• ecological impacts on native species (eg cross breeding and habitat effects)
• pollution (eg blocked pipes and bad smells).
Effect of dinoflagellates
The dinoflagellates are taken into ship when ballast water is pumped in and remain in the vessel
tanks until the ballast water is pumped out (usually in the loading port).
They then enter the feeding cycle and produce toxins, which can cause paralysis or death in
human beings who eat the affected shellfish.
1.5.2 Preventing the transfer of harmful aquatic organisms

This phenomenon has triggered the IMO Ballast Water working group and guidelines have been
issued regarding the safe exchange of ballast water. The insertion of an Annex to Marpol 73/78
containing legislation regarding ballast water is very likely to happen in the near future.
The exchange of ballast water at sea has been recognised as a means of preventing the
introduction of harmful aquatic organisms.
Currently, there are two recognised methods when undertaking a ballast water exchange at sea.
The complete discharge and refilling of ballast tanks has the potential to dangerously affect the
structural strength and stability of the vessel.
1.19
The flow through method

The flow through method following research carried out on the Iron Whyalla seems to be the
safest method so far. It consists of flushing the ballast tank out with three times its water
capacity. This action removes up to 95% of the original ballast water, thus reducing the risk of
environmental pollution.
However, for the process to be very efficient, some tanks need to be modified to allow for
maximum water mixing.
The flow through method remains the most commonly used method. It is recommended that
water be taken from areas where the water depths exceed 2000m as it contains fewer organisms,
which are able to survive in fresh and coastal waters.
The second method is the more traditional emptying of tanks and refilling them with ballast
water obtained in deep waters. This method has its limitations since the emptying of any tank at
sea creates free surface moments which reduces the vessel’s stability. This method may also
create larger shearing forces and bending moments on the vessel’s structure.
Fig. 1.11 Bulk carrier flow through ballast system
1.5.3 Ballast Water Management Guidelines

At 1 July 2001 Australia, through the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service (AQIS),
introduced the Ballast Water Management Options for vessels entering its waters. This was done
to prevent the spreading of these harmful organisms. The guidelines apply to all vessels from all
overseas ports and the emphasis is to minimise the discharge of water and sediment, which
could contain these organisms.
The measures outlined are:
• ballasting in safe areas at the port of intake
1.20
• en route treatment (could be exchanging ballast H2O or water treatment)

• deballasting in approved areas
• a commitment not to discharge ballast
• treatment methods approved by AQIS
• where practicable, avoid taking ballast up in shallow water, where there is a known
outbreak of cholera, or toxic algal blooms are occurring, or where dredging is occurring.
No matter which method is used, the mariner should never put his vessel at risk by having slack
tanks and reduced stability. Tanks should not be over pressurised or under pressurised.
The possibility of treating the ballast water in the tanks is presently being studied. If successful,
this would remove the need for any ballast movement to preserve nature.
New ballast water arrangements in Australia
The purpose of this notice is to advise ship owners and operators that the Australian Quarantine
Inspection Service (AQIS) will be introducing new ballast water arrangements for all
international vessels visiting Australia from 1 July 2001.
Detailed information can be obtained by contacting AQIS by facsimile on +61 2 6272 3276, by
visiting the AQIS web site at www.aqis.gov.au/shipping (this information will be updated
regularly), or email to AQIS at dss@aqis.gov.au.
For further information regarding Ballast Water Management consult the website:
www.aqis.gov.au (follow menu to ballast water section) or www.imo.org.
A Ballast Water Reporting form and more information on ballast water management is included
in the Resource Book as Appendix 2.
UNIT 1.6 Principles and practice of safe handling, stowage and

carriage of cargo
Introduction
As stated earlier, there are various types of cargo being carried across the oceans. Some
common ones are: General Cargo, Unitised Cargo, Bulk Cargo (liquid or solid), Refrigerated
Cargo and Roll On-Roll Off Cargo. Due to their nature, these require varying degrees of
attention.
1.6.1 Basic principles of cargo handling, stowing and carriage

Underpinning the basic principles of handling, stowing and carrying of cargo, four main factors
must be considered. These are:
1. Full use should be made of the vessel’s carrying capacity; broken stowage should be kept
to a minimum.
2. Damage to the vessel must be prevented at all costs; this includes ensuring adequate
stability and reducing structural stress.
3. Damage to cargo must be prevented or reduced to a minimum.
4. Proper segregation and equally distributed cargo holds must be kept so as to reduce the
risks of cargo damage and present a speedy discharge.
1.21
1.6.2 Principles of safe handling stowage and carriage of General Cargo
What is General Cargo?

The term ‘General Cargo’ comprises goods in bags, bales, cases, crates, drums, bundles, or large
pieces of machinery and vehicles. Reels of paper and Intermediate Bulk Containers of goods
also fall into the same category.
As general cargo comes in different forms and shapes, it calls for special attention when being
stowed in cargo holds. Because of the irregular shapes of some packages (pieces of machinery,
barrels and steel coils), broken stowage can be enormous. Furthermore, if the shape of the
compartment is irregular this could aggravate the loss for the shipowner.
Extreme care should be exercised at the planning stage. This could mean going to the
warehouse, checking the shape and measurements of the packages, and comparing them with the
space available on board. This problem does not arise with cargo such as bagged cargo or pallets
of cartons being stowed in a regular-shaped compartment.
Equipment used in the handling of General Cargo
In conjunction with the second factor mentioned, ie damage to the vessel, this could partly be
reduced by using the correct equipment to handle and stow the general cargo.
Some examples of general cargo and their handling equipment are given below. It should be
borne in mind that the use of the proper tools not only reduces the risks of damage or accidents,
but also speeds up the cargo operation. The nature of the actual cargo and the type of packing
used determine the form of cargo-handling equipment employed.
Fig. 1.12 Examples of cargo handling equipment used for general cargo
Other items of equipment used in the handling of general cargo are:

• broad sling used for the handling of bags of cement
• chain slings used in the handling of most steelwork
• plate clamps used for the handling of large, flat steel plates
• car slings used to lift motor vehicles
• heavy lift slings to handle heavy pieces of machinery; for example a vacuum clamp is
used in lifting reels of paper
• cargo nets for mailbags and similar cargoes that are not liable to be crushed when hoisted
• cargo trays which are ideal for boxes that are easily stacked.
1.22
Fig. 1.13 More examples of equipment used for handling general cargo
Safe handling, stowage and carriage of some typical general cargo

Bagged cargo: stowed on double dunnage (ie. material, frequently timber, used to help
consolidate and protect a cargo stow), half bag (poor ventilation) or bag and bag (better
ventilation). Must be kept away from ship’s side and bulkheads. Must be covered with mat or
paper when stowed under the deckhead.
Bags should be lifted with canvas sling and handled with dockers’ hooks. The bags should be
stain-free and not torn.
Bags of cement must be stowed compactly to avoid movement. The compartment must be
absolutely dry. They are usually lifted with board slings and manually stowed.
Fig. 1.14
(From Cargo Work 5 Ed by Kemp and Young. Reprinted by permission of Elsevier Science Ltd.)
Ventilation is critical in most cases of bagged cargo. Germination and caking are two possible
types of damage caused by lack of adequate ventilation.
1.23
Fig. 1.15
(From Cargo Work 5 Ed by Kemp and Young. Reprinted by permission of Elsevier Science Ltd.)
Cotton: highly flammable cargo. All fire precautions must be taken when handling cotton. Wet
bales of cotton are liable to spontaneous heating and combustion. Must be kept away from
ship’s sides and bulkheads. Is also damaged by rust.
Rubber: shipped in bales wrapped in polythene. Gives off strong smell, which can taint other
adjacent cargoes. Normally given top stowage.
Barrels: usually lifted by can hooks if not too heavy. Stowed fore and aft with wedges
underneath to prevent movement. The bung of the barrel must always be up. Some of the cargo
contained in the barrels is liable to damage by taint. Eg wine. Must be stowed in a cool place.
Drums: as opposed to barrels are to be stowed on their ends. The likely contents are paint,
chemicals and dyes. May require deck stowage and even ventilation. May contain highly
flammable substances. Lifted with can hooks. Stowed on wooden dunnage to prevent movement
and allow for any leaked substance to flow.
Cased goods: lifted with rope slings, trays or at times nets. Stowed on double dunnage. Heavy
cases to be given bottom stowage. If cargo is pilferable, then lock-up stowage must be used.
May contain cargo liable to taint damage or be of an odorous nature.
Paper: reels are normally stowed on end to avoid risk of distortion. Should be well chocked off.
Are liable to damage by sweat or bad handling. Forklifts with special ends clamp reels of paper
which are lifted on board by vacuum clamps. Care should be taken to prevent damage to the
edge of the reel.
Steel products: range from pig iron, to steel billets and pipes. Can severely affect the stability of
the vessel. Lifted by steel chains and stowed at the bottom. Liable to shift and be damaged by
rust. Some products can be overstowed. Others are liable to overheating and spontaneous
combustion (iron and steel swarf). Coils must be on the round with wedges of dunnage
underneath. Should be stowed in regular tiers from side to side of the vessel. The stow should be
secured as a solid block. Careful dunnage on long steel products to prevent distortion.
Motor vehicles: lifted by car slings. If heavy lorries or trucks are to be handled, wire slings are
usually attached to the axles’ ends. Must be stowed on a firm level floor with space around each
vehicle. Ventilation of compartment to remove carbon monoxide is a factor to consider if cars
are wheeled to their stowage position.
Pre-slung goods: The pre-slung goods have the advantage of quick loading and unloading. Can
be as big as 1-2 tonnes Intermediate Bulk Container. Overstowage is possible. Normally
handled with forklifts in the cargo compartment once lifted in by cranes/derricks.
1.24
Cargo holds preparation for reception of general cargo

The above examples show the diversity in handling and stowage requirements in the general
cargo trade. One important factor in the carriage of general cargo is the suitability of the
compartment. Generally speaking, a hold which is ready to receive cargo should be clean and
dry, well ventilated and free from any odour of the previous cargo. The compartment must be
prepared as follows:
1. Clean space thoroughly, leaving no trace of previous cargo behind. Do not forget
residues under hatch covers.
2. If necessary, wash, allow drying and ventilating space. Check with port authorities for
discharge of waste water and cargo residues.
3. Remove all rubbish and unwanted dunnage.
4. Clean bilges thoroughly – check suction. Bilges can be washed with cement or lime.
Make sure there is no smell. Coating with bitumastic is at times necessary.
5. Check for fire detection and extinguishing circuit. Blow through if necessary.
6. Check and clear scuppers.
7. Check and repair permanent dunnage if necessary.
8. Lay down clean dunnage properly. If double dunnage is used, the lower tier must run
athwartships.
9. Check for pests and rodents. It might be necessary to fumigate at times.
10. Check for guardrails, ropes and stanchions if in use in the tween decks.
11. Check that the ventilation systems are in good working order (intakes, exhausts, dampers
and blowers).
12. Check the condition of the tank top, especially around any manholes.
13. Make sure there are adequate lashing points for the cargo to be loaded. If necessary, extra
may need to be welded in place.
14. Check the condition of the hold itself. It should be watertight and should not show signs
of excessive wastage around the frames.
15. Lights in the compartment must be in good working conditions. They must also be
intrinsically safe if the compartment is used to carry dangerous goods or grain (the dusty
atmosphere can cause dust explosion).
1.6.3 Principles of safe handling, stowage and carriage of unitised cargo
The concept
The concept of unitisation is to assist the process of cargo handling by reducing the number of
occasions when a piece of cargo needs to be handled and, therefore, also reducing manual
handling by mechanical means.
Unitised cargoes could be defined as a grouping of two or more items (usually of a homogenous
nature) and securing them with banding, glue, shrinkwrap or slings to form a unit which,
together with a base (pallet), allows mechanical handling equipment to lift and transport the
unit. Unitisation involves a high measure of palletised cargo.
Handling and stowing of pallets
These pallets are loaded by means of wire slings, then stowed in the hold by the use of forklift
trucks. The four-way entry pallet is often used in unitised cargo for its convenience. The pallets
are stowed on dunnage and often plywood is spread over the bottom tier to level it up and thus
create a platform for a new tier. A compact stowage is achievable.
1.25
Advantages of unitised cargo

The advantages of unitised cargo are that:
1. Handling is reduced to a minimum.
2. There is no damage from cargo hooks.
3. Manual handling is negligible.
4. Broken stowage is reduced.
5. Loading/discharging rates are improved.
When planning, overstowing must always be borne in mind. Damage through contact with break
bulk cargo is also a possibility that must not be ignored. The ship officer must also remember
that the efficiency of the system relies upon easy access and quick loading/discharging of the
cargo.
When preparing a compartment to load unitised cargo, the same preparations as are carried out
for a compartment to be loaded with general cargo apply.
1.6.4 Principles of safe handling, stowage and carriage of containers
Introduction
When unitised cargo is mentioned, nothing is more popular than the conventional container that
has taken shipping transportation into a new era.
Ports, vessels and road transport revolve around containerisation. Special ships have been built
as well as the necessary port installations for the rapid handling of the containers.
Standardisation of size has made container handling much easier. However, there are some
unusual-sized ones which are explained later.
Containers and their uses
Containers are built with their purpose in mind. In some containers fittings are available from
which lashings can be fixed. This way, damage to the goods can be avoided.
Sweat is another possible problem that could damage the cargo stacked inside.
Since containers are also carried on deck, they are thus subject to varying weather conditions.
They tend to be very buoyant if immersed in water, thus securing is an important aspect of the
safe carriage of containers.
Handling and stowage of containers
Containers are usually handled by shore gantries or straddle carriers. Because of their heavy
weights (usually a TEU can have a mass of up to 24 tonnes), this special equipment is required
for their handling.
A container is designed to be lifted by fitted attachments at its top four corners. Any other form
of lifting imposes strain or may, indeed, cause the container to overbalance.
The stowing of containers is usually done in cells in specialised container vessels. Such holds
are completely dedicated to either 20 or 40-ft containers and ensure that each succeeding
container in a stack rests securely on the weight-bearing corner casting of the one below. The
frame is the strongest part of the container and the side walls are relatively flimsy and prone to
damage if handled carelessly.
Other conventional vessels would have strengthened structure to be able to support the laden
containers. These stronger corner castings would be positioned so as to fit the bottom corners of
the container. In no circumstances should a laden container be stowed outside the dedicated
space, as the deck or tank top might not be strong enough to support it.
The loading of containers on board can create many problems particularly when a number of
different container lengths and port destinations are involved. The vessel has to be properly
1.26
trimmed and the loading plan must take into account dangerous cargo and those containers
requiring special attention – eg reefer container or open top container. Container loading is
made easier if the vessel is upright and on an even keel. This is achieved by operating ballast
transfer pumps to transfer quantities of water between trimming tanks.
An extra margin of safety is required when handling containers because of possible non-
standardisation in construction. (See extract below from Code of Safe Working Practices for
Australian Seafarers. Material gratefully reproduced with permission from the Australian
Maritime Safety Authority. Check their website to ensure this is the most recent version.)
24.3 Container Ships
24.3.1 For general requirements with respect to these vessels, see paragraphs 24.1.1 to
24.1.7 of this section.
24.3.2 Shipowners should provide seafarers with special training as required and in
particular in the operation and maintenance of on-board container cranes where
utilised.
24.3.3 Shipowners should provide each ship with instruction manuals for the operation and
maintenance of cargo handling equipment. A stowing and securing manual must also
be provided.
24.3.4 Each container should be fitted with a safety approval plate specifying the country of
approval, date of manufacture, identification number, maximum operating gross
weights, allowable stacking weight, transverse racking and test load value.
24.3.5 The stack height of containers should take account of their design strength and also
not impair visibility from the bridge. The number of tiers on deck or in the hold
should not exceed the design limitation of both the vessel and the container.
24.3.6 When carrying containers on a hatch cover the strength of the hatch cover should not
be exceeded. Covers should be restrained against sliding and tipping by approved
type stoppers and locking devices.
24.3.7 Containers stowed on deck should be secured to the ship, for example, by stacking
cones and twist locks. Twist locks can be used effectively when containers are stowed
one or two high, especially if the container in the second tier is either light loaded or
empty. Care should be taken that twist locks are placed in the correct way and
locked. When the number of tiers on deck exceeds two, stacking cones and wire or
steel rod lashings should be used.
24.3.8 All containers should be effectively secured, preferably at the bottom corners, in a
way which will guard against sliding.
24.3.9 No restraint system should be imposed on containers, or any of their fittings, which
create forces in excess of those for which they have been designed.
24.3.10 Employees should wear personal protective equipment when carrying out cargo
operations, fitting or securing deck lashings and should use specially designed
leverage bars to tighten cargo tensioning devices.
24.3.11 In the handling of containers, attention should be paid to the possibility of uneven or
poorly distributed loading or incorrectly declared weight.
24.4.12 Heavy items of machinery or plant that are stored on flats may need to be further
secured by additional lashings.
1.27
24.4.13 Safe means should be provided for access to containers tacked on deck to check
lashings, etc. Where practicable, seafarers should be protected from falling by the
use of a safety harness properly secured or by other suitable arrangements.
24.4.14 Where the ship's electrical supply is used for refrigerated containers, the supply
cables should be provided with proper connection for the power circuits and for
earthing the container. Before the supply is used, cables and connections should be
inspected and any defects repaired and tested by a competent person. Supply cables
should be handled only if the power is switched off.
24.3.15 Employees should be aware that a container may drop as a result of failure of cargo
handling equipment and that the structure of a container itself may fail due to
overloading or damage during cargo operations. This may result in the contents of
the container spilling out and raining down on the deck. Employees transiting the
deck during cargo operations should, if possible, use the outboard side of the vessel.
Employees should not be located beneath overhead loads.
24.3.16 Employees should wear the appropriate protective equipment when on deck in the
vicinity of containers. They should be aware that loose lashing gear, particularly
twistlocks and lashing gear inadvertently dropped during cargo operations, pose a
considerable danger.
24.3.17 All deck areas and the tops of containers should be checked for loose lashing gear
after cargo operations have been completed.
24.3.18 If a container is leaking, the content of the cargo should at first be established from its
placarding ad from the documentation carried on board ship. The provisions of
chapter 7 should be followed.
24.3.19 Intermodal freight containers should be hoisted only vertically and with the aid of the
correct spreader.
24.3.20 Under no circumstances should containers be lifted with the aid of wire slings alone,
as deformation of the container may occur which renders it unsuitable for replacing
in cell guides and/or handling by specialised equipment.
Preparing a cargo space to load containerised general cargo
In addition to the preparation necessary for break bulk cargo, the following should be done:
1. Check the condition of cell guides.
2. Check the availability of lashing equipment (twist locks, bridge fittings etc).
3. Check the positioning of the container. This will depend upon the type of container
underneath; for example, no containers should be stacked on an open-top container.
Preparing a space for the reception of containerised refrigerated cargo

In addition to the steps mentioned above, the following must be done:
1. Check the vessel’s electrical power connections.
2. Check ducted air connection.
3. Check that the vessel has spares for the refrigerated containers.
4. Check temperature recording devices are fully functional.
5. Ensure sufficient power leads of adequate length for all reefer containers.
1.28
Fig. 1.16 Cellular construction of a typical container ship
Examples of some types of containers

GP General Purpose: closed. Suitable for all types of general cargo. With suitable modification,
can accommodate solid bulk commodities, granular or powder.
Reefer: carry refrigerated cargo. Are fitted with their own refrigeration unit. Require electrical
power supply for operation.
Bulk container: carry granular substances or dry powder in bulk. Fitted with openings on the top
to allow for loading. Discharge is normally done through a window found on the right-hand
door of the container.
Ventilated container: similar to GP, but with ventilator galleries along the top and bottom side
rails. This allows for passive ventilation of the cargo.
Flat rack: used for odd-shaped cargo which normally extends beyond the dimension of the
normal GP. Cargo can be lashed easily in a F/R.
Open Top: again, odd-shaped cargoes. Height of cargo exceeds the height of a normal GP.
There are several securing ports in the floor or along the bottom side rail of the container.
Tank container: specially designed to carry a specific liquid. Can be a type of dangerous good
or a special product.
Identifying a container’s location
For the easy location of any container on board, a unique numbering system has been put in
place. This method eliminates the risk of mistakes in the handling process. The system is as
follows:
1.29
Different types of containers

Fig. 1.17 Some common types of containers recently in use
Containers’ stowage positions are numbered using a six-figure notation where the first two
digits represent the BAY number, the middle two digits represent the CELL number and the last
two digits represent the TIER number
BAY: odd numbers per 20’ bay
even numbers depict 40’ bay
CELL: numbered odd to starboard and even to port
TIER: underdeck evenly from bottom to top
on deck evenly commencing with 82 from the deck
The examples below illustrate the container stowage numbering system.
Note: Various examples of container stowage plans from ‘Navis powerstow system’ are
included in the Resource Book as Appendix 3. Study them carefully and try to understand the
stowage pattern.
1.30
Fig. 1.18 Container stowage numbering system
1.6.5 Principles of stowage, safe handling and carriage of RO-RO cargoes
Introduction
RO-ROs are designed to convey road haulage vehicles, cars and goods secured on road trailers.
The cargo is loaded on trailers and these are wheeled in and out of the huge cargo compartment.
Access to the compartment is through ramps opening on the ship’s side bow or stern.
Main aim of RO-RO operation
The main aim in RO-RO operations is a very fast turn around. For optimum operational
efficiency, good planning and proper supervision are of paramount importance. The loading
time of a RO-RO vessel is often dependent upon the time taken to manoeuvre and secure the
cargoes, trailers and vehicles. Factors affecting the time are:
• the gradient of each ramp
• width of each ramp
• bends and turns to be negotiated, and blind corners
• speed of operation of elevators or other similar handling equipment
• the ‘vehicle envelope’ (overhead clearance)
• the change of gradient
• the organisation and traffic flow.
A knowledge of the tidal conditions is important. Thus ballasting could be used to advantage in
order to reach and maintain the desired ramp gradient.
1.31
Fig. 1.19 Example of RO-RO cargo space
Handling and stowage of cargo

The stowage of cargo on board depends upon the way in which that cargo was actually brought
on. This could be in any of the following ways:
• road vehicles with integral haulage power which will also remain with the vessel
• road trailers which will remain with the ship throughout the sea transport leg
• roll trailers which are not suitable for road haulage
• cargo towed on board using roll trailers and then removed and stowed without its wheels
• cargo secured on flats and carried on board either using roll trailers or by other
mechanical handling equipment, both the flat and its cargo being stowed as a unit
• pallets either singly or in groups carried on board using roll trailers or fork lift trucks
• individual items of cargo brought on board by forklift trucks.
Vehicles
Vehicles are usually close parked in lanes of about 3 m wide. This should allow the lashing
gangs to secure each vehicle properly.
Trailers may be backed up the ramp so that, at the port of discharge, they are simply towed away
without the need to turn around.
Containers
Containers can be stowed fore and aft or athwartships. If reefer containers with integral
refrigeration units are carried underdeck, adequate ventilation must be present. The need for
proper ventilation is emphasised when mechanical equipment, towing vehicles and road vehicles
are operating on vehicle decks.
Another potential source of trouble is the securing of the cargo and its trailer. Ship personnel
must ensure that the cargo is properly secured to the trailer as a first measure. Then the securing
of the trailer can be carried out. Securing of cargo will be dealt with in another Section.
Here are some points that the prudent officer will consider when handling RO-RO cargoes:
• The vehicle and/or load is similarly secured and appropriately fitted.
• The decks of the loading areas are not wet, greasy or slippery.
• Access to vulnerable parts within the loading area is not obstructed (doors, drainage
outlets, LSA/FFA).
1.32
• With particularly heavy vehicles, it may well be necessary to add to the normal securing
devices jacking arrangements or other frictional resistance material placed beneath the
unit, onto the deck.
• Vehicles carrying dangerous goods must be segregated from other cargoes.
• Vehicles with flats, open-sided bogies or trailers must be so loaded and secured that the
contained cargoes should not move, or slip, against the movement of the vessel.
• Fore and aft lane stowage is the more desirable procedure with vehicles, with brakes on
and the engine on gear.
• High vehicles which are loaded and with a relatively high centre of gravity require a
particular degree of security and lashing provisions.
Fig. 1.20 More examples of unitised cargo stowage

(The following is an extract from the Code of Safe Working Practices for Australian Seafarers. Courtesy
of The Australian Maritime Safety Authority.)
24.4 RO-ROS AND VEHICLE AND PASSENGER GERRIES

24.4.1 Shipowners should provide seafarers with special training as required, especially in
the operation and maintenance of ramps and vehicle access doors.
24.4.2 The cargo securing manual should be kept readily accessible.
24.4.3 Special attention should be paid to the possible ingress of water, for example, through
defective door closures, scuppers, broken bilge pipes and faulty bilge non-return
1.33
valves, which may affect the stability of the ship. Any water that does enter should be
reported to the bridge immediately. The officer of the watch should arrange for the
water to be pumped out as soon as possible and the cause of the inflow investigated
and remedied.
24.4.4 The master should ensure that an effective system of supervision and reporting of the
closing and opening of doors and ramps is in operation. Doors should never be open
when the ship is under way. Openings in the deck must be suitably framed.
24.4.5 The appropriate gas detection instruments should be carried on board to check if ro-
ro spaces are gas-free (see chapter 10).
24.4.6 The advice given in operating manuals should be followed when opening, working,
closing, locking and maintaining cargo access equipment.
24.4.7 Vehicles should be provided with the requisite number of securing points to enable the
cargo to be properly secured to withstand forces, particularly transverse forces, which
may arise during the voyage.
24.4.8 Ships should be provided with fixed cargo securing arrangements and with portable
securing gear, the correct application of which should be described in the ship's cargo
handling manual.
24.4.9 Shippers' advice or guidelines on handling, loading, stowing and lashing individual
cargo units should be observed.
24.4.10 Before being accepted for shipment, every freight vehicle should be inspected
externally by a responsible person to check that it is in satisfactory condition for
shipment. Cargo units or vehicles should not be accepted for shipment if there is
reason to suspect that:
(a) cargo has been packaged or stowed in an unsatisfactory way;
(b) a vehicle is in a bad state of repair or overloaded;
(c) the unit itself cannot be safely stowed or secured to the ship and may therefore
pose a danger to ship, cargo and crew;
(d) the unit might contain dangerous goods;
(e) the unit is not properly marked.
24.4.11 The type and number of lashings per vehicle depends on the stowage space within the
ship and the dimensions and the weight of the vehicle.
24.4.12 The movement, stowage and securing of vehicles should be well planned and carried
out by at least two competent persons under the supervision of a responsible officer.
Adequate means of communication (e.g. hand-held radios) should be used when
possible.
24.4.13 Ships' ramps, car platforms, retractable car decks and similar equipment should be
operated only under the supervision of the responsibple officer. Safe systems of work
should be provided to ensure that the health and safety of persons are not put at risk
when the equipment is operated.
24.4.14 Passengers and drivers should not be permitted to remain on vehicle decks without the
express authority of the responsible officer. Prominent notices should be displayed in
vehicle spaces and passenger accommodation to bring this restriction to the attention
of passengers and drivers. The period prior to disembarkation, when passengers and
drivers are requested to return to their vehicles, should be kept to a minimum.
24.4.15 Ramps used by vehicles should not be used for pedestrian access unless there is
suitable separation of vehicles and pedestrians.
24.4.16 Where permanent walkways are provided on vehicle decks, they should be adequate in
extent, safe to use, and clearly marked and signposted.
1.34
24.4.17 Suitable notices or appropriate instructions should be made to inform persons on

vehicle decks of the dangers from moving vehicles and of the need to exercise extreme
caution to minimise the risk to health and safety.
24.4.18 Seafarers working on vehicle decks should wear suitable high visibility garments.
24.4.19 Seafarers should exercise great care when supervising the driving, marshalling,
stowing and securing of vehicles to ensure that no person is put at risk.
24.4.20 No attempt should be made to secure a vehicle until it is parked, the brakes have been
applied and the engine switched off.
24.4.21 Hand lamps and torches should be available wherever seafarers are working in
poorly lit areas or have to go under vehicles to secure lashings.
24.4.22 Seafarers engaged in the securing of vehicles should take care to avoid injury from
projections on the underside of vehicles.
24.4.23 Lashings and their points of attachment should be regularly checked during the
voyage and re-tightened when necessary. Persons inspecting vehicle spaces during a
voyage should exercise caution to avoid being injured by moving or swaying vehicles.
If necessary, the ship's course should be altered to reduce movement when lashings
are being adjusted. The officer of the watch should always be informed whenever an
inspection of the vehicle deck is being carried out.
24.4.24 To reduce the build up of fumes, for example carbon monoxide, drivers should be
instructed to stop their engines as soon as practicable after embarking and to avoid
starting up prior to departure until instructed to do so. Warning notices to this effect
should be posted at the entrances to and within vehicle spaces. The appropriate
national and international requirements with respect to ventilation should be
observed. Where there is doubt about the quality of the air, arrangements should be
made for testing (see also chapter 10 and paragraph 24.4.5). The car deck should be
ventilated in accordance with the ship's ventilation plan.
24.4.25 Noise levels on vehicle decks should be monitored and hearing protection with the
appropriate attenuation made available.
24.4.26 Smoking is not to be permitted on the vehicle deck. Prominent "No smoking" signs
should be permanently affixed within the space and at all entrances.
24.4.27 If the presence of flammable vapour is suspected or detected, all electrical circuits
and items of equipment that are not intrinsically safe, or certified flame-proof, should
be isolated from a position outside the space. Employees and passengers should not
be allowed into the space until the vapour has been effectively dispersed.
24.4.28 All vehicle decks, ships' ramps and Efting appliances should be kept free of water,
grease, oil, or any liquid which might cause a person to slip or fall.
24.4.29 Drums, canisters, fuel, gas and acetylene cylinders should not be stowed on the
vehicle deck.
24.4.30 Retractable car decks and Efting appliances should be securely locked in the stowed
position. Doors and ramps, when open, should be locked in position.
24.4.31 No vehicle movements should occur until the ferry has been made fast to the dock.
24.4.32 Particular attention should be paid to vehicles, unit load and trucks carrying
dangerous goods. The goods carried and full safety information should be specified
on the relevant transit document of the vehicle. Care should be taken to ensure that
the proper separation from other vehicles, or from other substances carried in other
vehicles, is maintained. The guidance of chapter 7 should be observed.
1.35
Conclusion
Because of the nature of the RO-RO vessel (with huge areas prone to free surface effect) and the
increased risks of cargo shifting, cargo operations must be closely supervised by the officer.
History, through the sinking of the Herald of Free Enterprise and the Estonia, still haunts the
mind of seafarers and highlights the dangers associated with RO-ROs.
1.6.6 Principles of safe handling stowage and carriage of refrigerated cargoes

Introduction
The success of a ‘refrigerated’ trade depends principally upon the condition in which the cargo
arrives at the port of discharge, and this success is NOT attained solely by the efficiency of the
refrigerating machinery or the high standard of the insulation.
To ensure that the cargo arrives in the best condition, considerable responsibility rests with
cargo officers in the discharge of their duties. It is essential that proper methods of stowage are
employed and that all proper precautions are taken both prior to and during the reception of the
cargo, and also that the cargo is kept at proper temperatures during the voyage.
Three types of reefer cargoes
In very broad terms refrigerated cargoes fall into three main categories.
• frozen cargo
• chilled cargo
• temperature regulated cargo.
Frozen cargo
Frozen cargo is carried in the hard frozen condition, which means that a temperature of at least
−20ºC must be attainable. Most frozen commodities are carried at a temperature below –7°C
when no microorganism growth is possible. Some examples are frozen meat, frozen carcasses
and poultry.
Chilled cargo
Chilled cargo are commodities where the outside has been frozen hard but the inside remains
unfrozen. The carriage of chilled cargo requires some considerable care due to the fact that the
temperature range at which it is carried is normally very small between –2° C to –3° C. Chilled
beef and carcasses are examples of chilled cargo.
There is also a time limit for cargoes transported in the chilled form as microorganisms still
grow at that temperature. Adding CO2 to the compartment can prolong the lifetime of the chilled
cargo.
Temperature regulated cargo
Temperature regulated cargoes are those which are carried at a temperature which restricts
processes such as ripening.
Particular commodities require different temperatures, so that goods such as apples can be
carried as low as 1°C whilst citrus fruit such as grapefruits or lemons are carried at 10°C to
12°C. In most cases where fruits are carried quantities of CO2 are given off. The shipper should
give guidelines as to the amount of ventilation required, otherwise expert advice should be
sought.
Vegetables are also carried that way and often cannot be mixed with fruits because of the risks
of damage through tainting. Segregation tables are provided by shippers for this reason.
Safe handling stowing and carriage of reefer cargoes
Basically the carriage of refrigerated cargoes could be split into the following steps:
1. the preparation of the compartment
1.36
2. the precooling of the compartment

3. the loading, which includes the methods of handling and stowage
4. the carriage which includes the maintaining of proper temperatures and the precautions to
be adopted to prevent undue accumulation of CO2
5. precautions to be taken during discharge.
Preparing a cargo space for the reception of Loose Refrigerated Cargo

1. Space is to be thoroughly cleaned and wiped with a cleansing fluid to prevent the
formation of mould.
2. Space is to be ventilated and deodorised.
3. Check insulation and repair if necessary.
4. Bilges to be cleaned sweetened and checked.
5. Brine traps (they prevent the passage of odour from the bilge to the compartment; they
also prevent cold air to travel from the compartment to the bilges) are to be refilled and
tested.
6. Air ducts to be cleaned.
7. Thermometers to be inspected and checked.
8. Clean and odourless dunnage must be used.
9. Gratings, if any, are to be scrubbed.
10. Ventilators and fixed fire detecting to be plugged for chilled or frozen cargoes.
11. The space must be precooled before loading.
12. The space must be surveyed in order to obtain approval for loading.
13. If it is necessary to load in a partly filled compartment, then the refrigeration plant must
be stopped while loading is going on. Also, the cargo already on board should be covered
with a tarpaulin.
Precooling of compartment
This must be done before loading. Some authorities require the compartment to be precooled up
to 48 hours before loading.
Temperatures will normally be slightly lower than the normal carrying temperature. However, if
ingots of lead, tin or copper are to be loaded in the compartment, then they can be loaded prior
to precooling. If any refrigerated cargo is to be loaded on top of the ingots, then precooling is
necessary and the cargo must not come into contact with the ingots.
Loading and handling
During loading, officers must ensure that the stow is in such a way that will allow the flow of
cold air around the cargo. The loading must be fast so as to reduce the amount of heat absorbed
by the cargo already in the compartment.
Co-operation between the engine room and deck is vital as the maintaining of the proper
temperatures is of paramount importance.
Condensation should not be over-estimated when loading general cargo in compartments
adjacent to cold compartments.
Considerable care and attention is necessary when receiving refrigerated cargo. Coverings and
wrappings must be undamaged. Any fruit shipped in an advanced state of ripeness is a prolific
source of damage.
1.37
CO2 control
Ripening fruits evolve heat and CO2. An excessive amount of CO2 can cause the fruit to
deteriorate. A thermoscope should be used to constantly measure the amount of CO2 in the
compartment. If found in excess, then the CO2 must be extracted from the compartment.
Methods of transportation of reefer cargoes
Refrigerated cargo is transported at sea by two main methods:
• loose or unitised refrigerated cargo transported aboard custom built reefer ships or
traditional type general cargo vessels with limited reefer capacity
• containerised reefer cargo transported aboard container vessels which have full or partial
refrigerated capacity.
Loose/Unitised reefer cargoes
On board reefer ships or in reefer compartments, the cargo is loaded manually or by forklift
trucks. The cargo temperature is usually controlled by a forced cold air ventilation system. The
refrigerated chambers have temperature-monitoring devices, which can be coupled to a remote
temperature control device which automatically actuates or stops the cooler room’s fans, thus
maintaining the desired carrying temperature.
Containerised reefer cargoes
The carriage of refrigerated cargoes in containers falls into two broad categories, namely: ship-
dependent containers and independent containers.
Ship-dependent containers
Ship-dependent containers require power from the vessel as the source of energy. They have
their own refrigeration plant and temperature monitoring devices. Another type of container,
which is also ship-dependent, is the type that requires cold air to be blown inside the container.
The cold air is provided by the ship’s refrigeration plant.
Independent containers
Independent containers have their own source of power and refrigeration plant. The need for
ventilation (because of their internal combustion engine) makes them unsuitable for under deck
carriage.
Conclusion
Refrigerated cargoes are generally high value cargoes and, as such, attract high freight rates. As
a consequence of this, any failure by ship’s staff to care for the cargo in a correct manner can be
an extremely costly exercise. The maintenance of correct carrying temperatures cannot be over-
emphasised, as this is the prime responsibility of ship staff so far as on-board care of
refrigerated cargo is concerned.
1.6.7 Principles of safe handling, stowage and carriage of solid bulk cargo
Introduction
Solid bulk cargoes comprise iron and other ores, coal, grain, bauxite and phosphate among
others. These bulk cargoes are usually shipped in specially designed Bulk Carriers or bulkers
and are loaded directly into the ship with no other containment or packaging. Bulkers normally
are full form with large clear holds to aid loading and discharge. See Figure 1.23.
1.38
Fig. 1.21
Their carriage is governed by the Code of Safe Practice for Solid Bulk Cargoes, the purpose of
which is to assist persons responsible for the safe stowage and shipment of bulk cargoes. It is
published by IMO. Solid bulk cargoes are dangerous because of their toxicity, flammability and
ability to shift.
Factors to consider when carrying solid bulk cargoes
The hazards involved with the carriage of solid bulk cargoes, together with suggestions to
counteract these, are outlined in the code. When solid bulk cargoes are carried, the following
considerations should be borne in mind:
• weight distribution (usually small stowage factor)
• stability of vessel
• nature of cargo
• properties of the cargo
1.39
• possible chemical reactions

• information available from shipper.
Code of Safe Practice for Solid Bulk Cargoes
The code is divided in two sections as follows:
• list of cargoes which may liquefy
• list of bulk materials possessing chemical hazards.
With regard to cargoes which may liquefy, their moisture content and their transportable
moisture limit must be ascertained from the shipper before loading and assessing the stability of
the vessel.
Because of their potential to shift and affect the vessel’s stability, extreme care should be
exercised in the loading and stowing process.
AMSA has also published the Australian Manual of Safe Loading, Ocean Transport and
Discharge Practices for Dry Bulk Commodities – an extract from which is included in Appendix
15 in the resource book. The information in this manual will assist officers in obtaining
information for most solid bulk cargoes.
Loading and handling
Bulk cargoes are usually loaded from a sprout or a tip. Conveyor belts are also quite common.
Loading rates exceeding 4500 tonnes per hour are achievable at some ports of the world.
The loading procedures involves attention being
given to:
• the density of the cargo
• the moisture content of the cargo
• temperature requirements during the passage
• the angle of repose of the cargo.
Fig. 1.22 Angle of Repose
Principles of stowage and carriage
As an example, refer to Appendix 15 in the Resource Book for an extract from the code
regarding the carriage of Fly Ash.
Cargoes with a low angle of repose are liable to shift. Loading procedures should be adhered to.
Cargoes that are liable to give off some of their moisture content must be stowed in
compartments where bilges are cleaned and pumpable.
Trimming of the cargo must be carried out as much as possible.
Watertight integrity must be maintained
Personnel must not be allowed to enter any compartment unless it has been thoroughly
ventilated.
Discharge is carried out by grabs or elevators (suction tubes). Bulldozers are usually put in the
compartment to facilitate the discharge. They have been known to cause severe damage to
vessels at times. Their presence on board must be closely monitored. The digging rate of
unloaders can reach up to 2500tph. (See extract below from the Code of Safe Working Practices
for Australian Seafarers. Material gratefully reproduced with permission from the Australian
Maritime Safety Authority.)
1.40
24.2 BULK CARRIERS AND CARRIAGE OF BULK CARGOES

Note: This section should be read in conjunction with Marine Orders, Part 34 and the
IMO Bulk Cargoes Code.
24.2.1 The dust created by certain cargoes, particularly in loading, discharging or hold
cleaning operations, may pose an explosion hazard and should be limited as far as
possible to the minimum.
24.2.2 Many solid bulk cargoes, some seemingly innocuous, can cause health problems for
seafarers in various ways. For example:
(a) ammonium nitrate fertilisers produce toxic gases upon decomposition;
(b) antimony ore dust is toxic;
(c) barium nitrate dust on food is toxic if swallowed;
(d) pencil pitch when handled may cause severe irritation of the skin and eyes in
sunlight.
24.2.3 Portholes, doors etc, should be kept closed in port if they permit cargo dust to enter
the ship's accommodation area.
24.2.4 Spaces used for the carriage of bulk cargoes should be treated as confused or
dangerous spaces. The procedures for entering such spaces, set out in chapter 10,
should be strictly followed.
24.2.5 The properties of dry bulk cargoes should be carefully considered as certain bulk
materials are liable to oxidation. This may result in oxygen reduction, emission of
toxic fumes and self-heating. Other materials may emit toxic fumes, particularly when
wet. Other materials, if they become wet, are corrosive to skin, eyes and mucous
membranes, as well as to the ship's structure.
24.2.6 Ships which carry cargoes that may emit toxic gases, for whatever reason, should be
provided with the appropriate gas detection equipment.
24.2.7 Many bulk cargoes, particularly ores, are loaded into holds from great heights and at
very fast rates. This can create sufficient stress to damage the structure of the vessel.
This could be avoided by reducing the loading rate.
24.2.8 The plans for the loading and discharging of ships should be properly adhered to, so
that the vessel is not exposed to unacceptable stresses, shear forces and bending
moments. There is a SOLAS requirement to develop and execute a formal loading
plan. The Bulk Cargoes Code contains details. See also the IMO Code of Practice
for Safe Loading and Unloading of Bulk Carriers (the BLU Code).
24.2.9 Some kinds of cargoes, including concentrates, certain coals and other materials with
similar physical properties, may liquefy above the transportable moisture limit and
cause a shift in cargo. The moisture content should therefore be carefully checked
prior to loading and during the voyage, as moisture migration may occur due to
vibration and/or ship motion.
24.2.10 Precautions to prevent liquids entering through pipelines into cargo holds in which
bulk cargoes are stowed should be maintained throughout the voyage.
24.2.11 Precautions should be taken against seawater entering holds through hatch covers
moving or flexing when the ship is working in a seaway.
24.2.12 Water should not be used to cool cargoes that may liquefy.
24.2.13 The appropriate national and international requirements with respect to ventilation
should be observed. Certain cargoes, such as some coals, copra, swarf, charcoal and
concentrates etc., are liable to self-heating and may catch fire if the temperature is
high enough. Cooling such material should be carried out with extreme care since
water used to cool the cargo may actually cause increased heating and lead to
spontaneous ignition and/or explosion. The temperature of holds containing such
1.41
cargo should be checked daily or in accordance with the shipowner's or shipper's

instructions.
24.2.14 The dust from some bulk cargoes including grain and sugar dusts can be explosive.
Particularly when cleaning holds after discharge, seafarers should be made aware of
this hazard. Smoking should be prohibited or restricted and cleaning carried out so
as to minimise dust formation, for example, by hosing down. Static electricity is a
major source of hazard and care must be taken to ensure that equipment used is
suitable for controlling static hazards.
24.2.15 Employees should not enter wing tanks when grain is being loaded.
Principles of stowage and carriage of some special types of solid bulk cargo
Concentrates
They are usually powdery in character and carry considerable moisture. The moisture content
may have seriously increased should there have been heavy rain during stowage or loading, or
leakage into the hold during the voyage. All concentrates are liable to shift during the voyage.
Precautions such as erection of shifting boards must be taken so as to minimise the effect of
cargo shifting. Overstowing could be an alternative to shifting board.
Ores
Ores usually have a small stowage factor and, therefore, usually cause the vessel to be rigid. The
structural soundness of the vessel is usually put to the test when ores are loaded. It is often
loaded in alternate holds, untrimmed if the ship is designed for such loading and the stresses
have been checked carefully.
Finely crushed ores are liable to absorb a considerable amount of moisture. Vibration of the
vessel can cause the moisture- saturated ore to become slurry and create a list. Bagging has been
found to be necessary to prevent the cargo from shifting.
Coal
The carriage of coal is hazardous because of the evolution of methane gas, also known as marsh
gas. Mixed in the right proportion with air, methane can produce huge explosions. Apart from
the risks of explosion, coal is also liable to spontaneous combustion. The amount of heating that
takes place depends upon the type of coal loaded.
To reduce the risk of explosion, surface ventilation is recommended so as to remove the
methane lying on top of the cargo. Ventilation into a mass of coal is dangerous. To reduce the
risk of spontaneous combustion, coal should be kept as cool as possible and free from through
ventilation.
When loading coal, every effort should be made to reduce breakages. This affects the stowage
pattern with powdery coal in the centre and large pieces of coal down the sides. The large pieces
of coal allow for good air circulation to the powdery coal, thus presenting the risks of
spontaneous combustion.
Spar ceiling must be removed so as to reduce the possibility of air pockets.
Note: Refer to Notes on Cargo Work by Kemp & Young for more on ventilation for coal cargo.
Preparing a space for the reception of dry bulk cargo
Though very similar to the preparation involved in loading general cargo, the loading of dry
bulk will necessitate some additional and particular attention such as:
1. Removal of unnecessary dunnage. (Spar ceiling)
2. Bilges and drains to be covered with burlap to prevent the cargo to run into the bilges but
still allow water to run through.
3. Inspect hold for damage as per the diagram below.
1.42
4. Sometimes it may be necessary to erect shifting boards to counteract the effect of cargo
shifting. The authorities must approve this.
5. Prevent dust from entering deck machinery.
6. Check sounding pipes, air pipes and ventilators.
Fig. 1.23 Typical cross section of bulk carrier through cargo hold
(From ‘Bulk Carrier Practice’ – Isbester – Courtesy of the Nautical Institute, London, UK.)
Where to look What to look for

1. Side shell plating • Cracks in welds or plates
• Leaks in welds or plates
• Distortion of plating
2. Connection of bulkhead • Punctured plating

plating to side shell • Cracked plating
• Heavily indented plating
• Buckled plating
• Corrosion and wastage
3. Connection of side shell frames • Cracks

and end brackets to the shell • Corrosion and wastage
plating and hopperside tank • Excessively deformed frames or brackets
plating byclose-up inspection • Detached frames or brackets
4. Connection of side shell frames • Cracks

and end brackets to the shell • Corrosion and wastage
plating and topside tank • Excessively deformed frames or brackets
plating • Detached frames or brackets
1.43
CHECKLIST – Items for attention when preparing holds for cargo

(From ‘Bulk Carrier Practice’ – Isbester- Courtesy of the Nautical Institute, London, UK.)
1. Encourage stevedores to discharge cargo sweepings as far as possible.

2. Have crew or stevedores sweep down deckheads and bulkheads as discharge
proceeds-for example, with grain cargoes.
3. If cargo has filled a bilge have crew clean it before completion of discharge, so
contents can be discharged.
4. Sweep holds before washing to remove bulky cargo residues, if required.
5. Holds will not be washed if:
• Same cargo is to be carried again and charterers want no cleaning.
• Clean cargo like steel coils has been carried.
• Freezing conditions do not permit washing.
• Vessel will remain in areas where discharge of washings is not allowed.
6. Decide if full wash or bottom wash is required, and if washing is to be done by
automated washing or by handheld hose.
7. Decide if washing is to be done at berth, within port limits or outside limits, taking
account of any restrictions on discharge of cargo residues and anticipated weather and
sea state.
8. Obtain written permission from port authority to discharge hold washings if intend to
wash in port. Wash holds:
• Wash hatch covers, top, bottom and sides.
• Scrub hatch cover compression bars and rubbers if necessary to remove cargo
traces.
• Wash hatch coamings.
• Wash hold deckheads.
• Wash hold sides, paying particular attention to hopper angles, pipe guards,
brackets and other non-vertical surfaces.
• Scrub locally and/or rewash to remove stubborn dirt.
• Wash deck, scrape up loose rust scale.
• Flush bilges.
9. Rinse holds with fresh water when possible to reduce corrosion and to prepare for
cargoes which cannot contact salt.
10. Dry holds by ventilating, by opening holds and/or by mopping up puddles, as
necessary.
11. Sweep holds instead of washing when washing is not necessary.
12. Scrape and sweep holds and lift residues from hold when washing is not possible.
13. Clean and disinfect bilge wells.
14. Flush sounding pipes and thermometer pipes.
15. Test bilge suctions if not already used for washing.
16. Test bilge non-return valves, when fitted.
17. Test bilge high level alarms, when fitted.
1.44
18. Inspect holds for cleanliness, insect infestation, leakage and damage. Remedy defects
where necessary.
19. Wrap bilge cover plates with burlap and seal with tape or cement.
20. Reseal any manhole covers which have been opened or disturbed.
21. Isolate hold lighting and lighting in compartments connected to the holds, when this
precaution is required for intended cargo.
22. Limewash bulkheads and tanktop if required for next cargo.
23. If holds are painted, or touched up, before a cargo of foodstuffs is carried, ensure that
a paint compliance certificate can be produced for the paint used.
24. In ballast holds, close and secure cover plates for ballast suctions, and open bilge
suctions and C02 injection lines.
With regard to the disposal of residues from previous cargos, attention is drawn to the AMSA
publication Disposal of Dry Bulk Cargo Residues in Australian Waters, a copy of which is
included in Appendix 16 of the Resource Book.
Conclusion
The carriage of solid bulk cargo comprises several risks, which can be quite costly at times.
Several bulk carriers have disappeared with lives lost after loading solid bulk cargo. Officers
must pay attention to the loading process, the risks of structural damage to the vessel and the
hazards associated with the particular cargo carried. Though damage to the cargo is less likely,
damage to the ship and personnel are always a possibility that cannot be ignored at any cost.
1.6.8 Principles of safe handling stowage and carriage of liquid bulk cargo
Introduction
Liquid in bulk can be split in two categories:
• vegetable and edible liquids
• petroleum products.
Vegetable and edible liquids
These are different from the mineral oils that are transported by the VLCCs and ULCCs across
the oceans.
Vegetable oils usually solidify at room temperature or below, so heating coils are required in the
tanks containing such cargoes. The carriage of edible oils involves a strict standard of
cleanliness.
Handling and stowing of vegetable/edible oils
Appropriate certificates as to seaworthiness and cleanliness are necessary before loading.
Every effort should be made to avoid the ingress of foreign matter in the tanks. Contamination is
one of the greater risks associated with the carriage of vegetable oils.
After cleaning of the tank, prior to loading, the tank will be steamed out for not less than 24
hours and then washed under pressure.
Watertightness of the tank is then checked (by filling it up with water). Sometimes caustic soda
and sand is used to clean the tank.
Heating coils are normally fitted both at the bottom and the top of the tank to allow for a speedy
discharge.
The carrying temperatures of vegetable oils differ somewhat with the class of oil. It is usual for
shippers to specify the carrying temperature.
1.45
Discharge is done by shore plants either in the form of independent steam pumps operating at
the tank top flat or by a combined suction and discharge pump, which may be lowered into the
tank.
Molasses is another type of edible liquid carried in bulk. Again, the tanks to be loaded must be
scrupulously clean before loading. Separate edible oil tanks carried aboard some general cargo
ships. Tanktainers – an oil tank enclosed in a container frame – are now common.
Petroleum products
INTRODUCTION
These are definitely the bulk of liquid trade with mineral products such as crude oil, fuel oil,
creosote and bitumen (dirty oils) and benzine, naphtha and aviation spirit (clean oils) being the
most common ones.
RISKS INVOLVED IN THE CARRIAGE OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS
The three main on-board risks are:
• risks of fire
• risks of explosion
• risks of toxic inhalation.
Furthermore, the carriage of any petroleum product also carries the risk of pollution of the
environment.
Fig. 1.24 A flammable range diagram
There is no doubt that the carriage of petroleum products covers a whole array of risks that the
officer must always remember when involved with any operation.
When petroleum is ignited, it is in fact the fumes at the surface of the liquid which burn, and not
the liquid itself. The volatility of the liquid denotes the amount of vapour given off. The
volatility of the cargo depends on the temperature. When mixed with the right amount of
oxygen, in the presence of an ignition source, burning will occur. If there is too much vapour or
1.46
not enough vapour, the mixture is said to be too rich or too lean respectively. The flammable
limit lies in between these two extremes.
The expansion of the gases when burning can be the cause for explosion if enclosed in
compartments. These fumes can also be toxic if inhaled.
Caution should be exercised as some of these gases deaden the sense of smell, thus removing
any signs of danger to the human being.
Definitions
Auto ignition: the lowest temperature to which a solid, gas or liquid has to be raised to cause
self-sustained combustion without external ignition.
Flammable range: the range of hydrocarbon gas concentrations in air between the lower and
upper flammable limits. Mixtures within this range are capable of being ignited and of burning.
Flashpoint: the lowest temperature at which a liquid gives off sufficient gas to form a
flammable gas mixture near the surface of the liquid.
Gas free: a tank is gas free when sufficient fresh air has been introduced into it to lower the
level of any flammable, toxic, or inert gas to that required for a specific purpose, eg hot work,
entry etc.
Inert gas: a gas (or mixture) incapable of supporting combustion, eg Nitrogen, CO2 or flue gas.
Combustible gas indicator: an instrument for measuring the composition of hydrocarbon gas/air
mixtures, usually giving the result as a percentage of the lower flammable limit.
Lower flammable limit: the concentration of a hydrocarbon gas in air below which there is
insufficient hydrocarbon to support and propagate combustion.
Upper flammable limit: the concentration of a hydrogen gas in air above which there is
insufficient air to support and propagate combustion.
Static electricity: the electricity produced on dissimilar materials through physical contact and
separation.
Ignition point: the lowest temperature at which it must be raised so that vapour is evolved at that
rate which permits continuous burning when a flame is momentarily applied.
Flammability and vapour pressure
(a) Non-volatile cargoes – these have a FP above 60°C and thus are handled at temperatures
below this. They are normally safe products.
(b) Volatile cargoes of low VP – FP lower than 60°C, but usually above handling
temperature. ‘Fairly safe’.
(c) Volatile cargoes of intermediate VP – FP lower than 60°C and usually lower than
handling temperature, thus large amounts of vapour are given off. The relatively low
vapour pressure makes it comparatively safe to handle.
(d) Volatile cargoes of high vapour pressure: usually volatile enough to produce enough
vapour to keep the space well above the flammable range; ie it is too rich. But when
loaded into an empty space and when venting, flammable mixtures result.
Carriage of petroleum products

Specially designed ships are used to carry petroleum products in bulk. In designing these
tankers, special consideration must be given to factors such as:
• risks of fire
• rate of loading and discharging
• installation of cofferdams at the ends of cargo tanks
• ventilating pipes and ullage sounding pipes
1.47
• heating coils
• tank cleaning equipment
• dedicated ballast tanks
• cargo contamination.
During the loading operations, apart from the risks of fire and explosion, possible contamination
of the cargo and accumulation of static charges make the operation dangerous.
It is obvious that clean oils must never be contaminated by being loaded in tanks that were
previously used to carry dirty oils and which have not been thoroughly cleaned.
Double Hulled Tankers
In 1992, the IMO amended Marpol to make it mandatory for new tankers (ordered after 6 July
1993) of 5000 tonnes or more to be of double hulled construction and a revised phase out
schedule for single hulled tankers was adopted in April 2001 which will basically see the
phasing out of all single hulled tankers by 2015.
Pipeline configurations
For this reason, various pipeline configurations exist. These serve specific purposes and
eliminate the risks of cargo contamination.
The direct system consists of three bottom lines and pumps, each one serving one part of the
vessel. Contamination is less likely as it is easy to isolate each section. The disadvantage with
this system, however, is that it limits the number of types of products that can be carried to
three.
→→
Fig. 1.25 Direct line system
1.48
The ring main system consists of a single pipeline which runs through the wing tanks, which are
linked to each tank by a cross over valve at each end of the ship and split at the pumprooms.
Contamination is more likely in this system if valves configuration is not set properly. A greater
number of small parcels is possible in this set up.
The free flow system consists of a pipeline going round the ship with sluice valves at the bottom
of the intertank bulkheads. These sluice valves allow the flow of oil to or from each tank
directly as required. Very high discharge rate is achievable with this system. The possibility of
tank overflowing is greater in this configuration than in the other two.
Fig. 1.26 Free flow system
1.49
Fig. 1.27 Combined system
Precautionary measures to take during loading

The tanker manifolds are connected to the shore installations by hoses. These hoses are fitted
with an insulating section, which prevents the flow of stray currents caused by the anodic
protection of the vessel. These currents, if in contact with any spark, will result in major
explosions.
The build-up of static electricity in the hoses from the flow of liquid is also another concern.
The lines are normally bonded to prevent this occurring.
A high loading rate is desirable, but care must be taken to avoid spillage and to this end efficient
communication must be maintained between ship and shore.
Loading should commence at a slow rate and be seen to be proceeding satisfactorily before the
rate is increased.
Adequate notice should be given to the shore staff prior to topping up and completion.
Liquids should never be dropped from the top.
When a tank has been closed, the ullage of that tank should be checked to ensure that the valve
is operating properly.
Another source of danger is the high rate of loading that affects the structural soundness of the
vessel. Overstressing the vessel can happen easily and this should be closely monitored.
1.50
With volatile cargoes it must always be borne in mind that gaseous vapour surrounds any
opening, thus encouraging an explosive risk. The same is true with tank cleaning or ballasting
after such cargoes.
Broadly, the loading and discharging of multi cargoes is a matter of ‘valve familiarity and cross
overs’. It is unwise to load volatile oils direct through tank hatches; only non-volatile oils might
be so loaded and then only if the tanks are gas free.
Summary of cargo handling procedures
Here is a summary of the cargo handling procedures:
(a) Checklist to be completed to ensure preliminary inspection has been completed.
(b) Agreed loading/discharging plan, taking into account the following:
• change over between tanks
• avoidance of contamination between grades
• avoidance of pollution by spillage
• clearance of pipelines
• stress and trim during cargo transfer
• loading/discharging rates
• weather conditions leading to interruption of work
• allowance for COW if carried out.
(c) Formal agreement that ship and terminal are ready to work
Check that, after pumping commences, oil is only entering right tank. Regular check of
hose/pipeline pressure. Ullage carefully to avoid gas. Commence loading at slow rate
until correct cargo flow is verified.
(d) Topping off

As each tank nears final ullage, valve to next tank is cracked open, increasing until first
tank is full. Check ullages from time to time to verify that valves to full tanks have been
properly closed.
(e) Precautions
Static accumulation is a hazard until surface of oil has settled and charge disperses.
Therefore no dipping, sampling etc with metal tape or cans for 30 mins after loading
ceases. Ensure that the cargo loading/discharge plan is followed carefully to avoid
overstressing and contamination.
Loading/discharging of clean oils

Generally flow rate should be less than 1 m/s in the pipe until level of oil rises above line inlet,
when splashing and turbulence cease.
Where I.G is used, risk of sparks exists at tank openings unless sampling and ullaging gear is
earthed to hull. Most of these oils have a high vapour pressure, therefore avoid loading in still
weather, low initial and topping off rates. Avoid venting off at deck level if possible. If oil is
hot, avoid loading or ensure that venting is to pipe well above superstructure.
Discharging
Pay particular attention to moorings.
When shore installation ready to receive, open suction and gate valve and start pump, watching
back pressure in case there is any obstruction in shore lines.
1.51
The carriage of petroleum products comes with two exclusive concepts: tank cleaning (or, more
precisely, crude oil washing) and inerting (that is to make the atmosphere in the tank unable to
sustain combustion).
Crude oil washing (COW)
COW is a process whereby some of the cargo is used to clean a tank, which is actually being
discharged. Fixed tank cleaning equipment is used to remove the waxy asphaltic deposits, which
the cargo has left on the tank sides. It has proved to be more effective than water because the
oils acts to disperse and suspend the sediments in the oil and tends to restore the cargo to its
original condition.
To carry out COW, three requirements are to be fulfilled:
• The vessel must have an efficient inert gas system.
• A fixed tank cleaning installation is necessary.
• There must be an effective monitoring system.
Procedures for COW
Before COW is commenced, any water in the cargo tank should be drawn out. The operation
should only be carried out when the tank oxygen level is below 8%.
In the multi stage washing method, the tank sides are washed as the cargo level falls and the
bottom is washed as the tank empties. The machines are provided with the oil via junction lines
from the discharge lines of the main cargo pumps.
Fig. 1.28 Different stages of COW
Advantages of COW
• reduced risk of pollution
• tank cleaning time reduced
• removal of sludge reduced
• less salt water sent to refinery
• reduction in the corrosion process
1.52
• increase in cargo discharged

• increase in carrying capacity
• increase in time available for maintenance
• increase in discharge rate.
Disadvantages of COW
• more crew training required
• increased work load in port
• possible structural damage due to high pressure jets striking membranes
• possible reduced rates of discharge on some types of VLCCs.
Principles of the Inert Gas System (I.G.S.)
There are three factors that contribute to a tank explosion:
• hydrocarbon
• oxygen in the right proportion
• a source of ignition.
Withdrawing any one of the constituents will reduce/eliminate the risk of a tank explosion. The
introduction of inert gas into a cargo tank reduces the oxygen content to a low level and also
reduces the hydrocarbon gas concentration in the atmosphere to a safe proportion. Thus two
factors have been made innocuous and protection against a tank explosion has been achieved.
Benefits of I.G.S.
There are several benefits to using inert gas in cargo operations on board tankers. Apart from the
obvious safety reason, use of inert gas allows for an increase in discharging rates, allows for the
carriage of certain types of cargo that react with oxygen, and helps in corrosion control by
displacing oxygen which is a major cause of corrosion.
Preparation of cargo spaces for the reception of Bulk Liquid Cargo (Oil)
1. Space to be inerted (replacing the atmosphere in the tank with a gas that does not have
enough oxygen to support combustion).
2. Space to be washed - usually using a tank washing machine.
3. Space to be gas freed, sampled and certified gas free (forced ventilating of the
compartment). Usually an independent surveyor or chemist is to issue gas free certificate.
4. Space to be inspected for defects/damages to suctions, submerged valves/pumps, cathodic
protection and tank coatings.
5. Fixed fire-extinguishing installation to be checked.
6. Pressure valves, spark arrestors and gauges to be checked.
7. Seal on tank lids, ullage ports, tank washing machine openings to be checked and
renewed if necessary.
8. Before loading, space is to be inerted again if it was gas freed so as to prevent any risk of
developing a flammable mixture.
24.5 OIL TANKERS
(Taken from the Code of Safe Working Practices for Australian Seafarers. By kind permission of AMSA.)
24.5.1 This section deals with both crude and product tankers.
24.5.2 Particular attention is drawn to the importance of the International Safety Guide for
Oil Tankers and Terminals (ISGOTT) which provides comprehensive information on
the safe operation of tankers.
1.53
24.5.3 Shipowners should provide seafarers employed on tankers with appropriate training
and instructions in the relevant operational and safety requirements associated with
their duties and emergency situations.
24.5.4 For each operation the master should designate a competent officer who is familiar
with the safe operation of tankers. The master should ensure that the designated
officer has available an adequate number of competent persons.
24.5.5 Particular attention is drawn to the following specific issues:
(a) the need for a well-structured on board safety policy backed up by the
appropriate safety committee with designated responsibilities (see chapter 2);
(b) the need for strict smoking and hot work policies;
(c) the need for crew members to fully understand the hazardous nature of cargoes
carried;
(d the need for crew members to be aware of the inherent dangers of cargo
pumprooms. Pumprooms, by virtue of their location, design and operation,
constitute a particular hazard and therefore necessitate special precautions;
(e) the need for crew members to be made aware of the carcinogenic health
hazards resulting from exposure to minor concentrations of benzene vapour in
the air. This hazard can result from breathing vapours of benzene containing
cargoes such as gasoline, JP-4 and some crude oils;
(f) the need to ensure that seafarers are made aware of the safety precautions and
emergency action to be taken in the event of spillage.
24.6 BULK CHEMICAL TANKERS
(Taken from the Code of Safe Working Practices for Australian Seafarers. Courtesy of AMSA.)
24.6.1 Aspects of section 24.5 may also apply to this section.

24.6.2 Additional information and guidance can be obtained from, Marine Orders, Part 17.
24.6.3 Ships intended for the carriage of chemicals should carry only those chemicals for
which their construction and equipment are suitable, and which are specified on the
certificate of fitness.
24.6.4 Particular attention is drawn to the importance of having comprehensive information
on the safe operation of chemical tankers. Only approved documentation should be
used. MSDS should be provided and be freely available for all chemical cargoes
carried.
24.6.5 Shipowners should provide seafarers employed on chemical tankers with specialised
training and instructions in the safe carriage of all chemicals which the ship may be
required to carry and the relevant operational and safety requirements associated
with their duties and emergency situations.
with the safe operation of chemical tankers. The master should ensure that the
designated officer has available an adequate number of experienced seafarers.
24.6.7 Particular attention is drawn to the need to:
(a) ensure that any cargo offered is listed in the shipping documents by the correct
technical name;
1.54
(b) ensure that where a cargo is a mixture, an analysis is provided indicating the
dangerous components which contribute significantly to the hazard of the
product. This information should be available on board, and freely accessible
to all concerned;
(c) ensure that a full description of a cargo's physical and chemical properties is
supplied with each cargo loaded;
(d) ensure that seafarers are made aware of the safety precautions and emergency
action to be taken in the event of spillage or crew exposure to possible
contamination by chemicals;
(e) ensure that cargoes requiring stabilisers or inhibitors, and which are not
accompanied by the required certificates, are not accepted for shipment;
(f) carry out emergency drills using protective equipment and safety and rescue
devices at regular intervals;
(g) plan effective first aid treatment in the event of accidental personal contact.
with the safe operation of tankers. The master should ensure that the designated
officer has available an adequate number of suitably trained and experienced
seafarers.
1.6.9 Principles of safe handling, stowage and carriage of liquefied gases
The cargo
Natural gases are generally found in oilfields and consist mainly of methane, but other
hydrocarbons may be present.
Liquefied petroleum gases are composed of propane, butane etc. Ammonia is also qualified as
LPG. Liquefied natural gas usually means methane.
Because of their chemical properties (usually very low boiling point), these cargoes need special
care to be transported. Use is made of the laws of physics to find the best possible method of
transportation since pressure, temperature and volume are related to each other.
Thus by pressurising or cooling them down (or a combination of both) the natural gases can be
transported on board specially designed vessels.
Definitions
Critical temperature: this is the temperature above which the gas cannot be liquefied by
pressure. Methane – 82°C, propane 97°C.
Vapour pressure: this is the pressure exerted by the vapour of the liquid. It is proportional to the
temperature. Eg at the critical temperature, methane would require about 4.6 Mpa to be
liquefied.
Boiling point: this is the temperature at which the substance will cease to be a liquid and start
giving off vapour. Eg methane’s boiling point is –161°C, propane –42°C and butane at 0°C.
Ships’ types
(a) fully pressurised- for LPG and Ammonia
Tanks are made from a carbon steel suitable for minimum service temperature of –5°C.
There is no refrigeration plant on this type of vessel, which has a maximum carrying
capacity of 2000 m3.
(b) semi-pressurised/partially refrigerated
Has a maximum working pressure of 0.8 MPa. Service temperature of –5°C.
1.55
Wall thickness is reduced because of the refrigeration plant, which uses the cargo as the
refrigeration medium to maintain the vapour pressure.
(c) semi-pressurised/fully refrigerated
Has a minimum service temperature of –45°C. Is made of low temperature carbon or
nickel alloy steel and with a working pressure of 0.5 – 0.8 MPa.
Tanks are normally cylindrical or spherical.
(d) fully refrigerated
Basically subdivided in three groups: fully refrigerated LPG tankers, fully refrigerated
Ethylene carriers and LNG carriers. The minimum service temperature of a LPG is
around –50°C while it is around-164°C for a LNG.
The various tank types cater for the need for insulation and the enormous pressure that the
cargo can exert on them.
Cargo operations on gas carriers

(a) Drying: The presence of water in any part of the cargo handling system will prevent
correct operation and may be difficult to remove after cooling down. Traps must be
avoided; drain and purge cocks must be provided at high and low points. The dew point
of any air or inert gas must be lower than the minimum cargo service temperature to avoid
condensation.
(b) Inerting: This is done to reduce the oxygen content in the cargo handling system to
prevent flammable mixture or to prevent a chemical change (eg in ethylene).
Pumps, compressors, cargo instrument lines and cargo tanks and pipelines must be
inerted. In LNG designs the space around the tanks must also be inert.
Fig. 1.29 Some of the types of containment of gas cargo
1.56
(c) Purging: Inert gases are insoluble in hydrocarbon and ammonia cargoes and thus will not
dissolve. They tend to block lines and machinery and thus have to be purged out by cargo
vapour.
(d) Precooling: This is to reduce stress in the cargo tank structures caused by local
differences in temperature. It also reduces the quantity of vapour released during loading
as the cold liquid cargo level rises up the tank walls.
(e) Loading: Rate is governed by the rate at which cargo vapour can be disposed of. Few
loading jetties are equipped with vapour return facilities. Cargo warms up in the delivery
pipeline and/or while entering the tank. Some vaporises and reduces the temperature of
the rest of the cargo.
(f) Conditioning on voyage: The warmer, less dense liquid rises and maintains a certain
vapour pressure in the tank. Operation of the reliquefaction plant and withdrawal of the
vapour to lower tank pressure causes surface boiling and self-refrigeration at the liquid
surface. Some vessels use this 'boil off' to supplement the fuel used in the main engine.
(g) Discharging: Liquefied gases at their boiling temperature are difficult to pump as they
have poor lubrication and cooling properties, and easily boil, causing pump cavitation and
damage. Therefore, they must be cold.
(h) Conditioning on ballast passage: If the same cargo is to be loaded again, then the tanks
must be maintained in a condition compatible with that cargo. This is achieved by
retaining a small quantity of the product on board. If the ship is to carry a different cargo,
then it has to be gas freed.
(i) Gas-freeing:
• Remove all liquids.
• Warm the tank.
• Inert the tank and cargo system. (Do not use IG generated on board with ammonia.)
• Introduce air.
24.7 LIQUEFIED NATURAL AND PETROLEUM GAS CARRIERS
(Taken from the Code of Safe Working Practices for Australian Seafarers. Courtesy of AMSA.)
24.7.1 Aspects of section 24.5 may also apply to this section.

24.7.2 Additional information and guidance can be obtained from, Marine Orders, Part 17
(Liquefied Gas Carriers and Chemical Tankers).
24.7.3 Ships intended for the carriage of liquefied gas should carry only those liquids for
which its construction and equipment are suitable, and which are specified on the
certificate of fitness.
24.7.4 Particular attention is drawn to the importance of the ICS publication Tanker Safety
Guide (Liquified Gas) and the book Liquefied Gas Handling Principles on Ships and
in Terminals, which provides comprehensive information on the safe operation of
liquefied gas carriers.
24.7.5 Shipowners should provide seafarers employed on liquefied gas carriers with
appropriate training and instructions in the relevant operational and safety
requirements associated with their duties and emergency situations.
24.7.6 Comprehensive operating instructions should be provided concerning the particular
ship and cargo.
24.7.7 For each operation, the master should designate a competent officer who is familiar
with the safe operation of liquefied gas carriers. The master should ensure that the
designated officer has available an adequate number of experienced seafarers.
1.57
24.7.8 Particular attention is drawn to the need to:

(a) ensure that a full description of the cargo's physical and chemical properties is
supplied with each cargo loaded;
(b) ensure that seafarers are made aware of the safety precautions and emergency
action to be taken in the event of spillage;
(c) plan effective first aid treatment due to possible physical contact with liquefied
gases or cold cryogenic pipelines, some of which can be at a temperature of
minus 160 degrees Celsius;
(d) carry out emergency drills at regular intervals using personal protective
equipment and safety and rescue devices.
Ship/shore safety checklist
(From ‘Watchkeeping Safety and Cargo Management in Port’ – Roberts – by kind permission of the
Nautical Institute, London, UK.)
1.58
1.59
1.60
Guidelines for completing the ship/shore safety checklist
PART'A'- BULK LIQUID GENERAL

1. Is the ship securely moored?
In answering this question, due regard should be given to the need for adequate rendering
arrangements.
Ships should remain adequately secured in their moorings. Alongside piers or quays,
ranging of the ship should be prevented by keeping all mooring lines taut; attention
should be given to the movement of the ship caused by wind, currents, tides or passing
ships and the operation in progress.
The wind velocity at which loading arms should be disconnected, cargo operations
stopped or the vessel unberthed, should be stated.
Wire ropes and fibre ropes should not be used together in the same direction (i.e. breasts,
springs, head or stern) because of the difference in their elastic properties.
Once moored, ships fitted with automatic tension winches should not use such winches in
the automatic mode.
Means should be provided to enable quick and safe release of the ship in case of an emer-
ency. In ports where anchors are required to be used, special consideration should be
given to this matter.
Irrespective of the mooring method used, the emergency release operation should be
agreed, taking into account the possible risks involved.
Anchors not in use should be properly secured.
2. Are emergency towing wires correctly positioned?
Emergency towing wires (fire wires) should be positioned both on the off-shore bow and
quarter of the ship. At a buoy mooring, emergency towing wires should be positioned on
the side opposite to the hose string.
There are various methods for rigging emergency towing wires currently in use. Some
terminals may require a particular method to be used and the ship should be advised
accordingly.
3. Is there safe access between ship and shore?
The access should be positioned as far away from the manifolds as practicable.
The means of access to the ship should be safe and may consist of an appropriate
gangway or accommodation ladder with a properly secured safety net fitted to it.
Particular attention to safe access should be given where the difference in level between
the point of access on the vessel and the jetty or quay is large or likely to become large.
When terminal access facilities are not available and a ship's gangway is used, there
should be an adequate landing area on the berth so as to provide the gangway with a
sufficient clear run of space and so maintain safe and convenient access to the ship at all
states of tide and changes in the ship's freeboard.
Near the access ashore, appropriate life-saving equipment should be provided by the
terminal. A lifebuoy should be available on board the ship near the gangway or
accommodation ladder.
The access should be safely and properly illuminated during darkness.
Persons who have no legitimate business on board, or who do not have the master's
permission, should be refused access to the ship.
The terminal should control access to the jetty or berth in agreement with the ship.
1.61
4. Is the ship ready to move under its own power?

The ship should be able to move under its own power at short notice, unless permission to
immobilise the ship has been granted by the Port Authority and the terminal manager.
Certain conditions may have to be met for permission to be granted.
5. Is there an effective deck watch in attendance on board and adequate supervision on
the terminal and on the ship?
The operation should be under constant control both on ship and shore.
Supervision should be aimed at preventing the development of hazardous situations; if
however such a situation arises, the controlling personnel should have adequate means
available to take corrective action.
The controlling personnel on ship and shore should maintain an effective communication
with their respective supervisors.
All personnel connected with the operations should be familiar with the dangers of the
substances handled.
6. Is the agreed ship/shore communication system operative?
Communication should be maintained in the most efficient way between the responsible
officer on duty on the ship and the responsible person ashore.
When telephones are used, the telephone both on board and ashore should be
continuously manned by a person who can immediately contact his respective supervisor.
Additionally, the supervisor should have a facility to override all calls. When VHF
systems are used the units should preferably be portable and carried by the supervisor or a
person who can get in touch with his respective supervisor immediately. Where fixed
systems are used the guidelines for telephones should apply.
The selected system of communication, together with the necessary information on
telephone numbers and/or channels to be used, should be recorded on the appropriate
form. This form should be signed by both ship and shore representatives.
The telephone and portable VHF systems should comply with the appropriate safety
requirements.
7. Has the emergency signal to be used by the ship and shore been explained and
understood?
The agreed signal to be used in the event of an emergency arising ashore or on board
should be clearly understood by shore and ship personnel.
8. Have the procedures for cargo, bunker and ballast handling been agreed?
The procedures for the intended operation should be pre-planned. They should be
discussed and agreed upon by the ship and shore representatives prior to the start of the
operations. Agreed arrangements should be formally recorded and signed by both ship
and terminal representatives. Any change in the agreed procedure that could affect the
operation should be discussed by both parties and agreed upon. After agreement has been
reached by both parties, substantial changes should be laid down in writing as soon as
possible and in sufficient time before the change in procedure takes place. In any case, the
change should be laid down in writing within the working period of those supervisors on
board and ashore in whose working period agreement on the change was reached.
The operations should be suspended and all deck and vent openings closed on the
approach of an electrical storm.
The properties of the substances handled, the equipment of ship and shore installation, the
ability of the ship's crew and shore personnel to execute the necessary operations and to
1.62
sufficiently control the operations are factors which should be taken into account when
ascertaining the possibility of handling a number of substances concurrently.
The manifold areas both on board and ashore should be safely and properly illuminated
during darkness.
The initial and maximum loading rates, topping off rates and normal stopping times
should be agreed, having regard to:
* The nature of the cargo to be handled.
* The arrangement and capacity of the ship's cargo lines and gas venting systems.
* The maximum allowable pressure and flow rate in the ship/shore hoses and loading
arms.
* Precautions to avoid accumulation of static electricity.
* Any other flow control limitations.
A record to this effect should be formally made as above.
9. Have the hazards associated with toxic substances in the cargo being handled been
identified and understood?
Many tanker cargoes contain components which are known to be hazardous to human
health. In order to minimise the impact on personnel, information on cargo constituents
should be available during the cargo transfer to enable the adoption of proper precautions.
In addition, some port states require such information to be readily available during cargo
transfer and in the event of an accidental spill.
The information provided should identify the constituents by chemical name, name in
common usage, UN number and the maximum concentration expressed as a percentage
by volume.
10. Has the emergency shutdown procedure been agreed?
An emergency shutdown procedure should be agreed between ship and shore, formally
recorded and signed by both the ship and terminal representative.
The agreement should state the circumstances in which operations have to be stopped
immediately
Due regard should be given to the possible introduction of dangers associated with the
emergency shutdown procedure.
11. Are fire hoses and fire-fighting equipment on board and ashore positioned and
ready for immediate use?
Fire-fighting equipment both on board and ashore should be correctly positioned and
ready for immediate use.
Adequate units of fixed or portable equipment should be stationed to cover the ship's
cargo deck and on the jetty. The ship and shore fire main systems should be pressurised,
or be capable of being pressurised at short notice.
Both ship and shore should ensure that their fire main systems can be inter-connected in a
quick and easy way utilising, if necessary, the international shore fire connection.
12. Are cargo and bunker hoses/arms in good condition, properly rigged and
appropriate for the service intended?
Hoses should be in a good condition and properly fitted and rigged so as to prevent strain
and stress beyond design limitations.
All flange connections should be fully bolted and any other types of connections should
be properly secured.
1.63
It should be ensured that the hoses/arms are constructed of a material suitable for the
substance to be handled taking into account its temperature and the maximum operating
pressure.
Cargo hoses should be properly marked and identifiable with regard to their suitability for
the intended operation.
13. Are scuppers effectively plugged and drip trays in position, both on board and
ashore?
Where applicable all scuppers on board and drain holes ashore should be properly
plugged during the operations. Accumulation of water should be drained off periodically.
Both ship and jetty manifolds should ideally be provided with fixed drip trays; in their
absence portable drip trays should be used.
All drip trays should be emptied in an appropriate manner whenever necessary but always
after completion of the specific operation.
When only corrosive liquids or refrigerated gases are being handled, the scuppers may be
kept open, provided that an ample supply of water is available at all times in the vicinity
of the manifolds.
14. Are unused cargo and bunker connections proper secured with blank flanges fully
bolted?
Unused cargo and bunker line connections should be closed and blanked. Blank flanges
should be fully bolted and other types of fittings, if used, properly secured.
15. Are sea and overboard discharge valves, when not in use, closed and visibly secured?
Experience shows the importance of this item in pollution avoidance on ships where
cargo lines and ballast systems are interconnected. Remote operating controls for such
valves should be identified in order to avoid inadvertent opening.
If appropriate, the security of the valves in question should be checked visually.
16. Are all cargo and bunker tank lids closed?
Apart from the openings in use for tank venting (refer to question 17) all openings to
cargo tanks should be closed and gastight.
Except on gas tankers, ullaging and sampling points may be opened for the short periods
necessary for ullaging and sampling.
Closed ullaging and sampling systems should he used where required by international,
national or local regulations and agreements.
17. Is the agreed tank venting system being used?
Agreement should be reached, and recorded, as to the venting system for the operation,
taking into account the nature of the cargo and international, national or local regulations
and agreements.
There are three basic systems for venting tanks:
1. Open to atmosphere via open ullage ports, protected by suitable flame screens.
2. Fixed venting systems which includes inert gas systems.
3. To shore through other vapour collection systems.
1.64
18. Has the operation of the P/V valves and/or high velocity vents been verified using the
checklift facility, where fitted?
The operation of the P/V valves and/or high velocity vents should be checked using the
testing facility provided by the manufacturer. Furthermore, it is imperative that an
adequate check is made, visually or otherwise at this time to ensure that the checklift is
actually operating the valve. On occasion a seized or stiff vent has caused the checklift
drive pin to shear and the ship's personnel to assume, with disastrous consequences, that
the vent was operational.
19. Are hand torches of an approved type? and,
20. Are portable VHF/UHF transceivers of an approved type?

Battery operated hand torches and VHF radio-telephone sets should be of a safe type
which is approved by a competent authority. Ship/shore telephones should comply with
the requirements for explosion-proof construction except when placed in a safe space in
the accommodation.
VHF radio-telephone sets may operate in the internationally agreed wave bands only.
The above mentioned equipment should be well maintained. Damaged units, even though
they may be capable of operation, should not be used.
21. Are the ship's main radio transmitter aerials earthed and radars switched off?
The ship's main radio station should not be used during the ship's stay in port, except for
receiving purposes. The main transmitting aerials should be disconnected and earthed.
Satellite communications equipment may be used normally unless advised otherwise.
The ship's radar installation should not be used unless the master, in consultation with the
terminal manager, has established the conditions under which the installation may be used
safely.
22. Are electric cables to portable electrical equipment disconnected from power?
The use of portable electrical equipment on wandering leads should be prohibited in
hazardous zones during cargo operations and the equipment preferably removed from the
hazardous zone.
Telephone cables in use in the ship/shore communication system should preferably be
routed outside the hazardous zone. Wherever this is not feasible, the cable should be so
positioned and protected that no danger arises from its use.
23. Are all external doors and ports in the accommodation closed?
External doors, windows and portholes in the accommodation should be closed during
cargo operations. These doors should be clearly marked as being required to be closed
during such operations, but at no time should they be locked.
24. Are window type air conditioning units disconnected? and,
25. Are air conditioning intakes which may permit the entry of cargo vapours closed?
Window type air conditioning units should be disconnected from their power supply.
Air conditioning and ventilator intakes which are likely to draw in air from the cargo area
should be closed.
Air conditioning units which are located wholly within the accommodation and which do
not draw in air from the outside may remain in operation.
1.65
26. Are the requirements for the use of galley equipment and other cooking appliances
being observed?
Open fire systems may be used in galleys whose construction, location and ventilation
system provides protection against entry of flammable gases.
In cases where the galley does not comply with the above, open fire systems may be used
provided the master, in consultation and agreement with the terminal representative, has
ensured that precautions have been taken against the entry and accumulation of
flammable gases.
On ships with stern discharge lines which are in use, open fire systems in galley
equipment should not be allowed unless the ship is constructed to permit their use in such
circumstances.
27. Are smoking regulations being observed?
Smoking on board the ship may only take place in places specified by the master in
consultation with the terminal manager or his representative.
No smoking is allowed on the jetty and the adjacent area except in buildings and places
specified by the terminal manager in consultation with the master.
Places which are directly accessible from the outside should not be designated as places
where smoking is permitted. Buildings, places and rooms designated as areas where
smoking is permitted should be clearly marked as such.
28. Are naked light regulations being observed?
A naked light or open fire comprises the following: flame, spark formation, naked electric
light or any surface with a temperature that is equal to or higher than the minimum
ignition temperature of the products handled in the operation.
The use of open fire on board the ship, and within a distance of 25 metres of the ship,
should be prohibited, unless all applicable regulations have been met and agreement
reached by the port authority, terminal manager and the master. This distance may have to
be extended for ships of a specialised nature such as gas tankers.
29. Is there provision for an emergency escape?
In addition to the means of access referred to in question 3, a safe and quick emergency
escape route should be available both on board and ashore. On board the ship it may
consist of a lifeboat ready for immediate use, preferably at the after end of the ship.
30. Are sufficient personnel on board and ashore to deal with an emergency?
At all times during the ship's stay at a terminal, a sufficient number of personnel should
be present on board the ship and in the shore installation to deal with an emergency.
31. Are adequate insulating means in place in the ship/shore connection?
Unless measures are taken to break the continuous electrical path between ship and shore
pipework provided by the ship/shore hoses or metallic arms, stray electric currents,
mainly from corrosion prevention systems, can cause electric sparks at the flange faces
when hoses are being connected and disconnected.
The passage of these currents is usually prevented by an insulating flange inserted at each
jetty manifold outlet or incorporated in the construction of metallic arms. Alternatively,
the electrical discontinuity may be provided by the inclusion of one length of electrically
discontinuous hose in each hose string.
It should be ascertained that the means of electrical discontinuity is in place, is in good
condition and that it is not being by-passed by contact with an electrically conductive
material.
1.66
32. Have measures been taken to ensure sufficient pumproom ventilation?

Pumprooms should be mechanically ventilated and the ventilation system, which should
maintain a safe atmosphere throughout the pumproom, should be kept running throughout
the operation.
33. If the ship is capable of closed loading, have the requirements for closed operations
been agreed?
It is a requirement of many terminals that when the ship is ballasting, loading and
discharging, it operates without recourse to opening ullage and sighting ports. Such ships
will require the means to enable closed monitoring of tank contents, either by a fixed
gauging system or by using portable equipment passed through a vapour lock, and
preferably backed up by an independent overfill alarm system.
34. Has a vapour return line been connected?
If required, a vapour return line may have to be used to return flammable vapours from
the cargo tanks to shore.
35. If a vapour return line is connected, have operating parameters been agreed?
The maximum and minimum operating pressures and any other constraints associated
with the operation of the vapour return system should be discussed and agreed by ship
and shore personnel.
36. Are ship emergency fire control plans located externally?
A set of fire control plans should be permanently stored in a prominently marked
weathertight enclosure outside the deckhouse for the assistance of shoreside fire-fighting
personnel. A crew list should also be included in this enclosure.
If the ship is fitted, or required to be fitted, with an Inert Gas System the following
questions should be answered:
37. Is the Inert Gas System fully operational and in good working order?
The inert gas system should be in safe working condition with particular reference to all
interlocking trips and associated alarms, deck seal, non-return valve, pressure regulating
control system, main deck IG line pressure indicator, individual tank IG valves (when
fitted) and deck P/V breaker.
Individual tank IG valves (if fitted) should have easily identified and fully functioning
open/close position indicators.
38. Are deck seals in good working order?
It is essential that the deck seal arrangements are in a safe condition. In particular, the
water supply arrangements to the seal and the proper functioning of associated alarms
should be checked.
39. Are liquid levels in P/V breakers correct?
Checks should be made to ensure the liquid level in the P/V breaker complies with
manufacturer's recommendations
40. Have the fixed and portable oxygen analysers been calibrated and are they working
properly?
All fixed and portable oxygen analysers should be calibrated and checked as required by
the company and/or manufacturer's instructions. The in-line oxygen analyser/recorder and
sufficient portable oxygen analysers should be working properly.
1.67
41. Are fixed IG pressure and oxygen content recorders working?

All recording equipment should be switched on and operating correctly.
42. Are all cargo tank atmospheres at positive pressure with an oxygen content of 8% or
less by volume?
Prior to commencement of cargo operations, each cargo tank atmosphere should be
checked to verify an oxygen content of 8% or less by volume. Inerted cargo tanks should
at all times be kept at a positive pressure.
43. Are all the individual tank IG valves (if fitted) correctly set and locked?
For both loading and discharge operations it is normal and safe to keep all individual tank
IG supply valves (if fitted) open in order to prevent inadvertent under or over
pressurisation. In this mode of operation each tank pressure will be the same as the deck
main IG pressure and thus the P/V breaker will act as a safety valve in case of excessive
over or under pressure. If individual tank IG supply valves are closed for reasons of
potential vapour contamination or depressurisation for gauging, etc., then the status of the
valve should be clearly indicated to all those involved in cargo operations. Each
individual tank IG valve should be fitted with a locking device under the control of a
responsible officer.
44. Are all the persons in charge of cargo operations aware that in the case of failure of
the Inert Gas Plant, discharge operations should cease, and the terminal be advised?
In the case of failure of the IG plant, the cargo discharge, de-ballasting and tank cleaning
should cease and the terminal to be advised.
Under no circumstances should the ship's officers allow the atmosphere in any tank to fall
below atmospheric pressure.
Section 10 of the IMO publication entitled "Crude Oil Washing Systems" contains
operational check lists for the use of the crew at each discharge in accordance with
Regulation 13B of Annex 1 to MARPOL 73/78. If the ship is fitted with a crude oil washing
(COW) system, and intends to crude oil wash, the following questions should be answered:
45. Is the Pre-Arrival Crude Oil Washing Check List, as contained in the approved
Crude Oil Washing Manual, satisfactorily completed?
The approved Crude Oil Washing Manual contains a Pre-Arrival Crude Oil Washing
Check List, specific to each ship, which should be completed by a responsible ship's
officer prior to arrival at every discharge port where crude oil washing is intended.
46. Is the Crude Oil Washing Check List for use before, during and after Crude Oil
Washing, as contained in the approved Crude Oil Washing Manual, available and
being used?
The approved Crude Oil Washing Manual contains a Crude Oil Washing Check List,
specific to each ship, for use before, during and after crude oil washing operations. This
Cheek List should be completed at the appropriate times and the terminal representative
should be invited to participate.
1.6.10 Principles of safe handling, stowage and carriage of cargo on OffShore Supply Vessels
(OSV)
Introduction
Offshore supply vessels can be said to be the most dangerous when it comes to cargo operations.
1.68
The most common types of cargo carried by these special purpose vessels are containers (of
different sizes and heights), chemicals, explosives, radioactive materials, large tubular and
heavy lifts of irregular shapes.
Handling and stowage of cargo on an OSV
The cargo is loaded on deck and, since the vessel has a low freeboard and usually faces severe
weather, handling and securing of the cargo are vital.
Ideally, deck crew should be able to work cargo on the deck without having to move in between
the containers and other stowed cargo.
Careful attention to the secure stowage of cargo is absolutely essential on OSV.
The following info is required at the pre-planning stage:
1. the names and limitations of the installations to be visited
2. the order in which the installations are to be visited
3. any items for urgent delivery
4. any heavy lifts and their individual weights
5. identification of dangerous goods
6. numbers and sizes of tubular steel pipes
7. the order and extent of any back loading to be handled at any installation.
Block stowing the container cargo is a good form of restraining athwartships movement.
Another type of cargo carried is dangerous goods and pollutants. The master must take every
possible precaution to prevent any pollution or incident. The importance of securing and
segregation is again emphasized.
Tubular steel pipes are prone to athwartships movement. Stowing them on a bed of old ropes on
deck, then chaining them down restricts this. Tugger winches are used to tighten stows prior to
chaining.
The vessel also has a variety of tanks which are used to carry bulk cargo such as cement and oil.
These commodities are handled through hoses and segregation is very important.
Bulk tanks should be cleaned and dry prior to commencement of loading.
Extreme care should be exercised when gas oil is loaded/transferred and carried on an OSV.
If heavy weather is expected, consideration must be given to any possible loss of cargo through
tank vents, thus causing pollution.
An up-to-date cargo plan must be maintained at all times.
Note: When vessel is holding station off a rig there is the associated vessel motion and the
potential danger of swinging cargoes when the loads are suspended by the rigs crane.
1.69
Left − Sea Driller at the

Brent Delta, backloading a
tower crane. A sister vessel
Sea Producer can be seen
in the background through
the platform legs. Points to
note are: The mooring line
to the starboard quarter, the
bulk hose secured to the
stern gate and the platform
discharge that made even a
fine day such as this, a
rainy one as far as the deck
crew were concerned.
Photograph circa 1976.
Below − Forest Lake, a UT

704 anchor handler back-
loads at the Norjarl
Fig. 1.30 Offshore supply vessel and its cargo deck
1.70
Worked examples of calculations involving Stowage Factor, Broken Stowage and Expansion
Coefficient.
Q 1.
A certain oil has a R.D. of 0.75 @ 16°C. Its expansion coefficient is 0.00027/ deg C. Calculate
its R.D. @ 26°C.
Working
Temp difference = 26 − 16 = 10°C
Change in R.D. = 10 × 0.00027
= 0.0027
R.D. @ 16°C = 0.75
R.D. @ 26°C = 0.75 − 0.0027 = 0.7473
Q 2.
A rectangular tank 9 metres in length and 6 metres breadth has a depth of 11 metres from the
ullage plug. How many metric tonnes of oil of relative density 0.83 does the tank contain when
the ullage is 350 mm?
Working
Depth of tank = 11.00 m
Ullage = 0.35 m
Depth of oil = 10.65 m
Volume of oil = 9 × 6 × 10.65 m3
= 575.1 m3
Weight of oil = Volume occupied × relative density
= 575.1 × 0.83
= 477.33 tonnes.
Q 3.
A hold measures 18.2 m × 10.9 m × 5.6 m.
2080 cases measuring 1.1 m × 0.85 m × 0.50 m are loaded.
Allow 5% for broken stowage. Find the space remaining.
Working
Space required for cases only = 1.1 × 0.85 × .50 × 2080 = 972.4 m3
Allowing 5% for B.S = 972.4 × .05 = 48.62 m3
Space required for stowage = 972.4 + 48.62 = 1021.02 m3
Space available = 18.2 × 10.9 × 5.6 = 1110.93 m3
Space remaining = 1110.93 0 − 1021.02 = 89.91 m3
1.71
Q 4.
A hold capacity of 1180m3 has in it 150 tonnes of iron (S.F 0.42 m3/tonne). How many bales of
grass can be stowed in the hold (S.F. 2.8 m3/tonne and 6 bales to the tonne)?
Working
Space occupied by iron = 150 × 0.42 = 63m3
Total space = 1180 m3
Space remaining = 1180 − 63 = 1117 m3
1117
No of tonnes of grass = = 398.9 t
2. 8
No of bales = 6 × 398.9 = 2393
Q 5.
A hold has a bale capacity of 920 m3. At the bottom of the hold, 640 packages are stowed each
0.6 × 0.3 × 0.3 m and weighing 90 kg each. Allow 5% for B.S. for the packages. On top of this,
a parcel of 325 tonnes of wheat is stowed at 1.53 m3/tonne. What tonnage remains in the hold at
1.1 m3/tonne?
Answer: 351.33t
Q 6.
A Lower Hold, capacity 59,480 ft3, contains 1,200 tons of manganese ore stowing at 18 ft3/ton.
Allowing 1% of the remaining space for dunnage, calculate the weight of gunnies (s.f 55) that
can be loaded in the space left.
Answer: 681.8 T
UNIT 1.7 Self-test Exercise

The answer to these questions can be found on the green pages at the end of this book.
1. What legislation must a shipowner abide by? What must he/she do to avoid legal
procedures?
2. Define:
Bale Capacity
Grain Capacity
Broken Stowage
Stowage Factor.
3. Why might you need to apply a density correction when doing a draft survey?
4. Australia has issued some guidelines regarding ballast water management. What are
these?
5. List the four factors underpinning the basic principles of cargo handling, stowing and
carriage.
6. List four advantages of unitised cargo.
7. How would you ensure that there is no time wastage when handling cargo on board a
RO-RO vessel?
8. List three types of refrigerated cargo. What is the difference between them?
9. What would you be paying attention to when actually loading the refrigerated cargo?
10. State how you would ventilate a cargo of coal.
1.72
11. List the three main on-board risks involved when carrying petroleum products.
12. What do you understand by the term ‘Volatile cargo of high vapour pressure’?
13. What does the ‘Free Flow System’ comprise?
14. List 10 precautionary measures that you would take while loading petroleum products.
15. State how you would prepare a tank prior to loading a new grade of oil.
1.73
TOPIC 2
Regulations Governing Carriage of

Cargo and Cargo Gear
SECTION 2
TOPIC 2 Regulations Governing Carriage of

Syllabus
Learning Outcome 2
On completion of this topic you should be able to demonstrate the knowledge of the regulations
governing the carriage of cargo and cargo handling equipment.
Assessment Criteria
2.1 The requirements as per international regulations with regard to the carriage of timber
deck cargo are outlined.
2.2 The requirements as per national and international regulations with regard to the carriage
of grain cargo are outlined.
2.3 The requirements as per national regulations with regard to the carriage of livestock are
outlined.
2.4 The requirements as per Marine Order Part 32 with regard to the cargo handling
equipment are outlined.
2.1
TOPIC 2, SECTION 2 − REGULATIONS GOVERNING CARRIAGE OF CARGO AND CARGO GEAR
2.2
SECTION 2 Regulations Governing Carriage of

UNIT 2.1 International regulations pertaining to the carriage of timber
deck cargo
Introduction
Timber is carried on deck because the high stowage factor means that the ship is not down to her
marks when the holds are full.
The carriage of timber on deck requires special attention for various reasons. One of these is the
timber’s ability to absorb moisture, thus affecting the vessel’s stability. On the other hand, the
presence of timber on deck provides for additional buoyancy to the vessel.
Because of the several variables that are involved in the carriage of timber deck cargo, IMO has
set out a list of recommendations applicable to vessels greater or equal to 24m in length,
engaged in the carriage of timber deck cargo.
These are set out in the Code of Safe Practice for Ships Carrying Timber Deck Cargoes.
Timber deck cargoes comprise logs, pit props or sawn. The stowage factor of timber can range
from 27m3/tonne to 149m3/tonne.
2.1.1 Main danger associated with the carriage of timber deck cargo
When timber is carried on deck, moisture absorption makes the vessel top heavy, thus reducing
the stability of the vessel. The chances of capsizing are thus increased. Some allowance is made
for the additional buoyancy provided by the cargo on deck. Some types of timber can absorb up
to 1/3 of their weight of water.
Apart from the stability criteria, when loading timber on deck, other factors such as the strength
of the deck, the possible additional weight involved and shoring and securing arrangements
must also be taken into consideration. Timber ships often develop a list if, on their voyage, they
experience weather mainly from one side of the vessel, causing the timber to absorb water on
one side only from spray.
2.1.2 Stability criteria for vessels carrying timber deck cargo

The stability criteria recommended for passenger and cargo ships carrying timber deck cargo are
as follows:
(a) The area under the righting lever curve (GZ curve) should not be less than 3.15 metre
degrees up to 30° angle of heel and not less than 5.16 metre-degrees up to 40° or the
angle of flooding (θf) if this angle is less than 40°.
Additionally, the area under the righting lever curve (GZ curve) between the angles of
heel of 30° and 40° or between 30° and θf if this angle is less than 40°, should not be less
than 1.72 metre degrees.
(b) The righting lever GZ should be at least 0.20m at an angle of heel equal to or greater than
30°.
(c) The maximum righting arm should occur at an angle of heel preferably exceeding 30° but
not less than 25°.
(d) The initial metacentric height GM should not be less than 0.15 m.
2.3
Timber rigging –screw with pelican hook slip at one end and pear-ring for chain length
adjustment at other end. The hook slip can be knocked clear to jettison cargo.
Fig. 2.1 Typical timber rigging
Fig.2.2 The correct use of timber rigging-screws, pear links and chains, pitched 1.2 m apart
2.1.3 Precautions necessary when carrying timber deck cargo

The carriage of timber deck cargo requires a number of precautions to be taken. Below is a list
of the main precautions necessary when handling, stowing and carrying timber deck cargoes.
These include:
• openings to be closed and battened down

• steering arrangements not obstructed
• cargo compactly stowed and level surface
• crew’s access to be safe
• strong uprights
• lashing to be in accordance to regulations
• quick cargo release mechanism
• lashing to be regularly inspected
• vessels to comply with stability criteria
• water absorption causes excessive stress on lashings.
2.4
• entries relashing in logbook

• prudent shiphandling
• height of cargo on decklimitations
• provisions for guard rails or lines
• protection of personnel.
Refer to K & Y and MO, Part 42, for further information.
Conclusion
Timber itself is not a cargo extremely liable to damage. It does not require as much care as other
cargoes. However, it can be the source of problems for other cargoes, the vessel and its crew. It
is from this angle that the carriage of timber deck cargo must be seen and attended to. One can
never be too cautious when dealing with cargo liable to hugely affect the stability of the vessel.
UNIT 2.2 National and international regulations pertaining to the

carriage of grain cargo
Introduction
Grain cargo is another one of these ‘special’ cargoes which requires special attention from the
carrier and its servants. Several pieces of legislation are in place so as to make the carriage of
grain as safe as possible.
2.2.1 Legislation in place

IMO Grain rules, commonly known as the International Code for the Safe Carriage of Grain in
Bulk, is the backbone of the legislation in place. In Australia M.O Part 33 in conjunction with
the Code govern the carriage of grain. The rules do not apply to ships carrying grain in bags or
in containers.
Definition of grain: According to the IMO Grain Rules, grain is defined as: Wheat, Maize
(corn), Rye, Oats, Barley, Rice, Pulses, Seeds and processed forms thereof, whose behaviour is
similar to grain in its natural state.
2.2.2 IMO Grain Rules

The IMO Grain Rules consists of two parts:
Produced below are various definitions from Part A:
A FILLED COMPARTMENT TRIMMED: any cargo space in which, after loading and trimming,
the bulk grain is at its highest level.
A PARTLY FILLED COMPARTMENT: any cargo space, which does not fall in the category
described above. Other topics dealt with in Part A are:
• Document of Authorization
• information regarding ship’s stability and grain loading
• stability requirements
• stowage and securing of bulk grain
2.5
Document of Authorisation
A vessel must give an intention to load grain as per form M/0 33/1, a copy of which appears
below.
A document of authorisation is a document issued to grain-carrying vessels demonstrating that
they can comply with the IMO Grain Rules. This document is issued by the flag’s State and is
part of the Grain Loading Manual found on board.
Vessels without a document of authorisation may be allowed to carry grain if they can
demonstrate that they can comply with some other requirements as specified in the Code.
Form MO – 33/1 – Notice of Intention to Load Bulk Grain (page 1)
2.6
Form MO – 33/1 – Notice of Intention to Load Bulk Grain (page 2)
Fig. 2.3
Stowage of bulk grain

All necessary and reasonable trimming shall be performed to level all free grain surfaces and to
minimise the effect of grain shifting.
If there is no other cargo above a cargo of bulk grain, then the hatch covers must be secured in
an approved manner.
When bulk grain is stowed on a closed tween deck which is not grain tight, the covers shall be
made grain tight by taping the joints.
Unless already allowed for in the stability assessment, the surface of the bulk grain in a partly
filled compartment shall be secured so as to prevent a grain shift by overstowing, strapping or
lashing, and by rigging shifting boards.
2.7
Grain must be kept dry and requires good ventilation, as it is liable to heat and ferment. Its
stowage factor varies according to the type of grain and whether it is shipped in bulk or in bags.
It must be stowed away from heat sources.
2.2.3 Risks associated with the carriage of grain

The risks associated with the carriage of grain are:
• grain shifting
• germination
• infestation
• dust explosion
• grain swelling.
Germination
It is important that grain is kept dry as it may germinate. No loading or discharging should be
done in rain. Ship sweat may also cause grain germination. Grain in contact with bilge water (if
any) will affect the cargo.
Infestation
Usually fumigation is carried out to prevent infestation. The compartment must be thoroughly
cleaned. Traces of the previous cargo must be removed. Special attention is required if the
previous cargo was liable to produce vermin or other insects. A grain loading permit will only
be issued after a surveyor has inspected the compartment, paying special attention to the risk of
infestation.
Dust explosion
This is likely to occur from the dust produced when grain is loaded. In the right proportion and
in suspension in the atmosphere, dust can explode when a source of ignition is applied. Smoking
should not be allowed when grain is being handled and the atmosphere is dust-laden.
Grain swelling
This occurs when grain absorbs some moisture. The moisture causes the grain to swell and this
in turn exerts additional pressure on the structures of the compartment. Distortion of the
compartment can cause severe structural damage.
2.2.4 Reducing the effect of grain shifting
Fig 2.4 The saucering method
2.8
In a filled compartment
If the compartment is full and trimmed, saucering is one way of securing the cargo. This is done
by trimming the cargo in a slight saucer shape and putting a tarpaulin on top. Bagged grain is
then tightly stowed on the tarpaulin. The hatchway also must be loaded with bagged grain.
Bundling is another option available in a full and trimmed compartment. In this case, the cargo
is trimmed in a saucer way and it is lined with material on top. Between the bulk grain and the
material are wire lashings running athwartship. Cargo is then loaded on top of the material and
the lashings are drawn up tight, creating a big bundle above the bulk grain.
Fig 2.5 The bundling method

(Minimum depth: 1/10th of moulded breadth of vessel)
In a partly filled compartment

Overstowing: Is done in a partly filled compartment. The surface of the grain is levelled and
covered with separation cloth or bearers. Then bagged grain is tightly stowed on top of the
material or platform. Cargo other than bagged grain can be used as long as they exert the same
pressure.
Strapping/Lashing: Is carried out in a partly filled compartment. The cargo is trimmed in a
slightly crown shape. Prior to completion of loading, wires are secured to sides of the hold. On
completion the cargo is covered with a separation cloth on top of which run athwartship and fore
and aft bearers. The steel wires are made to run from one side of the hold to the other, on top of
these bearers and tightened with turnbuckles. During the voyage, as the grain settles, the lashing
has to be tightened.
Fig 2.6 The strapping method of securing grain
2.9
Securing with wire mesh: again, used in a partly filled compartment. This method is similar to
the strapping method except that wire mesh (the same type as the one used in reinforced
concrete construction) is laid on top of the separation cloth.
In some countries, the authorities stipulate that shifting boards are erected when grain is carried.
These are wooden centre-lines that are fitted in the hold and extend to one third of the depth of
the hold from the top. It cannot be less than 2.45m deep. The shifting board prevents the grain
from shifting athwartship after it has settled after loading.
Fig 2.7 The erection of grain shifting boards
2.2.5 Vessel’s stability

The vessel must also have a set of approved grain stability data, which illustrates various
loading conditions. These very important documents are sighted by the surveyor prior to giving
permission to load grain.
Basically, any vessel intending to carry grain must show to the authorities (in Australia AMSA)
that they comply with the stability criteria. Thus the master of that vessel must complete the GA
Form showing his/her stability calculation for the intended voyage.
G-A
SHIPS LOADING BULK GRAIN
Stability calculation for desk audit
INSTRUCTIONS TO MASTERS
less than 72 hrs prior to the vessels proposed
Chapter VI of the SOLAS 1974 Convention, as amended, commencement of loading. Failure to do this may result in
and Australian legislation (Marine Orders Part 33 - Cargo & the commencement of loading being delayed until an AMSA
Cargo Handling - Grain) require that all ships intending to surveyor attends the vessel to assess compliance with the
carry grain cargoes in bulk from Australian ports are to Code. A separate calculation is to be submitted for each
demonstrate compliance with the International Grain Code. loading port. A new calculation must be submitted if there is
This form provides the means by which the Master can any significant change in the loading plan.
demonstrate compliance with the stability requirements of
the Code prior to presenting his ship on the load berth. You will be advised accordingly, by the fastest possible
means, should the calculation not comply with the required
SOLAS 1974 requires the cargo shipper to provide the criteria.
master or his representative with appropriate information
on the cargo. Beyond this, it is the master's responsibility Where a vessel has an approved computerised grain
to ensure the proper stowage of the cargo. loading stability program it is acceptable for the master to
submit print-outs from the program for the departure,
The attached Grain Stability Calculation should be submitted intermediate (if required) and arrival conditions together
to the nearest AMSA office (see list of AMSA Offices) not with the first page (General Particulars and Master's
2.10
Certification) from the attached Grain Stability Calculation facility to adequately trim the ends of filled
together with a copy of the approval certificate for the compartments and Masters must check the facilities
computerised grain loading stability program. at their load ports if they consider they need to trim
the ends of any compartments in order to meet the
Any vessel loading or partially discharging grain at an required stability criteria)
Australian port may be subject to inspection by AMSA at - calculations for any filled compartment are to be
any time. based on the full (i.e. 100% cubic) capacity and
corresponding maximum VCG of the compartment
irrespective of whether the cargo is to be trimmed or
AMSA applies the following provisions when assessing untrimmed. Untrimmed hold capacities are not to be
compliance with the Code: used in any circumstances.
- in partly filled compartments AMSA accepts grain
- the Code requires all compartments in which grain is surfaces in which the height between the highest
stowed to be either "filled" (trimmed or untrimmed) or peaks and the lowest troughs in the compartment is
"Partly filled" (trimmed only). AMSA does not accept not more than 1.Om as being "level" within the
"partly filled" compartments untrimmed, even if data for meaning of the Code and therefore trimmed to an
these is approved by the flag State Administration, as acceptable level;
they are not provided for in the Code; - it is the responsibility of the Master to ensure that the
- AMSA cannot accept a compartment as being "filled" cargo is trimmed as required by the Code - AMSA
if the average ullage at the coaming exceeds the will not determine the method by which this is
minimum required to accommodate the structure of achieved; and
hatch covers or 10Omm, whichever is greater; - ships on voyages solely within the Spencer Gulf, St
- untrimmed moments may only be used for filled Vincent's Gulf or Port Phillip Bay should refer to
compartments with the ends untrimmed; Appendix 1 of Marine Orders Part 33, as exemptions
(N.B. Most Australian grain loading terminals lack the apply to certain voyages
AUSTRALIAN MARITIME SAFETY AUTHORITY OFFICES
WEST AUSTRALIA NEW SOUTH WALES QUEENSLAND

(Geraidton, Kwinana, Bunbury, Esperance) Port Kembia Brisbane
MO Manager, AMSA MO Manager, AMSA MO Manager, AMSA
P 0 Box 1332 PO Box K405 Locked Bag 1 001
FREMANTLE WA 6959 HAYMARKET NSW 1240 Fortitude Valley BC
Phone: 0894302100 Phone: 02 9282 0777 BRISBANE OLD 4006
Fax: 08 9430 2121 Fax: 02 9282 0750 Phone: 07 3253 2600

Email: fremantle@amsa.gov.au Email: sydney@amsa.gov.au Fax: 07 3253 2601
Email: brisbane@amsa.gov.au
or:
SOUTH AUSTRALIA Surveyor in Charge, AMSA

(Port Adelaide, Port Lincoln, Port Pide, Port Giles, P 0 Box 1176 Gladstone
Wallaroo, Ardrossan, Thevenard) WOLLONGONG NSW 2500 Surveyor in Charge, AMSA
Surveyor-in-Charge, AMSA Phone: 02 4226 5457 P 0 Box 297
215 Victoria Road Fax: 02 4226 5455 GLADSTONE OLD 4680
LARGS BAY SA 5016 Email: sydney@amsa.gov.au Phone: 07 4972 9045
Phone: 0884073910 Fax: 07 4972 3841
Fax: 08 8449 3444 Email: brisbane@amsa.gov.au
Email: melbourne@amsa.gov.au Newcastle
Senior Surveyor, AMSA
VICTORIA AND TASMANIA P 0 Box 2147 Mackay
(Melbourne, Geelong, Portland and Tasmanian Ports) DANGAR NSW 2309 Surveyor in Charge, AMSA
Phone: 02 4961 3277 120 Wood Street
MO Manager, AMSA Fax: 02 4961 2694 MACKAY OLD 4740
P 0 Box 272 Email: sydney@amsa.gov.au Phone: 07 4957 6644
World Trade Centre 07 4957 8450
MELBOURNE VIC 3005 brisbane@amsa.gov.au
Phone: 03 9674 3000
Fax: 03 9674 3003
Email: melbourne@amsa.gov.au
AMSA 225
(9/2000)
REMINDER: We are grateful to the Australian Maritime Safety Authority for

permission to reproduce this material. The information is, however, subject to change
and you should check the AMSA website (www.amsa.gov.au) to ensure that you are using
the most recent version.
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
Part B of the Code deals with the calculation of assumed heeling moments and general
assumptions.
The criteria for vessels carrying grain cargoes are as follows:
1. The angle of heel due to the shift of grain shall not be greater than 12° or in the case of
ships constructed on or after 1 January 1994 the angle at which the deck edge is immersed
(θdei), whichever is the lesser.
2. In the statical stability diagram, the net or residual area between the heeling arm curve
and the righting arm curve up to the angle of heel of maximum difference between the
ordinates of the two curves, or 40° or the angle of flooding (θf), whichever is the least,
shall in all conditions of loading be not less than 4.3 metre-degrees.
3. The initial metacentric height, after correction for the free surface effects of liquids in
tanks, shall be not less than 0.30 m.
Conclusion
The grain trade is a major part of sea transportation. The safe and efficient carriage of grain
cargoes requires special care and attention. Unless the dangers associated with their carriage and
the ways in which they can be damaged are understood, ship owners risk huge cargo claims.
And these claims could easily be avoided.
2.15
UNIT 2.3 National regulations governing the carriage of livestock

Introduction
The carriage of livestock is another area where some expertise is required. Strict national
legislation may be set in place to reduce the risk of disease if that risk exists. This may even
apply to animals transiting a particular region. Apart from the regulatory requirements, there is
the need for humane and hygienic treatment and conditions for animals transported by land and
sea.
The animals, which range from birds to reptiles and mammals, must be looked after in a humane
way.
2.3.1 General on board care of livestock

The major concern in the carriage of livestock is the well being of the animals being carried.
Every effort should be made to ensure that they are well looked after, and travel in a good
environment.
They should be provided with food and clean water, be able to move and have adequate lighting.
They should have clean air and be protected from any source of danger, bad weather and
extreme conditions.
Livestock can be carried in containers, in cages or simply in pens on decks. The stowage
position must ensure that they can be accessed easily (if veterinary attention is required or to
remove any carcass) and protected from extremes of heat, cold, rain, wind and spray.
2.3.2 Marine Orders Part 43

In Australia, the regulations governing the carriage of livestock are stated in M.O Pt 43.
It applies to all ships on which it is intended to take livestock at any port in Australia and to
Australian ships whenever they are carrying livestock. It does not apply, however, to a vessel
that has loaded livestock at a port outside Australia, to be discharged in Australia.
Loading procedures
Before any livestock is loaded on board a vessel, a notice of intention to load livestock must be
given to the surveyor in charge. The surveyor will then check the vessel to see if it is suitable to
carry livestock.
At the end of loading (usually three hours before), the Master must advise the surveyor about
the completion time.
Livestock must not be loaded without the permission of a Government veterinary, and until all
certificates required by the Commonwealth Department of Primary Industries and Energy have
been issued.
Vessels which have permanent fittings erected for the carriage of livestock will have an
Australian Certificate of Livestock.
A Certificate of Approval would evidence any item of equipment that would have been
approved under Part 43.
2.3.3 Stability criteria for vessels carrying livestock

The stability criteria that applies to vessels carrying livestock is as follows:
1. The area under the righting lever curve must not be less than 3.15 metre-degrees (0.055
metre-radians) up to 30° angle of heel and not less than 5.16 metre-degrees (0.09 metre-
radians) up to 40° angle of heel, or the angle of flooding if this angle is less than 40°.
2.16
2. The area under the righting lever curve between the angles of heel of 30° and 40°, or
between 30° and the angle of flooding (θf) if this angle is less than 40°, must not be less
than 1.72 metre-degrees (0.03 metre-radians).
3. The righting lever must not be less than 0.20 metre at an angle of heel equal to or greater
than 30°.
4. The maximum righting lever must occur at an angle of heel not less than 25 degrees.
5. The initial metacentric height must not be less than 0.15 metre.
6. The area under the righting curve, up to 40° or the angle of flooding, whichever is less, in
excess of the area under the heeling lever curve to the same limiting angle, must not be
less than 1.03 metre degrees (0.018 metre-radians) plus 20 per cent of the area of the
righting lever curve to the same limiting angle.
7. The angle of heel due to wind must not be more than 10°.
8. In calculating the stability of the ship, the use of fuel oil, fresh water and fodder, the
movement of ballast and the build up of waste material must be taken into account.
2.3.4 Restrictions on the carriage of livestock

Livestock must not be carried if the livestock or any livestock fitting or equipment:
1. obstructs access to any accommodation space necessary for the safe running of the ship
2. interferes with LSA/FFA
3. interferes with the sounding of tanks and bilges
4. interferes with the operation of closing appliances
5. interferes with the operation of freeing ports
6. interferes with the lighting or ventilation of other parts of the ship
7. interferes with the proper navigation of the ship.
Ventilation
When livestock is carried in an enclosed space, there must be a mechanical way to change the
air in that space. A surveyor may test that system prior to loading. In some circumstances, a
mechanical ventilation system might not be necessary, especially if there is sufficient headroom
for air circulation.
The mechanical system must have a primary and a secondary source of power.
Lighting
There must be lighting providing a level of illumination of not less than 20 lux in all areas and
passageways where livestock is carried.
Drainage
Provisions must be made for effectively draining fluids from each pen in which livestock is
carried. Contaminated water must not be intentionally discharged from a ship while she is within
the limits of an Australian port.
Fire Fighting appliances

There must be fire hydrants so that at least two jets of water could be directed simultaneously to
any part of a space where livestock are located.
2.17
Fig 2.8 A typical live stock carrier
If hay or straw is carried, there must be either a portable water fire extinguisher for every 18m of
the space or a fixed fire fighting installation, which uses water.
UNIT 2.4 Requirements as per Marine Orders Part 32 with regard to

cargo handling equipment
Introduction
Cargo can be handled in various ways with various tools. These, commonly known as cargo
gear, are very important to smooth cargo operations. They accelerate the handling rate, and
reduce the risk of damage due to improper handling.
2.4.1 Importance of Marine Orders

These items of equipment must be well maintained at all times, and must be checked before use.
A common standard must exist so as to determine the suitability of the gear. This is the role of
Marine Orders Part 32.
Marine Orders Part 32 states all the checks, tests and examinations that are to be carried out. It
also states who is responsible for the maintenance and carrying out of the tests. The acceptable
standards are set out, together with any action required if any part of the equipment fails or
causes injury.
2.4.2 Outline of Marine Orders Part 32

In this outline, only some very important sections are reproduced and explained. This in no way
diminishes the importance of the other sections. Thus reading the relevant sections of the Orders
will complement the information given here.
Application
M.O Part 32 applies to and is in relation to:
• the loading or unloading of any ship at a port in Australia or in an external territory of
Australia
2.18
• the loading or unloading at any port of a ship to which Part II of the Navigation Act
applies, ie. an Australian registered ship, a ship engaged on the coasting trade or a ship
owned or operated by an Australian company with Australian crew
• the loading or unloading of an off shore industry mobile unit.
Definitions
Cargo gear means an article of equipment for use with a crane or derrick in loading or
unloading cargo that:
(a) is not riveted, welded or otherwise permanently attached to the crane or derrick or ; and
(b) is designed to be detachable from the crane or derrick
and includes any wire rope, fibre rope, sling, net, clamp, grab, loose gear, magnetic lifting
device, vacuum lifting device, patent handling system or self unloading system but does not
include transport equipment or packaging.
Materials handling equipment means an article or an integrated assembly of articles designed
to convey or for use in conveying cargo and includes cargo gear, a crane, derrick, cargo lift, side
loading platform, mechanical loading appliance and mechanical stowing appliance.
Proof load, in relation to materials handling equipment, means the proof load for that
equipment determined in accordance with this Part.
Safe working load means, in relation to an article of material handling equipment, the load that
a responsible person considers is the maximum load that may be imposed on that article in order
to allow an adequate margin of safety in the normal operation of that article.
Loading and Unloading

Loading and unloading must not be done on a ship unless it is in compliance with M.O Part 32.
Power operated hatch covers can only be operated by a crewmember or someone authorised by
the officer in charge of loading/unloading.
Ship’s side doors, bow doors or stern doors can only be operated by a crewmember or a person
who has been specifically authorised by the Master.
Safe working load
An article of M.H.E must not be used in loading /unloading a ship unless a responsible person,
having regard to the design, strength, material of construction and proposed use of the article,
has:
− determined the SWL of the article
− marked the SWL and associated information on the article, in accordance with this
Part.
An article of M.H.E must not be used to handle a load exceeding the SWL of that equipment
except in accordance with Appendix 6 of this Part.
Note: In calculating the load on derricks or cranes, the mass of any loose gear, spreader,
equalising beam and such like attachments is to be taken into account.
Testing, thorough examination, inspection and certification

A wire rope may only be used if:
• A responsible person has issued a certificate in respect of the rope in accordance with
Form MO 32/4 in Appendix 23.
• A competent person has inspected the rope, externally and, as far as practical, internally
and found that the rope is not worn, corroded or otherwise defective to a degree that
renders it unfit for the proposed use.
2.19
• The rope is free from knots and kinks.

• The rope complies with the structural requirements specified in Appendix 15.
• Evidence, based on prototype testing, that any terminal or end fitting on the rope complies
with Appendix 5 is recorded in the appropriate register of M.H.E.
A wire rope must not be used if the total number of broken wires visible in a length of the rope
equal to ten times its diameter exceeds 5% of the number of wires constituting the rope.
Register of M.H.E and certificates of test

There must be on board a register of the M.H.E for use on the ship. This register must contain
particulars of all tests, thorough examinations, inspections, heat treatment and any maintenance,
repair or replacement of M.H.E to which Part 32 applies.
All certificates of test and other relevant certificates must be kept with, or near at hand to, the
register of materials handling equipment.
Protective fencing
Loading/unloading must not be carried out unless there is in place protective fencing to prevent
any person from falling. These fences must be in accordance with Appendix 1 of Part 32.
This is particularly important if cargo is being loaded/unloaded in the lower hold, and people
working in the tween deck.
Lighting
Loading/unloading must not be carried out unless there is adequate lighting in place. An
illumination of at least 20-lux is considered adequate.
Safe atmosphere
Loading/unloading must not be carried out if a cargo space is liable to be contaminated by
harmful concentrations of dust or toxic gas, or in which there is liable to be an oxygen
deficiency.
Safe use of M.H.E
A load, other than, for example, a spreader or cargo lifting beam, must not be left suspended
from, or supported by, a derrick, or crane unless, during the time it is suspended or supported, a
qualified person is at the control position of the equipment.
Shackles and other similar devices must be effectively secured against accidental dislodgment or
release.
A load must not be dragged by means of a runner leading from a derrick or crane if there is a
risk that the SWL of any component of the derrick, crane or associated cargo gear would be
exceeded.
A person must not be hoisted or lowered in the course of cargo operations by means of a crane
or derrick other than in a personnel cradle.
Fire precautions
An internal combustion engine or an electric motor must not be used in a cargo space in
connection with loading/unloading unless there is provided in that space a fire extinguisher
suitable for extinguishing a fire in the engine or motor.
Requirements for derricks

A derrick for use in loading/unloading must be marked with:
• its SWL for each operating condition
• the lowest angle to the horizontal at which the derrick may safely be used.
2.20
The marking must be the letters SWL followed by numerals representing the SWL and letters
representing the unit used and, if there is more than one operating condition, then an oblique
stroke separating the units of mass for each condition.
Eg SWL x t or SWL x/y t
If the derrick is to be used in union purchase rig then the letters ‘SWL’ will be followed by the
letter ‘u’ in brackets and the numerals representing the SWL.
Eg SWL (u) x t or SWL (u) x/y t
Requirements for cargo gear

A wire rope must not be used in loading/unloading unless
• in the case of a rope for use other than as a guy pendant, a preventer guy, a guy, a stay or
a net or sling
• it contains at least 114 constituent wires
• any fibre materials in its construction is strand or rope core only
• in the case of a runner or purchase, it comprises one continuous length without joins
• any thimble or loop splice fitted to the rope complies with Appendix 22
• it is free from knots or kinks.
Signalling
To avoid confusion and accidents, signalling must only be done in accordance with Appendix
18 of Part 32.
Conclusion
Apart from Marine Orders Part 32, publications such as BSMA 48/76 and Code of Safe Practice
for Seamen also give guidance regarding the safe use of Materials Handling Equipment when
cargo work is involved. In Australia, AMSA has recently published the ‘Code of Safe Working
Practice for Australian Seafarers’. This is available free of charge from AMSA or can be
downloaded from AMSA’s website which is www.amsa.gov.au.
It should be borne in mind, though, that any cargo operations must be done in strict accordance
with Part 32, as it is a legal requirement to do so.
The cargo officer should familiarise him/herself with the contents of Part 32 so as to carry out
his/her duty in a diligent manner.
The following extract is from the ‘Code of Safe Working Practice for Australian Seafarers’.
20 WORKING ON DECK OR IN CARGO SPACES

20.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS
20.1.1 All statutory requirements, standards and codes relating to the equipment used should
be observed. However, when a ship is not subject to such requirements, these may
nevertheless serve as useful guidance.
20.1.2 Reference should also be made to the chapters concerning special types of ships,
where relevant.
20.1.3 All operations should be under the control of a responsible officer or supervisor who
should provide instruction and draw attention to any possible hazards associated with
the operation.
20.1.4 Work should be planned to take account of the prevailing weather conditions.
20.1.5 The planning process above must include risk assessment and control strategies.
2.21
20.1.6 When seafarers are to work on deck while a ship is at sea, a responsible person should
authorise such work.
20.2 CARGO OPERATIONS
20.2.1 The following section applies to seafarers only to the extent that they are permitted to
perform such cargo operations under applicable local regulations and/or practice.
20.2.2 This section outlines general considerations for cargo operations. For additional
information on cargo operations on specific types of ships, reference should be made
to chapter 24.
20.2.3 The requirements of Marine Orders, Part 32 must be complied with. The requirements
of the port where cargo operations take place should also be complied with and
should be made known to seafarers, as appropriate. The ship's garbage management
plan should also be consulted.
20.2.4 Only trained and experienced persons should operate cargo handling equipment.
Manufacturer's instructions regarding operation and maintenance as contained in the
ship's cargo handling manual should be followed at all times.
20.2.5 A responsible officer should inspect equipment prior to and after use. No equipment
should be used or operated unless the prescribed certificates of tests and examinations
are on the ship and are current and valid.
20.2.6 The officer with primary responsibility for cargo operations should check that all
safety features are in place and that any possible hazards are clearly marked and
otherwise dealt with to prevent injury to any persons who may be working on board
the vessel.
20.2.7 The master and ship's officers should ensure that the other crew members are aware
of any hazardous cargoes or operations. Appropriate protective equipment should be
provided to seafarers before commencement of cargo operations.
20.2.8 Prior to commencement of cargo operations, clear means and lines of communication
should be established between the ship's crew and terminal personnel or waterside
workers. This is particularly important in the case of hazardous cargoes or hazardous
operations. If hand signals are to be used, they must be in accordance with Appendix
18 of Marine Orders, Part 32 and their meaning must be clear in advance to all those
concerned in the operation.
20.2.9 All seafarers must take particular care to not exceed the safe working load of any
equipment. The master and officers should take particular care, especially in older
vessels, not to overstress any part of the ship's structure.
20.2.10 When work is interrupted or has temporarily ceased, hatches should be left in a safe
condition, with either guardrails or the hatch covers in position.
20.2.11 No other work should be carried out in a space in which cargo is being worked.
20.2.12 Seafarers should immediately report the damage of cargo handling equipment to a
responsible ship's officer. Damaged equipment should be immediately taken out of
service. Seafarers should never attempt to conceal damage to equipment from the
responsible ship's officer or from waterside workers and others who may use the
equipment.
20.2.13 When dangerous goods are carried, the guidance provided in chapter 7 should be
strictly followed.
20.2.14 Cargo gear should be properly stowed to prevent it from breaking loose and posing a
hazard when the vessel is at sea.
20.2.15 Cargo should be stowed and secured assuming the worst weather conditions that may
be expected.
2.22
20.2.16 When deck cargoes are carried, particularly timber, attention should be paid to
ensuring the ship's stability throughout the voyage, especially in consideration of the
possibility of added weight due to absorption of water or accumulation of ice or snow.
20.3 LIFTING GEAR

20.3.1 All lifting equipment used on board ship should be of good design, sound construction
and material, adequate strength for the purpose for which it is used, free from defect,
properly installed or assembled and properly maintained.
20.3.2 Lifting gear must be tested, examined and certificated in accordance with Marine
Orders, Part 32 .
20.3.3 Lifting gear must not be used unless clearly and legibly marked with its safe working
load, including the safe working load at various operating positions.
20.3.4 The register of a ship's Efting appliances and items of loose gear should be kept in an
accessible place on the ship. AB lifting gear and loose gear should be included in the
register.
20.3.5 All equipment should be thoroughly examined by a responsible officer before use and
regularly examined during use. The frequency of examination should depend on the
operation, e.g. derrick wires subjected to hard usage should be inspected several
tirnes a day.
20.3.6 Seafarers using cranes, derricks or special lifting gear should preferably be trained
and certified for the particular equipment; if this is not possible, they should be
thoroughly instructed by a competent ship's officer prior to any cargo operations.
20.3.7 Loads being lowered or hoisted should not pass or remain over any person engaged in
loading or unloading or performing any other work in the vicinity.
20.3.8 Cargo handling equipment should always be manned when controls are in the "on"
position. When not in operation it should be turned "off' and safety locks or devices
should be put in place.
20.3.9 Persons operating equipment should have a clear view. If this is not possible, a
signaller should be placed at a point clearly visible to the equipment operator and
from the area of work.
20.4 USE OF SLINGS
20.4.1 Straps and slings should be of sufficient size and length to enable them to be used
safely and be applied and pulled sufficiently tight to prevent the load or any part of the
load from slipping and falling.
20.4.2 Before heavy loads such as lengths of steel sections, tubes and lumber are swung, the
load should be given a trial Eft to test the effectiveness of the slinging.
20.4.3 Except for the purpose of breaking out or making up slings, lifting hooks should not be
attached to:
(a) the bands, straps or other fastenings of packages of cargo;
(b) the rims of barrels or drums
20.4.4 Slings or chains being returned to the loading position should be securely hooked on
the cargo hook before the signaller gives the signal to hoist. Hooks or claws should be
attached to the egg link or shackle of the cargo hook, not allowed to hang loose. The
cargo hook should be kept high enough to keep slings or chains clear of persons and
obstructions.
20.4.5 Loads (setts) should be properly put together and properly slung before they are
hoisted or lowered.
2.23
20.4.6 Loads should be raised and lowered smoothly, avoiding sudden jerks or "snatching"
loads.
20.4.7 Suitable precautions, such as the use of packing or chafing pieces, should be taken to
prevent chains, wire and fibre ropes from being damaged by the sharp edges of loads.
20.4.8 When slings are used with barrel hooks or similar holding devices where the weight of
the load holds the hooks in place, the sling should be led down through the egg or eye
link and through the eye of each hook in turn so that the horizontal part of the sling
draws the hooks together.
20.4.9 The angle between the legs of slings should not normally exceed 90 degrees. Where
this is not reasonably practicable, the angle may be exceeded up to 120 degrees
provided that the slings have been designed to work at the greater angles.
20.4.10 Trays and pallets should be hoisted with four-legged slings and, where necessary, nets
or other means should be used to prevent any part of the load falling. Cages should be
used wherever possible for loose items.
20.4.11 When bundles of long metal goods such as tubes, pipes and rails are being hoisted,
two slings should be used and, where necessary, a spreader. A suitable lanyard should
also be attached, where necessary.
20.4.12 Cargo buckets, tubs and similar appliances should be carefully loaded so that there is
no risk of the contents falling out. They should be securely attached to the hoist (for
example, by a shackle) to prevent tipping and displacement during hoisting and
lowering.
20.4.13 Shackles should be used for slinging thick sheet metal if there are suitable holes in the
material; otherwise, suitable clamps on an endless sling should be used.
20.4.14 Bricks and other loose goods of similar shape, carboys, small drums, canisters etc.,
should be loaded or discharged in suitable boxes or pallets with sufficiently high
sides, lifted by four-legged slings.
20.5 PULLEY BLOCKS

20.5.1 All blocks should be inspected before use and no block should be used unless it has
identification marks and its safe working load marked on it in tonnes.
20.5.2 When a block is inspected it should be ascertained that no sheave is cracked, that it
turns freely and the groove is not excessively worn, that the head swivel fitting is
securely fastened and the block shank freely turns, that the site straps are sound and
that all sheave clearances are satisfactory.
20.5.3 All grease nipples and/or lubrication holes should be kept clear and each block should
be regularly greased.
20.6 HOOKS
20.6.1 Every hook should be provided with an efficient device to prevent displacement of the
sling or load or be of such construction as to prevent displacement.
20.6.2 No hook should be used unless its safe working load is clearly marked.
20.7 SHACKLES
20.7.1 No shackle should be used unless its safe working load is clearly marked.
20.7.2 A shackle should be of the correct type, size and safe working load for its intended use.
20.7.3 All shackles should have their pins effectively secured or seized with wire.
20.7.4 The running part of any rigging should not come into contact with the pin of a
shackle.
2.24
20.7.5 AB shackle pins should be kept lubricated.

20.8 WORKING ON DECK WHILE SHIP IS AT SEA
20.8.1 The responsible officer should ensure that seafarers working on deck are properly
instructed in the tasks that they are required to perform.
20.8.2 Seafarers should be prohibited at all times from sitting upon the vessel's bulwark or
rail.
20.8.3 Bridge watchkeeping officers should be informed of all work being performed on deck
or in deck spaces.
20.9 HEAVY WEATHER

20.9.1 If heavy weather is expected, lifelines should be rigged in appropriate locations on
deck.
20.9.2 Attention should be given to the dangers of allowing any person out on deck during
heavy weather.
20.9.3 No seafarers should be on deck during heavy weather unless it is absolutely necessary
for the safety of the ship or crew.
20.9.4 The lashings of all deck cargo should be inspected and tightened, as necessary, when
heavy weather is expected. Work on deck during heavy weather should be authorised
by the master and the bridge watch should be informed.
20.9.5 Any person required to go on deck during heavy weather should wear a life-jacket and
be equipped with a portable transceiver. If possible, the person should remain in
communication with a back-up person and be visible at all times.
20.9.6 Seafarers on deck should wear reflective clothing.
20.9.7 Seafarers should work in pairs or in teams. All seafarers should be under the
command of an experienced senior officer.
20.10 WORKING IN HATCHES AND HOLDS

20.10.1 Reference should be made to chapters 8, 9 and 10.
20.10.2 Before any work in any hatches or holds where the atmosphere may contain toxic or
flammable gases or be deficient in oxygen, the enclosed space procedures outlined in
chapter 10 should be observed.
20.10.3 If work is to be performed on or near a tall stack of cargo, an officer should ensure
that it is safe to do so. Fall protection measures should be implemented where there is
a risk of falling and being injured.
20.10.4 When possible, loosely stowed dunnage should not be walked upon. If this is
unavoidable, care should be taken not to walk on any protruding nails.
20.10.5 Work should not be carried out in holds where cargo operations are taking place.
(The above material was reproduced by courtesy of AMSA.)
2.25

The answers to these questions can be found on the green pages at the end of this book.
1. What is the main danger associated with the carriage of timber deck cargo? How does it
adversely affect the safety of the vessel?
2. List 12 precautions you would take when engaged in the loading, stowing and carriage of
timber deck cargo.
3. What legislation(s) govern(s) the carriage of grain?
4. How would you secure grain in a full compartment?
5. List 7 factors that could restrict the carriage of livestock.
6. When can you exceed the SWL of an item of equipment?
7. What markings would you expect on a derrick whose SWL is 3 tonnes in Union purchase
and 5 tonnes as a swinging derrick?
8. Timber deck cargo: in your own words, please fill in the blank spaces, then check your
answers from the extract of the code in Appendix 4 in the Resource Book.
(a) Openings to be closed and battened down
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
(b) Steering arrangements not obstructed

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
(c) Cargo compactly stowed and level surface

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
(d) Crew’s access to be safe

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
(e) Strong uprights

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
(f) Lashing to be in accordance to regulations
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2.26
(g) Quick cargo release mechanism

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
(h) Lashing to be regularly inspected

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
(i) Vessels to comply with stability criteria

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
(j) Water absorption causes excessive stress on lashings

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2.27
TOPIC 3
Safe Handling, Stowage and

Securing of Cargo
SECTION 3
MAR041 CARGO OPERATIONS MC3 LEARNER’S GUIDE TOPIC 3
TOPIC 3 Safe Handling, Stowage and Securing

of Cargo
Syllabus
Learning Outcome 3
On completion of this topic you should be able to safely handle, stow and secure different
cargoes.
Assessment Criteria
3.1 The hold and tank preparation procedures for the reception of various cargoes are
explained.
3.2 The methods of de-odorising and fumigating holds are outlined.
3.3 Methods of handling and stowage of cargo using machinery are outlined.
3.4 The importance of securing the cargo is discussed.
3.5 The function and types of dunnage used in stowing and securing cargo are outlined.
3.6 Recommended procedures of securing a range of cargoes are outlined.
3.7 Calculations involving weights, capacities, stowage factors and load densities are
performed.
3.1
TOPIC 3, SECTION 3 − SAFE HANDLING, STOWAGE AND SECURING OF CARGO
3.2
SECTION 3 Safe Handling, Stowage and

Securing of Cargo
UNIT 3.1 Hold and tank preparation procedures for the reception of
various cargoes
This topic has been dealt with in the first Section. Basically, the preparations involved will be
such that they will:
1. Prevent damage to the cargo through contamination, water absorption, sweat,
movement and fire.
2. Prevent damage to the ship due to movement of the cargo, reaction with the cargo,
spillage and pollution.
3. Prevent damage to the environment in the way of pollution, oil, dust or ballast/bilge
water.
UNIT 3.2 The methods of de-odorising and fumigating holds

Introduction
When preparing a cargo compartment for loading, sometimes it might be necessary to de-
odorise or fumigate it. Though the two processes are often associated with each other, they have
different purposes.
De-odorising is necessary when residues of previous cargoes could taint sensitive cargo such as
fruits. It is the removal of odour, which could affect the new cargo.
Fumigation is carried out when vermin are believed to exist and present a danger to the cargo
and vessel. It is associated with moths, bugs or even rats that live on some type of commonly
carried cargo.
3.2.1 Reasons for fumigating

Three main reasons why fumigation may be necessary are:
• to destroy residual infestation from previous cargoes
• to fumigate a particular cargo, eg malt, maize
• to comply with quarantine requirements.
3.2.2 Fumigation
Some cargoes tend to introduce vermin on board. Bales, wood, animal skins and grain are good
examples of excellent breeding ground for vermin. These insects might be present in the
compartment even a long time after a particular cargo was carried by the vessel. The bugs will
proliferate and attack the cargo in the compartment. They will also spread diseases.
Rats are carriers of many types of virulent diseases. Also, they feed on any edible goods being
carried.
In the interest of health as well as the preservation of cargo from rat damage, fumigation is at
times essential.
3.3
3.2.3 Two ways of fumigating a compartment

There are two main ways of fumigating a compartment. Specialist companies which are fully
versed in the safety procedures for such an operation, would normally carry out the fumigation
process. There are, however, certain fumigants which are safe for use by inexperienced
operators.
Use of fumigants
This process is carried out by qualified operators (not ship’s personnel). It is used wherever
contact insecticides cannot be used in an efficient way.
Methyl Bromide is a commonly used fumigant in container fumigation. The container should
have warning labels and be fenced off from all unauthorized approach.
Phosphene may be introduced in the form of pellets which emit a gas when in contact with air.
The residue of the pellets must be removed before cargo-handling personnel are permitted to
enter.
Both Methyl Bromide and Phosphene are dangerous gases and as such, every effort should be
made to warn personnel.
The dangers of Methyl Bromide are outlined in Marine Notice 12/1972 which is to be found in
Appendix 5 of the Resource book. Reference is made to the AQIS manual on Quarantine
Treatments, Aspects and Procedures regarding fumigation guidelines – a small extract from that
manual is included below.
PART A – GENERAL INFORMATION ON ALL QUARANTINE TREATMENTS
1. The structure and use of this manual
This document provides the standards, and guidance on those standards, for treatment
providers wishing to meet Australian quarantine requirements.
The document has a modular format. Treatment providers will only need the 'parts' of the
manual relevant to the treatment(s) they are performing. For example a fumigation
provider performing methyl bromide fumigation will only need parts A, B and the
relevant appendices.
Part A of the booklet is relevant and refers to all AQIS quarantine treatments. It contains
general information on quarantine treatments and the responsibilities of all parties
involved in those treatments.
Each of the subsequent parts are specific to individual AQIS acceptable treatments. For
example, Part B is only relevant to methyl bromide fumigation. The information relating
to these treatments is detailed. It will provide background to the standards and AQIS
requirements. These parts of the manual contain within them the AOIS standards for
specific treatments.
AQIS intends to add further treatments as they are established.
The following flow chart outlines the structure of the AQIS Quarantine Treatments -
Aspects and Procedures. For example, methyl bromide fumigators would only need Part
A, its direct appendices, and all of Part B, and its appendices (ie. all the shaded boxes):
3.4
Use of Contact Insecticides

This process usually involves ship’s personnel and can be carried out in two ways.
• Contact insecticides can come in the form of smoke which is discharged into the air as
fine particles. It is not effective where there are holes and hard to access places. It is
usually done in holds prior to loading of grain.
• Contact insecticides can be sprayed on particular surfaces. The spray is more effective
than the smoke in places where there are holes and cavities since the operator can aim at
these holes. It is more time consuming and will require more labour to cover a large
surface area.
NOTE: Refer to Appendix 5 in the Resource Book for Marine notices on fumigation.
3.2.4 Precautions to be taken when fumigating

• Wear protective clothing, gloves, respirators and eye protection gear.
• Do not remove clothes, gloves etc. while applying insecticides, even under hot weather
conditions.
• Avoid excessive application and run-off on surfaces.
• Avoid contamination of foodstuffs.
• In the event of contact, wash with plenty of water and seek medical advice.
• Full agreement between ship and shore staff must be reached.
• Correct stowage, appropriate ventilation, proper notices and labels must be in place.
• Restrict access to unauthorized persons.
• Smoking may be dangerous in some sprayed atmospheres as some fumigants decompose
when heated.
3.5
After fumigation
• Post warnings at all entrances.
• Ascertain that there is no leakage.
• Check that E/R, living quarters and working spaces are free of harmful gas.
• Check that adjacent spaces are gas-free.
• Cargo spaces that are sealed for fumigation must never be entered.
• Prior to entering the space, monitor the gas content of the space using a gas detector first.
• When space is found to be safe, all warning signs must be removed.
• If white pellets are seen with some cargo, they should not be approached until the risk has
been ascertained.
• If there is any doubt about the compartment, it should be entered by people using
breathing apparatus.
3.2.5 De-odorising
In the case of de-odorising, normally the cargo compartment and any adjacent space such as
bilges or trunk, must be cleaned thoroughly. If possible, they should be washed with fresh water
and detergent.
When dry, a de-odorising agent is lightly sprayed in the areas of strong smell. Areas in and
around the bilges are notorious for having unhealthy odours. Removing the taint reduces the risk
of having mould growing on the bulkheads and frames etc.
Sometimes new dunnage may have a strong smell, and there is a need to combat that. Clean,
used dunnage is sometimes specified to avoid this problem. The de-odorising agent must be
applied only as a fine spray.
UNIT 3.3 Methods of handling & stowage of cargo using machinery

Introduction
As stated previously, cargo has to be handled, stowed and carried properly. This entails using
the proper equipment.
In order to carry out this task successfully, different types of equipment are used to handle
different types of cargo. The main reasons for doing so are:
• The cargo is not damaged.
• Cargo operations take less time.
• Less labour is used, thus it is more economical for the shipper.
• Standard procedures are adopted in various parts of the world.
3.3.1 Handling of bulk liquid

Bulk liquid will invariably be handled by hoses with pumprooms located on deck. Manifolds
and crossover valves will be used to direct the cargo to the desired compartment.
In some cases, some part of the circuit might be dedicated to only one type of cargo so as to
avoid contamination.
3.6
3.3.2 Handling of bulk cargo

Bulk cargoes will be loaded/handled by grabs, chutes or conveyor belt. This will depend on the
port facilities, the type of bulk cargo and the vessels cargo handling gear. The diagrams below
show the various methods by which bulk cargo can be handled.
Fig. 3.1 A bulk loading terminal
Fig 3.2 A self unloader and its housed overside conveyor and main hold
CHECKLIST – Procedure for planning the loading

(From ‘Bulk Carrier Practice’ – Isbester – reproduced with permission from the
Nautical Institute, London, UK.)
Find maximum the ship can carry when fully laden

• Deadweight cargo or volume cargo?
• Decide values of other weights which must be carried. Keep the total weight of bunkers,
ballast, bilge water, stores and miscellaneous weights as low as possible
3.7
Identify any limiting stage in the voyage

• List maximum permitted draft for each stage in voyage.
• Select point where lightest draft is required (the limiting point).
• Calculate back and calculate forward from limiting point to ensure no other limits are met.
• Calculate maximum cargo which can be carried at limiting point.
Devise loading distribution
• Decide how many holds are to be loaded.
• Share the total cargo between the holds.
• Place fuel, fresh water and other weights in the positions intended for departure from the
loading port.
• Calculate the ship's draft and trim on departure and ensure that they are acceptable.
• Calculate the ship's stability characteristics on departure and ensure that they are
acceptable.
• Calculate the shear forces and bending moments on departure and ensure that they are not
excessive.
• Check that the tonnage allotted to each hold is not greater than the classification society
permits.
• Check that the hold tanktop loadings are not excessive.
• If the ship is to be block loaded ensure that the loadings for individual holds remain
within the special block loading limits set by the classification society and request limits
if none has been provided.
• Work through the voyage and the proposed discharge, repeating the cheeks upon draft,
trim, stability and longitudinal stress for every stage.
• If any results are unacceptable move cargo or other weights and recalculate. Check the
results for errors.
Prepare loading 1 deballasting and discharging 1 ballasting plans
• For the plan use a suitable form, such as The Nautical Institute's Cargo Operations
Control Form. Take note of the features of the berth, including least depth of water, least
airdraft, number of loaders, distance loaders can travel.
• Plan for two or more pours into each hold.
• Commence loading amidships/aft to maintain a stern trim.
• Load alternatively aft, then forward, then aft, etc.
• Load the end holds midway through the loading.
• Discharge ballast from holds, then double bottoms, then topside tanks, and finally peak tanks.
• Discharge ballast from part of ship where cargo is being loaded.
• For each stage of the loading, match the time required for loading with the time required
for deballasting.
• Plan to complete deballasting well before completion of loading.
• Observe any Class rules for loading/discharging.
• Throughout loading keep ship in condition to put to sea in emergency, if required.
• Plan suitable trimming pours.
• Plan the discharge in the same manner and with the same objectives as the loading.
• Ensure that the ship complies with requirements for stability and for longitudinal stress at
every stage throughout the loading and discharge.
3.8
• Inform owners/charterers as soon as possible if calculations show that the proposed cargo
cannot be loaded, carried and discharged with safety.
Fig 3.3 Bucket wheel unloader system for large bulk vessels.
Fig 3.4 The general arrangement of a self unloading system
3.9
M.V. Warden Point/Kavaerner system – Cementco Shipping

Fig. 3.5
3.10
Fig 3.6 Unloading bulk using grabs and front loaders
3.3.3 Handling of containers

The handling of containers nowadays is done in a very fast and efficient way. Large ports will
have dedicated container terminals with gantries and container stackers, while small ports might
use the ship’s cranes and container spreader to handle the boxes.
It must be borne in mind that the handling of containers requires some expertise from the ship
officer. A vessel with a certain amount of list might not be able to load any containers if loading
is being done by ship or shore gantry. Planning the location of each container is critical.
Often,container stowage plan drawn up by shore terminal and difficult to fully check.
3.11
Fig 3.7 A container terminal
Fig 3.8 Containers being handled by the ship’s gear
3.12
Fig 3.9 Handling of containers ashore using a straddle carrier
Fig 3.10 Krupp double-joint deck cranes
3.13
3.3.4 Handling of cargo on RO-RO ships

RO-RO vessels are normally gear less; ie they do not have cargo-handling gear. Instead the
cargo is driven on and off the vessel through big openings such as ramps or through hatch
openings.
S.S. Lurline loading at Los Angles. Matson Navigation Co.
Unloading at Honolulu, Matson Navigation Co.
Fig 3.11 The options available for handling cargo on a RO-RO vehicle
3.14
Section view of loading system of converted SL-7’s.
Fig 3.12 Discharging cargo from a RO-RO vessel
Manoeuvring a loaded truck into position on CCT’s newest

trailership, the M.V. Diplomat. Ottowa Truck Division.
Fig 3.13 Manoeuvring a load in the cargo compartment on a RO-RO ship
3.15
3.3.5 Handling of heavy lifts

Loading of heavy lifts is done by means of Stulcken or Velle derricks. Heavy lift carriers or
general cargo ships equipped with heavy lifts gear normally handle this type of cargo.
M.S. “AMRA” 10,024 G.T. at the Royal Albert Dock London, loading six 44 tonne lighters
24 × 5.8 m (75’ × 18’) for the port of Mogadiscio in Somali with her 300 tonne
Stulcken heavy lift derrick.
Fig 3.14 A Stulcken derrick lifting a 200 tonnes load
When working heavy lift cargoes, special ballasting arrangements need to be put in place to
maximise stability. Also adequate dunnage needs to be laid to spread the weight of the heavy
lift cargo.
UNIT 3.4 Importance of cargo securing

Introduction
Locus Classicus… ‘was not seaworthy at the beginning of the voyage, and that if the
seaworthiness was solely due to the manner the cargo was lashed, with the result that it was able
to shift substantially, it had to follow that the failure to lash the cargo properly was a failure to
exercise due diligence to make the ship seaworthy….’ Admiralty Court ruling. (Thomas’
Stowage pp2).
The importance of securing any cargo loaded on board cannot be underestimated, as this could
render the ship unseaworthy as per the Hague Visby rules, or put the vessel itself into danger.
Inadequate lashing of cargo on RO-RO vessels has frequently been the cause of cargo shifting,
and the vessel taking a list.
General rule for securing

As a general rule, once cargo is stowed in position, lashing and securing and tomming must be
carried out to prevent the slightest movement of the load. All lashings must be set up tight;
wooden tomming must be secured in such a way that it cannot be dislodged by ship vibration,
working and movement. As a rule of thumb, a total lashing on one side of a load should have a
combined breaking strain of at least 1.5 times the total weight of the load to be restrained.
Tomming and chocking is extra to this.
3.16
Main aims of securing

The main aim in securing cargo is to prevent its loss or damage, and/or damage to the ship or
other cargo. Furthermore, loss of vessel and/or lives can result if the lashing is inadequate.
Exercising a lack of diligence when securing the cargo renders the vessel unseaworthy, thus
constituting a breach of contract between the shipper and shipowner.
To increase the seafarer’s awareness on the importance of lashing, IMO has published a booklet
entitled Guidelines for the Preparation of the Cargo Securing Manual. Also published is the
Code of Safe Practice for Cargo Stowage and Securing. In addition to the above publications, in
Australia, Marine Orders Part 42 lays down the legislation governing the Securing of Cargo on
board. As from January 1998, all vessels must have a Cargo Securing Manual made specifically
for that vessel. The Cargo Securing Manual is made following recommendations from the Code
of Safe Practice for Cargo Stowage and Securing and the Guidelines for the Preparation of the
Cargo Securing Manual.
The Cargo Securing Manual will contain details of the securing arrangements available together
with the equipment, the amount and location of such and the test that they have been subject to.
3.4.1 Securing of general cargo
Introduction
The securing of general cargo is very particular, as there is no one single method; each load has
to be considered on its own. The vessel’s movement in a seaway must be understood and these
external forces counteracted with the means of lashing. The physical characteristics of the cargo
will affect the way it is secured.
Securing of palletised cargo

Cargo on pallets can be secured in many ways; such as by strapping, with nets, glue or
shrinkwrap. However, the pallets must be secured once loaded. Pallets are conducive to block
stow.
Securing of steel products

Steel plates and bars which are highly liable to shift can be very difficult at times depending on
their stowage positions. They must as far as possible be levelled and overstowed with other
cargoes. Sometimes it might be better to stow them in bins, formed by the bulkheads ship’s
sides and shifting boards. Planking, toms and shores should be properly secured.
Depending on the layout of the hold, securing can be optimised by use of block stowage.
In some steel trades, bolsters – half-height containers are used for transporting some steel
products, making securing and stowing easier. The stow inside the bolster must be checked,
however, to ensure that no movement of product is possible. It has been known for the lower
layer of bolsters to be welded to the ship's tank to prevent movement. When stowing slabs and
plate, aim for a solid block stow to avoid toppling of individual stacks.
3.17
Fig 3.15 Securing of steel plates using the ship’s side to advantage
Securing of coils
Coils are to be stowed athwartships in regular tiers with the major axes in the fore and aft line.
The bottom tier is to be choked off. Particular attention must be given to cargo in the forward
compartment of a ship where effects of heavy pitching are more pronounced. Individual coils in
the top tier of the stow are normally secured by driving wedges between the adjacent coils on
either side and fore and aft.
Overstowing a coil cargo with wire rods, bales or other cargo is an option. In some cases, a floor
of dunnage might be necessary.
Fig 3.16 Recommended securing arrangements for steel coils
Securing of logs and timber

Logs stowed fore and aft are normally bundled with wire ropes while pipes when stowed in
holds are normally secured with wire rope and wooden chocks while lying on a cradle base.
The securing of timber deck cargo is done according to the Code (see Section 2) and with the
use of quick release mechanism.
3.18
3.4.2 Securing of cargo on RO-RO vessels

The securing of cargo on board RO-RO ships must be in accordance with an approved system.
Securing points and appropriate trestles etc, should be used to by-pass the springing system of
vehicles.
When selecting the lashing equipment to secure cargo on RO-RO vessels the following factors
are considered:
• ship’s characteristics and motion in a seaway
• size, weight and centre of gravity of cargo
• type of surface
• position of the cargo load and its supports (wheels, jacks etc.)
• number, position and angle of lashing points.
Normally the lashing material will comprise chains, wires and fibre ropes with levers used for
tensioning. Turnbuckles are also a major part of the equipment. The diagram below shows the
securing arrangement of a trailer.
The towing vehicle’s brake should be applied and locked, lashing then connected to
specially fitted lugs on vehicle.
Fig 3.17 Securing arrangement for a trailer on a RO-RO ship
Sometimes chokes and jacks are used in addition to the above.

Securing of trailers should encompass the securing of the load on the trailer and the securing of
both trailer and load together.
Wheel based cargoes must be provided with adequate and clearly marked securing points. The
brakes of such loads must be set prior to securing. The wheels must be blocked to prevent
shifting.
Securing of vehicles must be in accordance with an approved system, making full use of trestles,
pedestals, deck securing points etc.
Securing of containers on RO-RO ships must be done with the use of locating cones and
securing pins.
Inspection of securing the cargo on the trailer is necessary before acceptance of load.
3.19
Fig 3.18 Recommended method for securing a vehicle on a RO-RO ship
3.4.3 Securing of containers
Introduction
The securing of containers, though it is often done by shore labour, remains the sole
responsibility of the vessel and its crew. It is important that all rod and wire lashings are
sufficiently tight but not too tight to strain fittings, containers etc. It should be clearly
ascertained and understood which way twist handles are put for the locking position.
Containers stacked one above the other without the benefit of cell guides must be secured one to
the other with twist locks and/or a combination of locating cones, bridging pieces, lashing rods,
wires and shores to prevent any form of shifting. The use of wire, rod or chain lashings could
also be considered. It is also important that only the corner castings are used to secure the
container. Deck securing points must be used to advantage. These must never be overloaded.
The equipment used must be able to counteract the effect of container jumping, sliding, toppling
and racking.
3.20
Rigid rods and/or wires are used to counteract jumping, racking and toppling. Bridge fittings
counteract jumping and sliding.
The following are recommended in securing containers:

• All containers should be effectively secured in such a way as to protect them from sliding
and tipping. Hatch covers carrying containers should be adequately secured to the ship.
• Containers should be secured using one of the three methods recommended in Figure 3.18
or methods equivalent thereto.
• Lashings should preferably consist of wire ropes or chains or material with equivalent
strength and elongation characteristics.
• Timber shoring should not exceed 2 m in length.
• Wire clips should be adequately greased, and tightened so that the dead end of the wire is
visibly compressed.
• Lashings should be kept, when possible, under equal tension.
Fig 3.19 Various container securing options
3.4.4 Securing of heavy loads

These heavy loads which would normally be stowed fore and aft must be secured against sliding
and tipping. The lashing angles against tipping and sliding must not exceed the optimum as
stated in the Code.
This is shown in Figure 3.19.
Heavy items projecting over the ship’s side must be additionally secured by lashings acting in
longitudinal and vertical directions.
If a heavy item does not have suitable securing point eg cylinder, then a lashing passing around
the item is the preferred option.
3.21
Fig 3.20 Securing heavy items
Fig 3.21 Securing a heavy cylinder
Heavy items on deck, prone to action from heavy seas, must have additional lashings to
withstand such impact. The effect of water lifting the cargo must not be ignored.
3.4.5 Marine Orders Part 42- Cargo Stowage and Securing

In Australia, M.O Pt 42 deals with cargo stowage and securing. It aims at timber deck cargo, any
large item that will project over the ship’s side, items heavier than 100 tonnes and containers
stacked more than one high if the vessel is not designed to so.
Other topics covered by the Orders are:
3.22
• notices that are required to be given when intending to load

• responsibilities regarding the stowage and securing
• cargo Securing Manual
• safety on deck
• navigation bridge visibility.
UNIT 3.5 Dunnage − its types and functions

3.5.1 Types of dunnage
Two types of dunnage are encountered on board ships: permanent dunnage and temporary
dunnage.
Permanent dunnage is the type that comes with the ship, such as spar ceiling and gratings found
in vessels with small reefer chambers.
Temporary dunnage is the type that is normally removed after discharge and kept for further
use. It is the type that needs replacement quite often.
Permanent dunnage
Permanent dunnage is that which comes with the ship and is not changed regularly. An example
is steel corrugated dunnage that is used in reefer compartments.
Spar ceiling is another type of permanent dunnage attached to the ship’s sides by means of
bracket cleats. They protect the cargo from coming in contact with the ship’s side where
condensation can occur. The gap between the spar ceiling and the hull also allows for air
circulation.
Reefer containers usually have extruded aluminium ‘T’ section floors built in. This allows for
better air circulation and is a permanent fixture of the container.
Temporary dunnage
Temporary dunnage is that which needs replacing regularly. It comprises hardboard, paper,
sawdust, dunnage bags, wood or polystyrene laths, boards or coir. The different types suit
different cargoes and require changing once wet, stained, punctured or oily.
Temporary dunnage is very often made of wood and care should be taken to ensure that there
are no splinters in the dunnage. In no case should a wet, oily, stained or smelly dunnage be used.
Even new timber has the disadvantage of carrying a strong smell with the risk of staining the
cargo in the compartment.
Dunnage laid on the tank top normally consists of a double layer, the bottom layer running
athwartships to allow drainage to the bilges.
3.5.2 Functions of dunnage

Laying dunnage is not a haphazard function. Dunnage has the purpose of assisting in the solidity
of stow and also preventing undue damage to cargo in the proximity.
In terms of materials which can be used for dunnaging it must be such as will provide protection
to and from any or all of the following factors: crushing of cargo, dampness, contact with
ironwork and lack of ventilation systems.
Dunnage may serve the following purposes according to the cargo carried:
1. To protect it from contact with water from the bilges, leakage from other cargo, from the
ship’s side or from the double bottom tanks.
3.23
2. To protect it from moisture or sweat which condenses on the ship’s sides, frames,
bulkheads, etc., and runs down into the bilges.
3. To protect it from contact with condensed moisture, which is collected and retained on
side stringers, bulkhead brackets etc.
4. To provide air courses for the heated moisture laden air to travel to the sides and
bulkheads along which it ascends towards the uptakes, etc.
5. To prevent chafe as well as to chock off and secure cargo by filling in broken stowage, ie
spaces which cannot be filled with cargo.
6. To evenly spread out the compression load of deep stowages.
7. To provide working levels and protection for the cargo on which labour can operate and
serve as a form of separation.
8. To provide access for cooled air round or through the cargo for temperature controlled
requirements.
9. To create better friction between the cargo and the ship’s floors, thus reducing the risks of
moving.

1. Why is fumigation important?
2. What would you do if, on opening a container, you saw a large number of dead insects on
the floor of that container?
3. State how you would find out about the cargo securing practices on a vessel you have just
joined.
4. State how you would secure a laden container that is loaded on the top of a hatch cover
which does not have container fittings. Assume that the weight of the container does not
exceed the deck stress and that you only have wire ropes as lashing material.
5. Give seven reasons why you might use dunnage on board.
3.24
TOPIC 4
Safe Carriage of IMO Dangerous Cargo
SECTION 4
TOPIC 4 Safe Carriage Of IMO Dangerous

Cargo
Syllabus
Learning Outcome 4
On completion of this topic you should be able to safely handle, stow and carry dangerous
cargoes.
Assessment Criteria
4.1 Terminology used in the carriage of dangerous goods is defined.
4.2 The classification and markings of dangerous goods are explained.
4.3 The precautions that should be taken during the loading, carriage and discharge of
dangerous goods are stated.
4.4 The content of IMDG code and its supplement is outlined.
4.5 The requirements stated in the Marine Orders with regard to the following are outlined:
− safety precautions and proceedings during cargo operations
− notices that should be forwarded to the authorities
− proposed loading plan and final stowage plan
− surveys carried out on board
4.1
TOPIC 4, SECTION 4 − SAFE CARRIAGE OF IMO DANGEROUS CARGO
4.2
SECTION 4 Safe Carriage of IMO Dangerous

Cargo
UNIT 4.1 Safely handle, stow and carry dangerous cargoes
Introduction
Every cargo is special to its shipper or carrier; however, there is no cargo, which is more special
than Dangerous Cargo. But what exactly is a Dangerous Cargo? Why is it so important and
what are the regulations set in place to facilitate its handling, stowage and carriage?
The term ‘dangerous cargo’ means any substance which, because of its inherent properties, can
be harmful to any person, animal or the environment. Some materials may also be affected if
they are exposed to different types of dangerous goods.
What makes dangerous goods special are the risks that are involved in their handling, stowing
and carrying. The risks involved are very high, numerous, and varied.
For this reason, strict rules have been set up and ship personnel must abide by them. Rules
governing the packing, handling, stowage and carrying of Dangerous Goods are laid down by
IMO in the publication International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code more commonly known
as the IMDG Code.
The classification, packaging and stowage of Dangerous Goods must be in accordance with any
legislation which may be enforced in (a) the country of origin; (b) the country of destination; (c)
any country which it has entered; (d) the flag state of the carrier.
Regulation pertaining to the carriage of dangerous goods applies to all ships but does not apply
to ships’ stores and equipment.
UNIT 4.2 Terminology used in the carriage of dangerous goods

Introduction
To be conversant with the carriage of dangerous goods, one must understand fully some of the
most common terms used in the field. These are explained below.
IMDG Code
The current edition of the IMDG Code is the 2000 edition, which incorporates amendment 30-
00. It is now in 2 x A4 paperback volumes, replacing the old four-volume loose-leaf editions.
The new reformatted code came into force on 1 January 2001, with a 12-month implementation
phase. The IMDG Code supplement has also been produced and includes a revised Medical
First Aid Guide and the new mandatory INF (Nuclear Fuels) Code.
Attention is drawn to Marine Notice 12/2001, reproduced below, regarding inaccuracies in this
new IMDG Code and the warning to use it carefully until further amendments are made.
MARINE NOTICE: 1/2001
IMDG CODE 2000 EDITION - INACCURACIES
Marine Notice 12/2000 advised that the International Maritime Organization's (IMO)
International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code 2000 Edition (Amendment 30-00) would
enter into force internationally on 1 January 2001 with a twelve month implementation
period ending on the 31 December 2001.
4.3
IMO, through MSC circular 987, has now advised the new Code contains a number of
inaccuracies. Editorial inaccuracies have been published by IMO in two corrigenda.
The two corrigenda were issued with the second printing of the new Code with the first
corrigenda being incorporated in the printing. Users of the first printing may therefore
need to obtain copies of the more recent corrigendum.
As far as inaccuracies of substance are concerned, these are submitted to IMO by
Member governments and international organizations. With this in mind, users of the new
Code who detect substantive inaccuracies should contact the nearest AMSA office for
guidance. AMSA, on behalf of Australia, will bring to the attention of IMO any provisions
of the new Code which are considered to require clarification together with proposals for
amendments.
IMO has requested that users of the new Code use it with diligence. They have advised
that the earlier edition of the International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code
(Amendment 29-98) may be used in interpreting Amendment 30-00.
The corrigenda may be obtained from:
International Maritime Organization
4 Albert Embankment
LONDON SE1 7SR
UNITED KINGDOM
Phone: +44 20 7735 7611
Fax: + 44 20 7587 321 0
Boat Books Australia Pty Ltd
31 Albany Street
Crows Nest NSW 2065
Phone: (02) 9439 1133
Fax: (02) 9439 8517
Boating Books and Charts Australia Pty Ltd 214 St Kilda Road
St Kilda VIC 3182
Phone: (03) 9525 3444
Fax: (03) 9525 3355
Hunter Publications
58A Gipps Street
Collingwood VIC 3066
Phone: (03) 9417 5361
Fax (03) 9419 7154
Alternatively the corrigenda (Acrobat Reader needed) may be printed from the IMO
website.
Until the situation with Amendment 30-00 is further clarified, the re-issue of Marine
Orders Part 41 foreshadowed in Marine Notice 12/2000 will be delayed. As an interim
measure, the Chief Marine Surveyor has modified the requirements of the existing Marine
Orders Part 41 to the extent that a reference to the IMDG Code means Amendment 29-98
or 30-00.
Classes of Dangerous Goods

The dangerous goods listed in the IMDG Code do not all have the same danger risks. Some
might be explosives while others can be poisonous. Others might be dangerous because they are
radioactive. For this reason, the D.G are divided into classes. There are NINE classes some of
which are further divided into sub-classes.
4.4
Sub-class
This means that some substances in a particular group can be put into a smaller category. For
example some poisonous substances can be sub-classed as being infectious substances.
The U.N Number
The simplest way of identifying a cargo, which sometimes can have a very complicated
chemical name, is by a four digit number. Each substance listed in the IMDG Code is assigned a
specific number. This is known as the UN Number of that substance. It reduces the risks of
making a mistake when spelling out the technical name of that cargo. Volume 2 of the Code lists
all the dangerous cargoes in order of their UN number.
General Index
In the case where the technical name is known, and there is doubt about the UN Number, the
General Index, which is part of the IMDG Code Vol 2, is consulted and the UN number is
extracted for further information about a particular cargo. Refer to Appendix 6 in the Resource
Book.
Segregation
Some cargoes, because of their chemical and physical properties, have a tendency to react with
other substances or parts of the vessel. Thus they have to be stowed far away from each other.
The term ‘segregation’ is used to denote this practice. There are various grades of segregation.
This will be dealt with later in this Section. Refer to Appendix 7 in the Resource Book.
Labeling
Grouping dangerous goods in classes is good. But once the goods are packed, one would not
know what the package contains unless some big, colourful and explicit labels are affixed to it.
For each class of D.G, there is at least one main label. The diamond shape label, has a drawing
on its top half and the class number at its bottom corner. In some cases, the type of D.G is also
written on the label.
Refer to Appendix 8 in the Resource Book.
Subsidiary risk label
Some cargoes have more than one risk. An example would be an inflammable substance that
could also be corrosive. This means that the cargo has a subsidiary risk. Thus precautions must
be taken against two types of dangers.
The way the cargo is labeled in this case will be that it will carry an additional label to that of
the main risk. A class label without its class number at its bottom corner can identify the
subsidiary risk label.
Marine Pollutant
Some dangerous goods, apart from having main and subsidiary risks are also marine pollutants.
This means that, if they are spilled, they will pollute the marine environment. Again, there are
two levels of pollutants: a marine pollutant and a severe marine pollutant.
These cargoes carry a Marine Pollutant Mark. The triangular shape makes the mark different
from a class label. See Appendix 8.
Packaging Group
Some dangerous goods have, for packing purposes, been divided into three categories
(packaging groups) according to the degree of danger they present: great danger (packaging
group I), medium danger (packaging group II) and minor danger (packaging group III).
4.5
EMS
The Emergency Schedule number is contained in the Supplement to the Code. The table should
be consulted in the event of an emergency involving a particular dangerous good.
MFAG Table Number
This contains advice on Medical First Aid for use in Accidents Involving Dangerous Goods.
The MFAG Tables are found in the Supplement to the Code.
Refer to IMDG code for more details.
UNIT 4.3 Classification and marking of dangerous goods

Introduction
There are nine classes of dangerous goods, with some of them being further divided into sub-
classes.
They are classed according to their chemical properties, reaction and risks associated therewith.
The marking of these classes must be done according to the Code. This reduces the risk of
confusion and misunderstanding while providing a universally agreed standard.
4.3.1 Labels
Class 1: Explosives
The diamond-shape label is of orange colour and shows the class number at its bottom corner.
Apart from that, the appropriate division number and compatibility group numbers may also be
shown in the centre of the label.
Class 2: Gases
The label can be white, green, red or yellow depending upon its sub-class. The various symbols
and legend remove any doubt about the type of dangerous good being handled.
Class 3: Flammable liquids
The entirely red label together with its legend makes it easy for identification.
Class 4: Flammable solids
Because of the various risks that exist with flammable solids, sub-classification is necessary.
The labels are of different colour with the same symbol but different legends. As usual, the class
number is found at the bottom of the label.
Class 5: Oxidising substances and Organic Peroxides
These two sub-classes have a different label, different legend and different sub-class number (at
the bottom corner), but the same symbol.
Class 6: Poisonous substances and infectious substances
The white label carries different symbols, different legends and the same class number at the
bottom corner.
Class 7: Radioactive substances
Labels can be either all white or white and yellow. The class number is the same for all three
types of label, which characterise different radioactive categories.
4.6
Class 8: Corrosives
There is no sub-class for corrosives. The black and white label and its symbol cannot be
mistaken for any other label.
Class 9: Miscellaneous substances
This also is a black and white label, but without any symbol. It has the class number at the
bottom corner.
Apart from the class label, the subsidiary risk label and the marine pollutant mark, any
dangerous substance can also show an elevated temperature mark. If fumigation is being carried
out, then a fumigation warning sign must be displayed.
Substances with multiple hazards must conform to a table of precedence contained in the Code.
The precedence of hazard table indicates which of the hazards should be regarded as the primary
hazard.
UNIT 4.4 Precautions that should be taken during the loading,

carriage and discharge of dangerous goods
The carriage, stowage and discharge of dangerous goods involves several risks associated with
each different class of cargo. As a general rule, the following recommendations should always
apply before attending to the specific needs of each class.
• Dangerous goods should be stowed safely and appropriately according to the nature of the
goods. Incompatible goods must be segregated from one another.
• Goods which give off dangerous vapours shall be stowed in a well-ventilated space or on
deck.
• Where flammable liquids or gases are carried, special precautions are to be taken where
necessary against fire or explosion.
• Substances which are liable to spontaneous combustion or heating shall not be carried,
unless adequate precautions have been taken to prevent the outbreak of fire.
Class 1 Explosives
This covers diverse hazards ranging from safety class ammunition to those which have a mass
explosion risk.
This class is usually subject to stringent legislation and port bye rules.
Explosives can only be carried in conjunction with the regulations stipulated in the Code:
• When explosives are to be handled, unnecessary persons should not be allowed nearby.
The cargo should be loaded last and discharged first.
• Detonators should be stowed away from explosives. All necessary measures should be
taken to prevent any movement of the cargo during the voyage. Ventilation may be
necessary, while all electrical circuits around the cargo must be isolated.
• Fire fighting appliances should be permanently rigged. If possible, the cargo should be
stowed as far away from the accommodation as possible. Explosives (except ammunition)
which present a serious risk must be stowed in a magazine, which must be securely closed
when at sea. Such explosives must be segregated from detonators.
• Electrical apparatus and cables in any compartment in which explosives are carried must
be designed and used so as to minimise the risk of fire or explosion.
4.7
Class 2 Flammable gases

Gases: According to their properties or psychological effects, which may vary widely, gases
may be explosive, inflammable, poisonous, corrosive or oxidising substances or may possess
two or more of these properties simultaneously. Some gases are chemically and psychologically
inert. Such gases as well as other gases may be regarded as non-toxic but may be suffocating in
high concentrations.
Some gases have narcotic effects or may evolve into poisonous gases when involved in a fire
when pressure build-up may cause them to explode.
Some substances are liable to alter under transport conditions, to combine or react themselves so
as to cause dangerous liberation of heat or gas, resulting in pressure on the receptacle. These
substances should not be transported unless they are properly inhibited or stabilised.
Class 3 Flammable liquids
The danger associated with inflammable liquids is the escape of inflammable vapours (some of
which could be toxic) prone to substances having a low flash point which are naturally volatile.
The vapour could mix with air leading to an explosion or catch fire through becoming ignited by
a spark or flame.
Precautions: these substances should be stowed away from naked lights, fires or any source of
heat and packaging should serve to protect the contents against external source of ignition. The
flammable substances could be miscible or immiscible with water, a point to note when fire
fighting.
Class 4.1 Flammable solids
Solids that readily ignite: some may explode unless kept in a saturated condition with water or
some other liquid might make the substance become dangerous. Keep away from any source of
ignition.
Class 4.2 Flammable material liable to spontaneous combustion
They can either be solids or liquids. Such substances should be carefully watched for any rise in
temperature. Those which ignite immediately in contact with air are especially dangerous.
Vegetable fibre should be kept free from contamination by oil or water. This should not be
loaded as self-heating may commence some days or weeks later.
Class 4.3 Flammable materials which are dangerous when wet
These are substances which, when in contact with water, emit flammable gases. All substances
in this class must be kept dry. In some cases the gases may be toxic. Some of these are liable to
spontaneous ignition due to heat liberation by the reaction. The characteristics of each substance
in this class should be closely studied and no cargo likely to interact packed in the same
compartment or container.
Refer to Appendix 9.
Class 5.1 Oxidising substances
These substances are not combustible on their own but possess the ability of making
combustible material burn easily. Upon burning oxygen is given off, thus increasing the
intensity of the fire. Mixing some oxidising substances with combustible material can create a
highly flammable mixture, capable of being ignited by friction alone. Toxic gases could be
released if oxidising substances are allowed to react with some acids.
Class 5.2 Organic peroxides
Organic peroxides are both oxidising agents and inflammable and will burn readily, sometimes
with explosive force. All may decompose with heat and, in general, are the most unstable of
substances. Some evolve oxygen naturally and are packed in receptacles which are provided
with a means of ventilation. Carriage of such substances may require temperature control.
4.8
Class 6 Poisonous substances

Poisonous substances are liable to cause death or serious injury to human health if swallowed,
inhaled or by skin contact. Nearly all toxic substances give off toxic gases when involved in a
fire. BA sets and protective clothing should be readily available in case of damage to packages.
Class 7 Radioactive substances
The care and handling of radioactive substances varies widely. Very stringent precautions are
taken to ensure the safe packaging of radioactive substances and these are all within
internationally agreed standards. Careful study of all ports regulations and documentation of
goods in this class is of the highest importance. Staff should seek guidance through consulting
the appropriate statutory regulations, or the authorities concerned, whenever necessary.
Class 8 Corrosives
Some solids or liquids, namely corrosives, when in their original state have the ability to
damage living tissue. The escape of such substances is sufficiently volatile to evolve vapour
irritating to the nose and eyes. A few substances may produce toxic gases when decomposed by
high temperatures. In addition, poisoning may result if corrosives are swallowed or if vapour is
inhaled; some of them may even penetrate the skin. All have a more or less destructive effect on
materials such as metals and textiles.
Class 9 Miscellaneous
Miscellaneous dangerous substances are a class which contains substances which, although
dangerous, have not been allocated to any other class. It includes substances which cannot be
brought under any of the more precisely defined classes because they offer a particular danger
which cannot be properly covered by the regulations for the other classes or which present a
relatively low transportation hazard. It should not be automatically assumed that substances in
this class are ‘less hazardous’.
4.4.1 General fire precautions to be taken when carrying dangerous goods

• Keep combustible material away from ignition source.
• Protect a flammable substance by adequate packing.
• Reject damaged or leaking packages.
• Stow packages protected from accidental damage or heating.
• Segregate packages from substances liable to start or spread fire.
• Where appropriate and practicable, stow dangerous goods in an accessible position so that
packages in the vicinity of a fire may be protected.
• Enforce prohibition of smoking in dangerous areas and display clearly recognisable ‘NO
SMOKING’ notices or signs.
• The dangers from short-circuits, earth leakage or sparking will be apparent. Lighting and
power cables and fittings should be maintained in good condition.
4.4.2 Segregation
Segregation of dangerous goods plays an important role in reducing the risks of any incident.
Substances likely to react with one another are kept away from the other by various means.
Primarily the class of the dangerous good is considered when deciding upon the means of
segregation. The subsidiary risk is also taken into account when the segregation table is
consulted.
The segregation table reproduced in Appendix 7 states the various means of segregation.
4.9
4.4.3 Packing
• Packing must be well made and in good condition.
• Interior of packing must not be affected by contents.
• Packing must be strong enough to withstand normal handling.
• Where absorbent or cushioning material is used, such material must be capable of
minimising the dangers to which the liquid may give rise, so disposed as to prevent
movement and ensure the receptacle remains surrounded and, where reasonably possible,
capable of absorbing liquid in the event of breakage.
• Receptacles of dangerous liquids must have sufficient ullage to allow for expansion to the
highest temperature to be experienced during normal carriage.
• Cylinders or receptacles for gas under pressure must be adequately constructed, tested,
maintained and correctly filled.
• Empty receptacles used previously for carriage of dangerous goods must be treated as full
until thoroughly cleaned.
Refer to Appendix 11.
UNIT 4.5 The IMDG Code and its contents

Volume 1 (parts 1, 2 and 4-7 of the Code) includes:
• General provisions, definitions, training
• Classification
• Packing and tank provisions
• Consignment procedures
• Construction and testing of packagings, intermediate bulk containers, large packagings,
portable tanks and road tank vehicles
• Transport operations.
Volume 2 contains:
• Part 3 of the code
• The Dangerous Goods List presented in tabular form
• Limited quantities exceptions
• The index
• Appendices.
The Supplement contains:
• Emergency Procedures
• Medical First Aid Guide
• Reporting Procedures
• Packing Cargo Transport Units
• Safe Use of Pesticides
• INF Mandatory Code
• Appendix.
4.10
4.5.1 Consulting the IMDG CODE
Introduction
It is a legal requirement that the shipper must provide the vessel with all relevant information
pertaining to the dangerous goods being loaded. However, discrepancies may creep in. Usually,
both the technical name and the U.N Number are provided. This allows for cross checking.
Procedure
Refer to Appendix 9 and 10 in the Resource Book.
If the U.N number is known then go straight to the dangerous goods list in Volume 2 – the UN
numbers are in order.
In our example the U.N number is 1360. If only the name is known – Calcium Phosphide –
refer to the index in Volume 2 to obtain the U.N number. If the name and number is known, this
index can also be used to cross check them.
In the dangerous goods list now, working across the columns will give the information for that
substance, its class, subsidiary risks, packing group and instructions – all of which are found in
the code by following the sections indicated. Stowage and segregation are given, as are the
properties and observations of the substance. Most importantly, the EmS table is given; in this
case, 4.3 - 02. Going to these sections, you will see the appropriate emergency schedule and
reference to consult the first aid guide.
UNIT 4.6 Safety precautions and procedures during cargo operations

as per Marine Orders PART 41
Introduction
As stated before, the carriage of dangerous goods can only be done by following the rules laid
down in the IMDG Code. Furthermore, Marine Orders Part 41 describes the procedures to be
followed if dangerous goods are to be loaded on a ship in an Australian port or on board an
Australian vessel.
• Adequate warning identifying the dangerous cargoes must be given to persons handling
the cargoes and to crewmembers.
• The vessel must be fitted with an emergency alarm capable of emitting an audible alarm.
• There must be in place a notice prohibiting smoking.
• There must be in place a fire hose in a state of readiness for immediate use.
• If water is unsuitable, portable fire extinguishers must be available.
• Smoking, hot work or flame work is not allowed in the vicinity where dangerous goods
are being handled.
• Lighting in place must be electric and so constructed that it will not short-circuit or spark.
• Bunkering is not allowed when class 1 goods are being handled.
• Class 1 goods must always be protected from direct sunlight or from becoming wet.
• When handling class 1 goods, VHF or UHF transmitters can only be used if more than 2m
from the cargo.
• Radio transmitters must not be used except if they are more than 100m from class 1
cargoes when they are being handled.
4.11
4.6.1 Action in the event of leakage or spillage

In the event of any leakage or spillage, the prescribed person, an AMSA Surveyor, must be
advised of the incident immediately. Any dangerous goods which have escaped must not be
touched and other cargo in the same space must not be handled.
No pumping of bilges is allowed unless risks of pollution are deemed to be non-existant.
The space where the spillage has occurred must be cordoned off until the prescribed person has
authorised resumption of normal duties. However, a ship’s officer, an approved chemist or a
surveyor is allowed in that space to attend to the emergency.
More importantly, the EmS and MFAG must be consulted at once and recommendations
followed.
4.6.2 Procedure to follow when shipping dangerous goods

Refer to Appendix 12 for details on loading formalities:
• The shipper states his intention to ship dangerous goods and fills in various forms in
accordance with Marine Order Part 41.(MO 41/1 and MO 41/2)
• The vessel is advised that the booking list contains some dangerous goods.
• The Chief Officer makes a pre stowage plan showing the proposed location of the
dangerous goods. Factors that are taken into consideration when doing so are class,
amount, risks involved, and packaging and stowage requirements.
• The vessel advises the local authorities of its intention to load dangerous goods. This is
done using the form MO 41/3.
• A prescribed person visits the vessel and approves the plan.
• The cargo is loaded under strict surveillance.
• A final stowage plan is made. The plan must show the exact location of the dangerous
good, type and amount.
• A dangerous goods manifest is prepared for the vessel to hand in to various authorities in
the next ports.
4.6.3 Proposed loading plan and final stowage plan

Marine Orders Part 41 states that there must be on board before the commencement of loading a
plan showing the proposed stowage location of the dangerous goods. At the completion of
loading, there must be a final stowage plan showing the exact location of the dangerous goods
loaded, the type, class and amount.
A dangerous goods manifest must also be available on board, and copies provided to the agents
and authorities.

1. In approximately 100 words, describe the IMDG Code and the information that can be
obtained from it.
2. Why is segregation important when transporting D.G.?
3. How would you identify a substance which has several risks?
4. State 4 precautions you would take during the loading, carriage and discharge of
dangerous goods.
4.12
5. Define ‘separated from’.

6. Explain the relationship between a ‘proposed plan’, a ‘final plan’ and a ‘dangerous goods
manifest’.
4.13
TOPIC 5
Cargo Care
SECTION 5
TOPIC 5 Cargo Care
Syllabus
Learning Outcome 5
On completion of this topic you should be able to demonstrate the knowledge of the principles
of cargo care.
Assessment Criteria
5.1 Importance of cargo care is discussed.
5.2 The causes of cargo damage are listed and their effect and preventative measures are
explained.
5.3 The methods of temperature control of refer cargoes are outlined.
5.4 The causes, effects and prevention of sweat are explained.
5.5 The causes, effects and prevention of contamination of cargo are outlined.
5.6 The principles of cargo ventilation are explained.
5.7 The cargo ventilation methods and systems are outlined.
5.8 The function of dunnage with regard to cargo care is explained.
5.9 Cargo damage survey procedures are outlined.
5.1
TOPIC 5, SECTION 5 – CARGO CARE
5.2
SECTION 5 Cargo Care

UNIT 5.1 Importance of cargo care
Introduction
Shipowners and, therefore, ships’ crew and personnel are legally bound to look after any
cargo/passengers according to the Hague-Visby Rules. There is an agreement between the
shipper/charterer and the shipowner/carrier to that effect.
The ship officer has a duty to properly load, handle, stow, carry and discharge cargo in a similar
condition to which it was loaded. As the condition of the cargo when it was loaded is stipulated
on the Bill of Lading, any discrepancy at discharging would give rise to disputes.
There is no doubt that, should there be a discrepancy, then the vessel would be at fault for not
exercising its duty of care thus resulting in lengthy and costly legal procedures.
Quarantine requirements sometimes call for a log to be kept when carrying some special
cargoes. Some shippers or consignees may ask to see any kept records pertaining to cargo care.
These records could be used by the carrier in the event of any dispute as to the way the cargo
was looked after.
Cargo claims are easily reduced when officers and crew engage in proper caring of the cargo
that they are carrying.
Above all, any damage to any cargo could mean the loss of the vessel, thus endangering the
lives of those on board. The carriage of coal, for example, requires surface ventilation. Non-
compliance with this requirement could lead to a coal fire in the compartment.
Cargo that is delivered to the ship in a dangerous condition, that may damage the ship or other
cargo must be rejected and not loaded. The shipper needs to be notified as more suitable cargo
may be substituted. Accurate records of observations of cargo condition need to be kept to
avoid future claims.
So, it is imperative that damage to cargo be prevented at all cost. This will reduce any potential
cargo claims and reduce the risks of endangering the vessel and its crew. And this is easily
achievable with a little attention from every one involved.
UNIT 5.2 Cargo damage: its causes, effects and prevention

Introduction
Every year, one of the biggest unforeseen and preventable claims that a shipowner faces is
related to cargo damage. If that trend is consistent over the years, the shipowner will see its P &
I contributions being raised together with building up a bad reputation. These negative effects
are avoidable. For this to happen, knowledge of the causes of cargo damage and how to prevent
such occurrences are of foremost importance.
Cargo damage
There are various ways in which cargo can be damaged. They are namely:
Through temperature change: Some cargoes are carried at ambient temperature. However, a
too-hot temperature will cause it to melt (chocolate), to disintegrate (through chemical reaction)
or to crack and break. Other cargoes if in a very low temperature might freeze or crack.
Temperature control through ventilation is a good way of preventing this. Attention should be
paid to the stowing. Do not stow in places where temperature extremes are possible.
5.3
Through chafing and rubbing: Due to the vessel’s movement or vibration, cargoes can rub
against each other or the ship structure. This will result in damage to the packaging and,
eventually, the cargo itself. It can be avoided by a compact stow, or putting chocks between the
packages or separation.
Through contamination: Cargo can get damaged in various ways by contamination - one of
which is by dust. Dusty cargo must be loaded first. Cargo in the same compartment must be
covered while dusty cargo is being loaded. Special attention has to be paid to stains on tank tops
as these could also contaminate cargoes. The use of dunnage could reduce that risk.
Through cargo mixing: This is another type of cargo contamination, which occurs when two
cargoes are stowed together and the separation between them is inadequate. Large plastic sheets
should be used to separate them. In other instances, the contamination may not be physical, but
olfactive, like tainting of fruits.
Through rust: Moisture deposited on steel will turn the cargo rusty, with risks of it being
rejected at the discharging port. This moisture can be from different sources: internal (other
cargo leaking, sweat) or external (compartment not watertight). Ventilation could be the
solution, though sometimes it could be better not to ventilate. Proper planning will help reduce
this risk.
Water damage: Could be the biggest threat to cargoes. Water can cause rust, mould, and
discolouration of cargo, caking or sweat. Watertight integrity of the compartment must be
maintained at all times. Proper ventilation will prevent sweat. Proper planning is required. Some
Class 4 cargoes, for example, are dangerous when wet.
Improper lashing: Inadequate lashing can not only mean damage to cargo, or its loss, but also
the loss of the vessel and its crew. Always lash for the worst possible condition and check
regularly.
Pilferage: Though this activity has been made more difficult with the advent of containers it is
still a major concern. Valuable goods are to be loaded last, preferably in lockers in the presence
of watchmen. Do not advertise the goods, and keep an accurate tally. Watch out for the
condition of the packages, as they are loaded. If suspicious, do not load. Have adequate lighting
if loading at night.
PS Remember that containers of valuable goods have disappeared too.
Through mechanical mishandling: Using the wrong tool to handle the cargo can at times be
detrimental. In trying to speed up operations, this could happen and a claim for cargo damage
will follow. Have the right gear ready for use, and in good working condition.
By rats, mice and vermin: Rats and mice destroy some cargo to the extent that they are rejected
at the discharging port. Once the vessel is fumigated, every effort should be made to keep the
rats away. If they are loaded with the cargo (with wood, or pallets for example), the hold should
be cleaned and fumigated after discharge. However, fumigation itself or its residues might pose
a hazard to some cargo.
UNIT 5.3 Temperature control of reefer cargoes

Introduction
Reefer cargoes can be split into three main categories:
1. Frozen cargo
2. Chilled cargo
3. Temperature regulated cargo.
5.4
Frozen cargoes
Frozen cargo is carried in the hard frozen condition, which means that a temperature of at least –
20°C must be attainable. Most frozen commodities are carried at a temperature below -7°C
when no microorganism growth is possible. Eg frozen lamb carcasses. It can be carried either in
reefer containers or in cold chambers.
Chilled cargoes
Chilled cargoes are commodities where the outside has been frozen hard, but the inside remains
unfrozen. Chilled meat is tastier - thus more expensive - than frozen meat. The usual
temperature range is between -2°C and -3°C. This small range calls for great care from the
ship’s personnel. In chilled cargoes, the growth of microorganisms is only slowed down. Thus
chilled cargo cannot be kept in that condition for a long period of time. Its carriage must be
made within time limits. If CO2 is injected into the compartment, then the duration is prolonged.
Eg chilled beef or lamb. It is usually carried in containers, though its transportation in cool
chambers has also proved successful.
Temperature regulated cargoes

Temperature regulated cargoes are those which are carried at a temperature which restricts
processes such as ripening. Particular commodities require different carrying temperatures.
Goods such as apples can be carried as low as 1°C whilst citrus fruits are carried at 10°C.
Normally in the carriage of fruits, the latter will give off CO2 which, if in low concentration, is
beneficial as it slows down the ripening process.
5.3.1 Methods of carriage of reefer cargoes

The refrigerated cargoes mentioned above can be carried in two ways:
(a) On board custom built reefer ships or general cargo ships with limited reefer spaces or
(b) In containers on board ships capable of accommodating reefer containers.
One very important feature of a reefer ship is its speed. Once the cargo is loaded it has to be
despatched to destination rather urgently. The other important feature of a reefer ship is its
refrigeration plant and cold chambers.
Reefer ships normally have three or more decks which are subdivided so that cross
contamination is not possible and that a range of cargo with different carrying temperature can
be loaded.
Figure 5.1 shows a segregation table involving commodities that are carried at regulated
temperatures. The segregation is contamination-related. This means that despite some of the
fruits having the same carrying temperatures, they have to be segregated because of the
possibility of tainting.
5.5
Fig. 5.1 Segregation table for refrigerated commodities
The cargo temperature is usually controlled by a ventilation system forcing cold air in. Air is
made to pass over an evaporator, and circulated in the cargo compartment. The refrigerated
chambers normally have temperature-monitoring devices linked to the control room.
The components of a refrigerant plant are illustrated in Figure 5.2 below. An understanding of
the principles of operation of the plant is part of another module.
3 way (electromagnetic)
diverting valve
Evaporator
Condenser TxV
Temperature controller
Compressor
Fig. 5.2 Components of a typical refrigeration plant
Care should be taken so as not to damage the insulation, which is around the compartments. As
this insulation is sometimes highly flammable, under no circumstances should any hot work
(especially welding) be carried out without prior checking the surroundings.
Any escape of cold air will cause undue stress on the compressors and evaporators. Sealing of
the compartment is common practice. Also, during cargo operations, should there be a break in
the loading/discharging, the compartment should be closed so as to avoid any loss of cool air.
The refrigeration plant should be stopped, also.
Types of reefer containers:
There are two types of reefer containers: independent and ship dependent containers. The ship
dependent type is extremely scarce nowadays.
Independent reefer containers have their own refrigeration plant but require electrical power
from the vessel. Special power points and, usually, a dedicated generator will provide power for
these containers. The temperature is regulated before packing the container and is automatically
controlled.
5.6
Fig. 5.3 Refrigeration system in a container
In modern reefer containers, there is even a spare compressor which is carried in case the main
one breaks down. There is hardly any need for maintenance from the ship’s crew. A graphical
record is always kept as part of the container equipment. Though the monitoring of the
temperature is done automatically, it is good practice to carry out checks on a daily basis.
The location of power points, action of sea and waves, accessibility to the container and above
deck stowage are points that should be considered when planning the stowage of reefer
containers.
It is important to connect power soon after loading to prevent container warming up. Always
check contents – sometimes general is shipped in spare reefer containers.
When carrying reefer containers in cold chambers, it is of great importance that the cold air is
allowed to circulate around and, in some cases, through the cargo.
Deep frozen cargo can be stowed in a solid block as it is only necessary to keep the boundary
cold to ensure the whole stow is cold.
Chilled cargo is most frequently carcass and as such there will be sufficient space between the
carcasses to ensure a good circulation of cool air.
Temperature regulated cargoes such as fruit and vegetables are often transported in bins or
cases. Because of the continued life of these products after they have been picked it is necessary
for a good airflow to ensure they can “breathe”. This means that boxes should have ventilation
holes and there should be enough space to allow air circulation between the boxes.
Refrigerated cargoes are normally high value cargoes. As a consequence of this, any failure by
the ship’s staff to care for the cargo in a correct manner can be an extremely costly exercise. The
maintenance of correct carrying temperatures cannot be over emphasised, as these are the prime
responsibility of the ship staff.
UNIT 5.4 Sweat: its causes, effects and prevention

Introduction
Sweat is one of the biggest causes of cargo damage. It can cause cargo to rust, go mouldy,
germinate, rot or simply become unusable. It could also cause damage to the vessel and its
structure.
Sweat is caused by the condensation of moist saturated air on a cooler surface. Some
definitions are useful in understanding sweat.
5.4.1 Definitions
Dewpoint: Is defined as the temperature at which air cannot absorb any more water vapour; ie it
is saturated.
5.7
Saturation: Means that a parcel of air has absorbed its maximum amount of moisture for that
temperature. Raising the temperature will allow for more moisture to be absorbed.
Relative Humidity: Is the ratio between the actual moisture content and the maximum moisture
content that the parcel of air can contain.
Hygroscopic cargo: Is cargo, which can absorb or give off moisture.
Non-hygroscopic cargo: Is cargo, which does not absorb or give off moisture.
Ship sweat: This results when water droplets are deposited on parts of the ship structure when
air is cooled below its dewpoint. The condensation occurs because the ship structure is cooler
than the dewpoint of the surrounding air.
Cargo sweat: This results when water droplets are deposited on parts of the cargo when the
surrounding air comes in contact with a cool cargo. The temperature of the cargo must be lower
than the dewpoint of the surrounding air.
5.4.2 A common example of sweat

An example of how sweat occurs is that, when a can of soft drink is taken out of the fridge on a
warm day and allowed to rest at room temperature, after some time the can seems to perspire.
The reason for this is that saturated air around the can has been cooled below its dew point when
it came into contact with the cool can, and condensation is the result.
Many examples exist in everyday life. Using this knowledge, it should be easy to prevent
condensation and damage to cargo.
5.4.3 Moisture control

Moisture control is usually the most serious air control problem aboard a general cargo ship.
Moisture can damage cargo in two ways:
• by causing condensation
• by causing the cargo to germinate or cake in the case of hygroscopic cargoes.
Controlling damage to non-hygroscopic cargo

Damage to non-hygroscopic cargo is easily controlled. This is because non-hygroscopic cargo
does not absorb, retain or reject moisture. Thus any sweating occurring will be in the form of
ship sweat dripping onto the cargo. Therefore, a way of controlling the dewpoint of the
surrounding air and the temperature of the ship structure must be found.
Dewpoint is a function of moisture content. Condensation will only occur if the air is saturated
and it is cooled below its dewpoint. If the moisture content is reduced, then the air is not near its
saturation point. And condensation is unlikely to occur.
So, it can be said that by reducing the moisture content of a parcel of air the risks of
condensation are reduced.
Controlling damage to hygroscopic cargoes
When it comes to hygroscopic cargoes, the moisture content of the surrounding air and that of
the cargo have to be taken into account.
Both have the ability to absorb, retain or give off moisture. This exchange of moisture is
necessary so as to achieve a balance in moisture content and will result in condensation.
When hygroscopic cargoes are carried, a number of factors are worthy of consideration:
• The moisture content should be kept as low as possible. (Hygroscopic cargoes should not
be exposed to rain before loading.)
5.8
• It is important to keep hygroscopic cargo cool because the presence of heat causes the
dewpoint of the surrounding air to rise, which in turn means there is a high risk of
condensation.
The solution in preventing damage to hygroscopic cargoes lies in maintaining the dewpoint of
air in the cargo space below the dewpoint of the air in and immediately around the cargo.
5.4.4 Example of ship sweat and cargo sweat

Imagine a cargo hold surrounded by seawater at a temperature of 15°C; therefore, the steel
structure would also be close to that temperature. Now imagine if, inside the hold, some cargo
was loaded in a cold country at a temperature of about 10°C.
Now, if air from outside at a temperature of 18°C and a dewpoint temperature of 13°C is
allowed in, cargo sweat will occur on the surface of the cargo. However, there will be no ship
sweat because the air will not be cooled below its dew point.
If the temperature of the ship structure were 12°C, then ship sweat would result.
5.4.5 Information necessary before deciding whether to ventilate or not

From the above example it is apparent that certain information is required before it is possible to
decide whether or not to ventilate the cargo space. This informations is:
• temperature and dewpoint of the outside air
• temperature of the cargo surface, and
• temperature of the steel structure inside the cargo compartment
• temperature and dewpoint of the inside air, and
• the moisture content of hygroscopic cargoes if applicable.
5.4.6 Ventilate or not ventilate?

Sometimes ventilation is necessary in order to achieve a desired outcome. The basic rules for
ventilation are:
• For hygroscopic cargo: Warm to cold - ventilate vigorously initially.
cold to warm - ventilation is not necessary.
• For non-hygroscopic cargo: Cold to warm − no ventilation even if cargo sweat may
occur.
Fig. 5.4 Fig. 5.5
(From ‘Bulk Carrier Practice’ – Isbester – courtesy of The Nautical Institute, London, UK.)
5.9
Cold to warm - ship sweat is inevitable but cargo is unaffected unless condensation drips back
on to the stow.
These are not hard and fast rules as, at times, there will be condensation whether the space is
ventilated or not.
Thus, as a guide, the general rule that can apply to ventilation is as follows:
VENTILATE if the dewpoint outside is LOWER or equal to the dewpoint inside the
compartment.
UNIT 5.5 Cargo contamination: its causes, effects and prevention

Introduction
Contamination is another cause of cargo damage. It can occur in many ways with varying
effects.
Contamination on tankers and product carriers
Contamination can occur on tankers and product carriers. Two types of oil which are
incompatible could be mixed accidentally, rendering the cargo unusable or even dangerous.
This is very important on product carriers, which carry a huge amount of small parcels of cargo.
The purity of these parcels must be maintained. This is achieved by dedicating special lines to
the types which are highly incompatible. In other cases, the lines are drained and cleaned
thoroughly before handling a different type from the one which had been handled previously.
The tanks are cleaned scrupulously and a certificate of cleanliness is issued before any loading
operations can proceed.
Contamination by taint
Tainting is another aspect of contamination. Imagine carrying bags of onions together with
textile products. These will be absorbing that onion smell and would thus lose their commercial
value.
Any cargo which gives off a strong smell is liable to taint absorbent material. This can be
prevented by stowing the cargoes in different compartments or sealing one of them in plastic or
polystyrene wrap.
Contamination through fumigation

Cargoes can become contaminated through fumigation. Care should be taken when using
fumigants. These should be of the type that will not damage the cargo in the compartment. If
fumigating an empty compartment, residues from the fumigant may still be harmful to the cargo
to be loaded. After fumigating, it is advisable to ventilate the compartment to some extent.
Contamination by water
Water is known to be one of the biggest contaminants. The damage resulting from water
contamination ranges from germination, swelling, discolouration or even dissolution. Keeping
the compartment watertight/preventing the cargo from coming in contact with ship’s sweat are
two of the measures that could be taken to prevent water contamination.
Cross cargo contamination

Cargo can be contaminated by other cargoes. This is particularly the case when loading general
cargoes, part of which consists of dry powdery solids such as fertilisers and flour or grain and
granules.
5.10
UNIT 5.6 Checklist – Routine procedures for the loaded voyage

• Have hatches and mooring lines all secured well before the open sea is reached. Secure
anchors when no longer required.
• Choose and follow the most suitable route for the voyage, taking account of the factors
mentioned in the chapter.
• Determine whether the cargo requires ventilation.
• Follow any special instructions for ventilation.
• Take dewpoint readings and ventilate when dewpoint in hold is higher than dewpoint
outside.
• Stop ventilation when shipping spray over vents.
• Log dewpoint readings and times of stopping and starting ventilation, with reasons.
• Take a full set of soundings every day and study them for any unexplained increase or
reduction in sounding.
• Investigate promptly any unexplained changes in soundings.
• When water drains from cargo the bilges should be pumped before they fill, and a record
should be kept of the tonnage of water removed.
• Test hold bilges regularly for acidity (pH) and pump them dry if they are found to be acid.
• Take cargo temperatures and test air in holds daily when required for the cargo being
carried.
• Check and tighten cargo lashings daily or more often.
• Inspect the decks daily and ensure that storerooms, hatch accesses, hatch covers and
manhole covers are secure at the end of the day and before the onset of bad weather.
• In bad weather inspect the decks daily, taking all necessary precautions to ensure the
inspection is safe and thorough.
• When the ship is slowed by bad weather, reduce the engine speed or alter course.
• Follow safe procedures for heaving-to with the weather on the bow or on the quarter and
for turning through the trough.
• Make routine position and ETA reports as required.
• Report cargo temperatures, bilge pH readings and gas readings if required.
• Clear anchors, prepare mooring lines and prepare the ship as advised in Section 6. Inspect
cargo for problems immediately upon arrival.
• Prepare hatches for discharge immediately upon arrival.
UNIT 5.7 Cargo damage survey procedures

Introduction
Part of the job of the duty officer while engaged in cargo work is to make a note of the condition
of the cargo being handled. This is even more important if the cargo is damaged or seems to be
in an unusual state.
5.11
Any abnormal condition of the cargo should be noted in the cargo logbook. If during cargo
operations cargo is accidentally damaged, the duty officer must make a note of it – noting the
time such incident happened, the amount of the cargo damaged, the extent of the damage and
any marks on the cargo.
The Chief Officer’s attention should be drawn immediately and a cargo damage report must be
made.
Witnesses to the incident could be called in to give their version of the incident. The stevedores
involved in the cargo handling must also be part of the report.
Depending upon the extent of the damage, independent surveyors and/or the corresponding P &
I surveyors must be called in.
Steps must be taken to prevent further damage to the cargo. This information must be filled in
the cargo logbook.
5.7.1 The independent Marine Surveyor

The independent marine surveyor is the expert in making any cargo damage reports. He/she will
include in his/her report items such as:
• date, location of requested survey
• details of persons requesting the survey
• details of carrying vessel
• description of the shipment
• facts regarding the stowage
• details of loading/discharging
• names and addresses of shipper and consignee
• extracts from ship’s log book, cargo log book, note of protest or any other relevant
document
• full description of the damage
• details of any action taken to reduce damage.
The surveyor expects the full co-operation of the vessel’s crew and to be provided with factual
information that would be the base for his/her report. Thus a detailed account of the events
surrounding the damage must always be kept for reference.
Conclusion
No matter what, the officer must take all actions to limit the damage to cargo. This might even
include stopping cargo operations. The damaged cargo could be repacked and discharged in an
unconventional way. It depends upon the circumstances and the extent of the damage.
No damage to cargo should go unnoticed. If damaged goods are loaded and not brought to the
attention of the master, he/she might find him/herself facing major cargo claims, as there will be
no evidence that the damage occurred elsewhere than on the vessel.

1. Why is it considered important that the ship’s officer looks after the cargo being loaded,
carried and discharged?
2. What is the typical carrying temperature of the three types of refrigerated cargoes?
3. How is sweat caused?
5.12
4. Using a diagram, illustrate how ship sweat and cargo sweat can be formed.
5. Explain how you could be of help to an Independent Marine Surveyor who is assessing
damage to some cargo which occurred when the vessel was at sea.
5.13
TOPIC 6
Cargo Watch in Port and OOW
SECTION 6
TOPIC 6 Cargo Watch in Port and OOW
Syllabus
Learning Outcome 6
On completion of this topic you should be able to perform port watchkeeping duties.
Assessment Criteria
6.1 The duties of watchkeeper with regard to cargo operations are described.
6.2 The hatch and cargo gear preparations that should be carried out prior to the
commencement of cargo operations are explained.
6.3 The safety checks that should be carried out prior to the commencement of cargo
operations are stated.
6.4 The watchkeeper’s responsibilities with regard to crew, stevedores and visitors are
explained.
6.5 The recommended safety procedures detailed in Marine Order Part 28 and STCW Code
Sec A-VIII/2 Part 4 that should be followed in port by the watchkeeper with regard to the
following are outlined:
− anchors and moorings
− boarding equipment
− bunkering
− stores and provisions
− fresh water
− flags and signals
− garbage disposal
− repairs and maintenance
− lighting
− stowaways
− theft and pilferage
− port and local regulations
6.6 Correct procedure for taking over, keeping and handing over the port watch is explained.
6.7 The importance of establishing and maintaining effective communication with personnel
concerned with cargo operations is discussed.
6.1
TOPIC 6, SECTION 6 – CARGO WATCH IN PORT AND OOW
6.2
SECTION 6 Cargo Watch in Port and OOW

UNIT 6.1 Duties of the OOW with respect to cargo operations
Introduction
The Officer of the Watch is primarily the Master’s representative when on duty on deck. His/her
task revolves around making and keeping a safe environment for the crew and people on board,
for the ship and its cargo, and taking measures to prevent any form of pollution from
contaminating the environment.
The OOW is helped in achieving this by guidance from his/her superiors, standing orders, and
legislation, the most important legislation being the STCW Code.
During cargo operations, the OOW must always keep in mind the safety of personnel. The
safety of people, the vessel, the environment and the cargo must be top priorities.
Some steps that must be taken to ensure the safety of personnel are:
• measures to prevent any leakages on deck or underdeck
• the location of life saving appliances and fire fighting appliances
• the state of readiness of LSA/FFAs
• safe atmosphere within the vessel
• safe access to and from within the vessel
• adequate lighting in holds, on deck and all other spaces as required
• being aware of people on board and their location
• ventilating enclosed spaces before entering
• advising crew members of the dangers involved in mishandling dangerous goods
• correct rigging of the cargo gear
• not exceeding the SWL of any gear
• checking the condition of the cargo gear being used.
This list is not exhaustive and will be amended by the responsible officer as the circumstances
dictate. Safety of people on board or in the surrounding environment must never be
compromised.
The safety of the ship and cargo can be ensured by taking the following measures:
• Check the draft and under keel clearance at regular intervals.
• Make sure there is no excessive trim or list.
• Check the moorings regularly.
• Check the bilges and ballast conditions.
• Check the tidal conditions and weather likely to be encountered.
• Understand the cargo loading plan and the master’s (Chief Officer’s) instructions.
• Know the various communication channels with shore authorities, port control etc.
• Understand the causes of cargo damage and their prevention.
6.3
Checklist – Duties of the officer of the watch in the loading port

• Study and understand the loading/deballasting programme.
• Ensure that all hatch covers are secured in position, whether open or shut, and cannot
move by accident.
• Monitor the position of the loading arm, the loading sequence and the loading rate.
Ensure that the correct cargo is loaded and cargo is in good condition.
• Keep any list within acceptable limits.
• Watch the draft to ensure that no overloading occurs.
• Monitor the deballasting to ensure that the best deballasting rate is maintained, problems
are identified and corrected and maximum discharge of ballast is achieved.
• Co-ordinate and supervise the work of the crew to ensure efficiency in shifting of the
ship, preparing ballast holds for loading, ensuring that ship's cargo gear is properly used
and maintained in perfect condition, and securing of holds on completion.
• Keep the loading foreman informed of any developments, particularly of potential
problems which may affect the loading.
• Note any possible causes of damage to ship or cargo and make every effort to prevent
them.
• Note and record any damage to ship or cargo, and immediately pass details to the chief
mate who will hold the stevedores responsible.
• Ensure moorings and means of access are tended as necessary.
• Prevent pollution from ballast, bilges, leakage of oil, garbage, cargo residues, funnel
smoke and dust from cargo.
• Record full weather observations at least three times daily.
• Maintain full written records in the port log book and/or deck log book of all relevant
events and data (items as detailed in the body of Chapter 12).
• Ensure that safe working procedures are followed.
Duties of the chief mate in the loading port
• Keep the master fully informed of progress in the loading and problems encountered.
• Distribute copies of the loading/deballasting plan to the loading foreman and the OOWs
and ensure that it is understood.
• Give the OOWs additional written instructions regarding the loading if the circumstances
require it.
• Keep the loading foreman informed regarding requirements for trimming, and possible
causes of delay.
• Conduct ship's draft surveys or undertake draft surveys with an independent surveyor,
when appointed.
• Monitor the commencement of loading, and act promptly to deal with any problems.
• Use informal draft surveys to monitor the tonnages delivered from time to time during
loading.
• Supervise the final stripping of ballast tanks to ensure minimum ballast is retained.
• Calculate and supervise the trimming pours.
• Supervise the trimming of holds filled with low-density cargo to ensure that no space is
lost.
6.4
• Supervise the trimming of holds when a level stow on completion has been stipulated.
• Check space remaining in part-filled holds for the calculation of stowage factors.
• Ensure that appropriate matters receive attention when particular cargoes are loaded.
• Provide verbal warning, quickly followed by written notice, to stevedores when the ship
or the cargo is damaged.
• Ensure that the ship is properly secured for sea.
• Ensure that safe working procedures are followed.
Additionally if at anchor:
• Ascertain the vessel’s position regularly.
• Keep a proper look out for possible dangers such as small boats or floating objects such
as logs.
• Check the anchor specially at the turn of tide.
The Officer of the watch must always be in control of the situation. He/she has enormous
responsibilities towards all the people on board and should not hesitate to use his/her authority
when necessary.
UNIT 6.2 Hatch and cargo gear preparations

Cargo hold preparations were dealt with in a previous Section. As for cargo gear preparations,
the following is an outline of an approach to the task.
The use of shore cargo gear does not relieve the OOW from his/her duty to maintain a safe
working environment. The OOW must ensure that the gear used is not likely to cause any
accident. This could entail a visual inspection being used by the shore labour. Additionally,
should the OOW believe that a particular item of equipment may damage the cargo, he/she
should raise his/her doubts immediately and find an alternative.
When using ship’s gear, the rigging must be done in accordance with the rigging plan. SWL
limits must be observed at all times. The use of experienced winch men must not be overlooked.
No undue stress is to be applied to the cargo gear. Certificates must be up to date. Above all, the
gear must be inspected before use. The regulations stipulated in Marine Orders Part 32 must be
observed. The officer should know as to when an item is unsafe for use – see Appendix 6 below.
Appendix 6:
Safe use of materials handling equipment
1 Maximum permissible load
1.1 Except when under test, and subject to 1.2 and 1.3, an article of materials handling
equipment must not be subjected to a load greater than its SWL.
1.2 When a single sheave block is rigged as a double whip or gun tackle, so that the load is
suspended from its head fitting, the load which may be lifted is twice the SWL marked on
the block.
1.3 A crane or derrick may be used to hoist a load exceeding the SWL of the crane or derrick
as an occasional lift, not in the course of normal operations, provided:
(a) the crane or derrick has a SWL not more than 50 tonnes;
(b) the crane or derrick has been inspected by a responsible person who is satisfied
that the crane or derrick and its associated equipment is fit to carry the excess
load;
6.5
(c) written permission of the master or owner in the case of ship equipment or the
owner in the case of shore equipment has been obtained;
(d) the prescribed person has approved the handling of that occasional lift on a report
by a surveyor; and
(e) the load does not exceed the proof load for the crane or derrick gear.
1.4 In the case of equipment with a SWL of 50 tonnes or more, 1.3(b) to (e) must be complied
with and, in addition:
(a) the crane or derrick must be classed;
(b) the classification society must concur with the overloading; and
(c) the method of loading must be such that the safety of the ship and persons on it
would not be imperilled by breakage of any part of the equipment, including
purchase or topping lift wires.
2 Unsafe factors
An article of materials handling equipment must not be rigged, reeved or used:

(a) in such a manner or under such conditions as to involve risk of injury to persons or
damage to property;
(b) if the article is in such deteriorated condition or is so damaged that it may be

unsafe to use; or
(c) otherwise than in accordance with this Part.
3 Suspended load
A load, other than, for example, a spreader or cargo lifting beam, must not be left
suspended from, or supported by, a derrick, crane or mechanical stowing appliance
unless, during the time it is suspended or supported, a qualified person is at the control
position of the equipment engaged in the operation.
4 Cargo space lookout
Where persons are in a cargo space in connection with loading or unloading, whether or
not a crane or derrick is being used, there must be a lookout who:
(a) has a good view of the space;
(b) is able to see potential dangers to the persons in the space; and
(c) is able to communicate with the persons in the space,
and who must warn persons in the space of any perceived danger.
Note: The cargo space lookout may be a person with other duties, such as a hatchman
or the crane driver, provided that the person is capable of performing all
assigned duties effectively.
5 Securing of shackles
A crane or derrick gear that is ship equipment, must not be used in loading or unloading
unless shackles and other similar devices to be used with the crane or derrick gear that
are situated aloft and are not readily accessible, are effectively secured against
accidental dislodgment or release.
6.6
6 Dragging of a load
A load must not be dragged by means of a runner leading from a derrick or a crane if
there is a risk that the SWL of any component of the derrick, crane or associated cargo
gear would be exceeded.
Note: Risk is considered to exist:
(a) when the lead would be direct from the derrick head or jib of the crane except
when the nature of the cargo, its location and the nature of the surface over which
it is to be dragged are such as to cause no likelihood of fouling of the load.
(b) when the load is more than one third of the SWL of the derrick or crane unless
measures are taken to prevent overloading or unless the particular method has
been shown to be safe.
7 Hoisting or lowering a person

Except in the case of access to a mobile offshore drilling unit or for the removal of an
injured person from a cargo space, a person must not be hoisted or lowered in the course
of cargo operations by means of a crane or derrick other than in a personnel cradle.
8 Use of wrought iron
An article of materials handling equipment must not be used in loading or unloading if

any part of that article that would support the load, either directly or indirectly, is made
of wrought iron.
9 Use of grabs
A grab intended for use in loading or unloading bulk cargoes and which is to be attached
to a ship's crane or derrick must be:
(a) permanently marked with its tare mass, cubic capacity and SWL;
(b) suitable for the material to be loaded or unloaded; and
(c) fit for use.
When using derrick rigged in Union Purchase mode, the angle between the runners must be kept
below 120°. When the angle between the runners exceeds 120o, the load on each runner begins
to exceed the weight of the lift, with the danger of failure of the lifting gear, as shown in Fig.
6.2.
Sheaves, blocks and all parts of the running rigging must be running smoothly.
Shackles, pins and bolts must be properly attached and prevented from becoming loose.
When operating hatch covers, an inspection around the hatch for people who may be unaware of
any forthcoming operations must be done. Too many accidents have occurred whereby people
have been crushed when hatches were being opened.
Also, an inspection of the track will ensure that there are no obstructions that may prevent the
opening of the hatch cover.
When handling cross beams that are usually stowed on deck, never underestimate their
momentum when swinging.
If operating near void spaces (on partly opened hatch covers or in tween decks) always wear a
safety harness.
6.7
The use of heavy lift cranes/derricks requires expertise and, therefore, needs to be carried out
very carefully. The equipment must be prepared for use in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions. Sometimes it might be necessary to stop other operations when lifting heavy lifts.
All the components of the equipment must be carefully checked prior to usage. Wastage, lack of
lubrication and deformation are some of the defects that must not be tolerated.
Fig 6.1 Dangers associated with hatch cover
When using cranes, oil leaks will not only be a pollution risk, but can cause damage to the crane
motor. Excessive list during cargo operations can render hydraulic cranes inoperative.
6.8
Fig 6.2 Danger associated with incorrectly rigged lifting gear
On tankers, particular attention must be paid to cross over valves. Oil tight seals must be in good
condition and the atmosphere in the pumproom must be safe.
Proper communication must be established with shore and emergency procedures fully
understood.
In the event of using ship’s gear eg self dischargers, the condition of the buckets and the
conveyor belt must be ascertained.
Safety checks to be carried out before starting cargo operations
In addition to the measures to be taken as outlined above, the OOW will:
• Check the cargo compartment for its suitability.
• Check the state of readiness of all LSA/FFA equipment.
• Ensure the suitability of the equipment to be used.
• Take measures to prevent pollution.
• Familiarise him/herself with any special port regulations eg scuppers plugged, non-
discharge of ballast sediment etc.
• Ensure that the stevedore foreman/supervisor understand the vessel’s requirements.
• If necessary, have a towing wire rigged.
• Appreciate the effect of cargo operations on the vessel’s draft, trim, list, mooring
arrangements, and gangway among others.
• Check for safe atmospheres in enclosed spaces and pumprooms.
• Ensure that measures to prevent the build up of static electricity have been taken.
• Check that proper communication channels have been established.
• Check that access to holds, compartments, cranes and winch areas are safe.
6.9
UNIT 6.3 The watchkeeper’s responsibility with regard to crew,

stevedores and visitors
General
The OOW must ensure that the safety of all people on board, including visitors, is at all times
safeguarded. This might include taking measures such as posting of adequate lighting or
preventing access to areas which are potentially dangerous.
Crew and vessel
The safety of the crew can also be affected if the vessel is unsafe. Dangerous list or trim may
have consequences on people’s safety. The OOW must be in control of the situation. This also
applies to the times when cargo operations are not being carried out, as factors such as tides or
weather can affect the ship’s safety.
The crew must be briefed in the event of any unusual operation such as handling of heavy lifts
or dangerous goods.
Visitors
The presence of visitors on board calls for additional attention as often they might not be totally
conversant with shipboard operations and basic safety precautions. The OOW should be aware
of not only the presence of visitors, but also their location and the reason for being on board.
Table 6.1 Main causes of major P & I claims
Table 6.2 Main types of major P and I claims
(The figures in tables 6.1 and 6.2 are approximate.)
6.10
Unauthorised people, or people who are likely to be troublesome in one way or another must not
be allowed on board.
Conclusion
The OOW must always bear in mind that he/she is the Master’s representative on deck and must
act as such. A responsible Master will not put the vessel/crew or visitors in danger. The OOW
must ensure the same standards of safety.
UNIT 6.4 Recommended safety procedures with regard to port

watchkeeping
Section 4 of Appendix 1 of Marine Orders Part 28 together with the STCW Code Sec A-VIII/2
Part 4 both outline the principles applying to proper watchkeeping in port.
While keeping a deck watch, the OOW must pay particular attention to the condition and
securing of the anchor chain and moorings specially at the turn of the tide and in berths with a
large rise and fall.
The boarding equipment must be properly secured, non slippery and well illuminated.
If bunkering operations are underway the OOW must take all necessary precautions to prevent
pollution and reduce the risk of any fire outbreak. There must be a total understanding of the
procedures involved including communications and emergency procedures.
The loading of stores and provisions also calls for care, especially when these are done with the
ship’s lifting gear. The dangers of using inadequate gear in the absence of proper ones cannot be
underestimated.
Care must be exercised when loading fresh water as this vital element is easily contaminated,
with possibly dire consequences when the vessel is at sea.
International, national and local regulations must be adhered to. This involves the displaying of
proper flags and signals. Some ports have strict regulations regarding the disposal of garbage.
These must always be adhered to.
The carrying out of repairs and any maintenance work is sometimes subject to local regulations.
For example, a ‘hot work’ permit may be required for welding or cutting of steel. Or, overside
scrapping and chipping is forbidden. Local rules must be checked before undertaking any
special work.
Before sailing an extensive search on board might have to be done in stowaway-prone areas.
This procedure must be enhanced by efficient policing while the vessel is in the port area. The
risks of theft, pilferage and piracy in port must always be on the OOW’s mind.
To conclude, it could be said that the OOW while performing his/her duties on a deck watch is
not only concerned with the safety of the people, vessel, environment and cargo for a limited
time period during which he/she is on duty. His/her actions at the time will have an impact on
the routine of the vessel for days if not weeks after. There is no doubt that the consequences of
improper port watchkeeping can last forever.
UNIT 6.5 Taking/handing over a port watch

The handing/taking over of a watch can have very serious consequences on the lives of people
on board, on the vessel’s safety and on the cargo operations if this is not carried out properly.
During that time, the incoming officer will get acquainted with the current situation on board. At
the end of the taking over procedure, he/she will assume full control of the vessel, and therefore
should know exactly what is presently going on and what is expected in the following hours.
6.11
He/she should be on deck early enough to make a full appraisal of the situation and get
accustomed to the prevailing conditions.
The items that requires the OOW attention at the time of taking over are:
• depth of water at berth/ ship’s draft/ time of high and low water
• securing arrangements/ anchors/ state of main engines
• nature of work being performed on board/ cargo operations
• level of water in bilges/ballast
• signals/shapes being exhibited
• number and location of people on board
• state of FFA
• standing and special orders
• port regulations
• communications
• procedures for notifying appropriate authorities in the event of spillage or any other
circumstances of importance to the safety of the vessel, crew, cargo and protection of the
environment.
UNIT 6.6 Importance of establishing and maintaining effective

communication
The success of any operation depends heavily upon effective communication. This is even more
important in the case of cargo operations whereby ineffective communication can result in
environmental disasters or death of people.
The OOW must have a full understanding of his/her duties and what is expected of him/her.
He/she must be conversant with the standing orders together with any other special orders that
the Master might find relevant.
Since communications in various parts of the world are not always the same, the OOW must
ensure that the needs and limitations of his/her vessel are fully explained to shore personnel,
especially those involved in cargo operations.
On the other hand, he/she should know the limitations of the shore facilities and maintain
permanent contact with them.
In the event of an emergency, the OOW’s communications skills will be put to the test and these
might make the ultimate difference. By being familiar with his/her work environment and
knowing the dangers involved in any operation, he/she should be one of the key players in the
attempt to diffuse the unwanted situation.
APPENDIX 4 (BULK CARRIER CODE)
GUIDELINES FOR COMPLETING THE SHIP/SHORE SAFETY CHECKLIST

The purpose of the Ship/Shore Safety Checklist is to improve working relationships between ship
and terminal, and thereby to improve the safety of operations. Misunderstandings occur and
mistakes can be made when ships' officers do not understand the intentions of the terminal
personnel, and the same applies when terminal personnel do not understand what the ship can
and cannot safely do.
Completing the checklist together is intended to help ship and terminal personnel to recognize
potential problems, and to be better prepared for them.
6.12
1 Is the depth of water at the berth, and the air draught,* adequate for the cargo
operations to be completed ?
The depth of water should be determined over the entire area the ship will occupy, and
the terminal should be aware of the ship's maximum air draught and water draught
requirements during operations. Where the loaded draught means a small underkeel
clearance at departure, the Master should consult and confirm that the proposed
departure draught is safe and suitable.
The ship should be provided with all available information about density and
contaminates of the water at the berth.
* The term air draught should be construed carefully: if the ship is in a river or an
estuary it usually refers to maximum mast height for passing under bridges, while on
the berth it usually refers to the height available or required under the loader or
unloaders.
2 Are mooring arrangements adequate for all local effects of tide, current, weather,
traffic and craft alongside?
Due regard should be given to the need for adequate rendering arrangements. Ships
should remain well secured in their moorings. Alongside piers or quays, ranging of the
ship should be prevented by keeping mooring lines taut; attention should be given to the
movement of the ship caused by tides, currents or passing ships and by the operation in
progress.
Wire ropes and fibre ropes should not be used together in the same direction because of
differences in their elastic properties.
3 In emergency, is the ship able to leave the berth at any time ?
The ship should normally be able to move under its own power at short notice, unless
agreement to immobilise the ship has been reached with the terminal representative, and
the port authority where applicable.
In an emergency a ship may be prevented from leaving the berth at short notice by a
number of factors. These include low tide, excessive trim or draught, lack of tugs, no
navigation possible at night, main engine immobilised, etc. Both the ship and the terminal
should be aware if any of these factors apply, so that extra precautions can be taken if
need be.
The method to be used for any emergency unberthing operation should be agreed taking
into account the possible risks involved. If emergency towing-off wires are required,
agreement should be reached on their position and method of securing.
4 Is there safe access between the ship and the wharf?
The means of access between the ship and the wharf must be safe and legal, and may be
provided by either ship or terminal. It should consist of an appropriate gangway or
accommodation ladder with a properly fastened safety net underneath it. Access
equipment must be tended, since it can be damaged as a result of changing heights and
draughts; persons responsible for tending it must be agreed between the ship and
terminal, and recorded in the checklist.
The gangway should be positioned so that it is not underneath the path of cargo being
loaded or unloaded. It should be well illuminated during darkness. A lifebuoy with a
heaving line should be available on board the ship near the gangway or accommodation
ladder.
5 Is the agreed ship/terminal communications system operative ?
Communication should be maintained in the most efficient way between the responsible
officer on duty on the ship and the responsible person ashore. The selected system of
6.13
communication and the language to be used, together with the necessary telephone
numbers and/or radio channels, should be recorded in the checklist.
6 Are the liaison contact persons during operations positively identified?
The controlling personnel on ship and terminal must maintain an effective
communication with each other and their respective supervisors. Their names, and if
appropriate where they can be contacted, should be recorded in the checklist.
The aim should be to prevent development of hazardous situations, but if such a situation
does arise, good communication and knowing who has proper authority can be
instrumental in dealing with it.
7 Are adequate crew on board, and adequate staff in the terminal, for emergency ?
It is not possible or desirable to specify all conditions, but it is important that a sufficient
number of personnel should be on board the ship, and in the terminal throughout the
ship's stay, to deal with an emergency.
The signals to be used in the event of an emergency arising ashore or on board should be
clearly understood by all personnel involved in cargo operations.
8 Have any bunkering operations been advised and agreed ?
The person on board in charge of bunkering must be identified, together with the time,
method of delivery (hose from shore, bunker barge, etc.) and the location of the bunker
point on board. Loading of bunkers should be co-ordinated with the cargo operation.
The terminal should confirm agreement to the procedure.
9 Have any intended repairs to wharf or ship whilst alongside been advised and agreed?
Hot work, involving welding, burning or use of naked flame, whether on the ship or the
wharf may require a hot work permit. Work on deck which could interfere with cargo
work will need to be coordinated.
In the case of combination carrier a gas free certificate (including for pipelines and
pumps) will be necessary, issued by a shore chemist approved by the terminal or port
authority.
10 Has a procedure for reporting and recording damage from cargo operations been
agreed?
Operational damage can be expected in a harsh trade. To avoid conflict, a procedure
must be agreed, before cargo operations commence, to record such damage. An
accumulation of small items of damage to steel work can cause significant loss of strength
for the ship, so it is essential that damage is noted, to allow prompt repair.
11 Has the ship been provided with copies of port and terminal regulations, including
safety and pollution requirements and details of emergency services ?
Although much information will normally be provided by a ship's agent, a fact sheet
containing this information should be passed to the ship on arrival, and should include
any local regulations controlling the discharge of ballast water and hold washings.
12 Has the shipper provided the master with the properties of the cargo in accordance with
the requirements of chapter VI of SOLAS?
The shipper should pass to the master, for example, the grade of cargo, particle size,
quantity to be loaded, stowage factor, and cargo moisture content. The IMO BC Code
gives guidance on this.
The ship should be advised of any material which may contaminate or react with the
planned cargo, and the ship should ensure that the holds are free of such material.
6.14
13 Is the atmosphere safe in holds and enclosed spaces to which access may be required,
have fumigated cargoes been identified, and has the need for monitoring of atmosphere
been agreed by ship and terminal?
Rusting of steelwork or the characteristics of a cargo may cause a hazardous atmosphere
to develop. Consideration should be given to: oxygen depletion in holds; the effect of
fumigation either of cargo to be discharged, or of cargo in a silo before loading from
where gas can be swept on board along with the cargo with no warning to the ship; and
leakage of gases, whether poisonous or explosive, from adjacent holds or other spaces.
14 Have the cargo handling capacity and any limits of travel for each loader/unloader
been passed to the ship/terminal ?
The number of loaders or unloaders to be used should be agreed, and their capabilities
understood by both parties. The agreed maximum transfer rate for each loader/unloader
should be recorded in the checklist.
Limits of travel of loading or unloading equipment should be indicated. This is essential
information when planning cargo operations in berths where a ship must be shifted from
one position to another due to loading. Gear should always be checked for faults and
that it is clear of contaminates from previous cargoes. The accuracy of weighing devices
should be ascertained frequently.
15 Has a cargo loading and unloading plan been calculated for all stages of
loading/deballasting or unloading/ballasting?
Where possible the ship should prepare the plan before arrival. To permit her to do so
the terminal should provide whatever information the ship requests for planning
purposes. On ships which require longitudinal strength calculations, the plan should
take account of any permissible maxima for bending moments and shear forces.
The plan should be agreed with the terminal and a copy passed over for use by terminal
staff. All watch officers on board and terminal supervisors should have access to a copy.
No deviation from the plan should be allowed without agreement of the master.
According to SOLAS regulation VI17, it is required to lodge a copy of the plan with the
appropriate authority of the port State. The person receiving the plan should be recorded
in the checklist.
16 Have the holds to be worked been clearly identified in the loading or unloading plan,
showing the sequence of work, and the grade and tonnage of cargo to be transferred
each time the hold is worked?
The necessary information should be provided in the form as set out in appendix 2 of this
Code.
17 Has the need for trimming of cargo in the holds been discussed, and the method and
extent been agreed?
A well-known method is spout trimming, and this can usually achieve a satisfactory
result. Other methods use bulldozers, front-end loaders, deflector blades, trimming
machines or even manual trimming. The extent of trimming will depend upon the nature
of the cargo, and must be in accordance with the BC Code.
18 Do both ship and terminal understand and accept that if the ballast programme
becomes out of step with the cargo operations, it will be necessary to suspend cargo
operations until the ballast operation has caught up?
All parties will prefer to load or discharge the cargo without stops if possible. However,
if the cargo or ballast programmes are out of step a stop to cargo handling must be
ordered by the master and accepted by the terminal to avoid the possibility of
inadvertently overstressing the ship's structure.
6.15
A cargo operations plan will often indicate cargo check points, when conditions will also
allow confirmation that the cargo and ballast handling operations are in alignment.
If the maximum rate at which the ship can safely accept the cargo is less than the cargo
handling capacity of the terminal, it may be necessary to negotiate pauses in the cargo
transfer programme or for the terminal to operate equipment at less than the maximum
capacity.
In areas where extremely cold weather is likely, the potential for frozen ballast or ballast
lines should be recognized.
19 Have the intended procedures for removing cargo residues lodged in the holds while
unloading been explained to the ship and accepted ?
The use of bulldozers, front-end loaders or pneumatic/hydraulic hammers to shake
material loose should be undertaken with care, as wrong procedures can damage or
distort ships' steel work. Prior agreement to the need and method intended, together with
adequate supervision of operators, will avoid subsequent claims or weakening of the
ship's structure.
20 Have the procedures to adjust the final trim of the loading ship been decided and
agreed ?
Any tonnages proposed at the commencement of loading for adjusting the trim of the ship
can only be provisional, and too much importance should not be attached to them. The
significance lies in ensuring that the requirement is not overlooked or ignored. The actual
quantities and positions to be used to achieve final ship's trim will depend upon the draft
readings taken immediately beforehand. The ship should be informed of the tonnage on
the conveyor system since that quantity may be large and must still be loaded when the
order "stop loading" is given. This figure should be recorded in the checklist.
21 Has the terminal been advised of the time required for the ship to prepare for sea, on
completion of cargo work?
The procedure of securing for sea remains as important as it ever was, and should not be
skimped. Hatches should be progressively secured on completion so that only one or two
remain to be closed after cargo work is finished.
Modern deep water terminals for large ships may have very short passages before the
open sea is encountered. The time needed to secure, therefore, may vary between day or
night, summer or winter, fine weather or foul weather.
Early advice must be given to the terminal if any extension of time is necessary.
Conclusion
This Section dealt primarily with the duties of the OOW while on watch in port and during
cargo watches. It should be borne in mind that no two persons react the same when confronting
a similar situation. The individuality of the OOW is a factor that cannot be ignored.
However, guidelines exist and all officers should make use of them. A clear understanding of
the recommendations under section A of the STCW code, the Master’s standing orders and
Marine orders part 28 would be the starting points to that task.
6.16

1. State how you would ensure the safety of the vessel and its crew when working cargo in
port.
2. What precautions would you take before operating hatch covers?
3. Where would you find guidance regarding the standards of watchkeeping while in port?
4. Bearing in mind that visitors are not always conversant with life on board ships, how
would you ensure that they are not at risk of being injured?
6.17
TOPIC 7
Documents Associated with Cargo

and Cargo Gear
SECTION 7
TOPIC 7 Documents Associated with Cargo

and Cargo gear
Syllabus
Learning Outcome 7
On completion of this topic you should be able to identify, interpret and use the documentation
pertaining to cargo and cargo handling gear.
Assessment Criteria
7.1 The features of cargo stowage plans are explained and interpreted.
7.2 A pre-loading plan and a cargo plan is prepared.
7.3 Lashing and rigging plans are prepared.
7.4 The capacity plan is interpreted.
7.5 Importance of record keeping is discussed and entries made into the deck
watchkeeper’s rough notebook.
7.6 A damage report is prepared.
7.7 Entries pertaining to weather, and cargo and other operations in port are made in the
deck logbook.
7.8 The salient features of the following documents are outlined:
- Shipping notes
- Booking lists
- Boat notes
- Mates receipts
- Bills of Lading
- Charter Parties
- Cargo manifest
- Notice of Intention to load dangerous goods
- Damage reports
- Note of protest
- Shipper’s declaration
- Certificate of moisture content
- Hold cleanliness certificate
- Certificate of fumigation
- Empty hold certificate/Certificate of discharge
- Temperature control sheets
- Register of Materials Handling Equipment
7.1
TOPIC 7, SECTION 7 − DOCUMENTS ASSOCIATED WITH CARGO AND CARGO GEAR
7.2
SECTION 7 Documents Associated With Cargo

and Cargo Gear
UNIT 7.1 Features of cargo stowage plan
Introduction
In order to perform his/her duty as a cargo officer in an efficient way, the OOW must have an
understanding of the cargo plan and the information that it contains. He should be able to
complete all the necessary preparations necessary before the cargo is actually loaded. This
entails the preparation of the cargo plan, consulting the lashing and rigging plans, extracting
information from the capacity plan among others.
After the operations he might have to write a damage report or clause a Mate’s receipt. Thus an
understanding of the documentation that accompanies any cargo loading or discharging is
critical.
Some helpful definitions
Booking list: is a compilation of the cargo that the vessel intends to load. It is sent to the vessel
by the agent/ ship operator.
Pre-stowage plan: a plan showing the proposed location of the cargo. This plan is usually
amended as cargo operations go on.
Final stowage plan: a plan showing the actual location of the cargo. This plan is made after all
the cargo has been loaded.
Optional cargo: this means that the cargo can be discharged at either one or more ports. Thus it
must be accessible for discharge at any of the ports pre-selected.
Overcarried cargo: this means cargo that has not been discharged at the nominated port of
discharge. This could happen because of inconsistency in tallying, no documentation at the
discharge port or overlooking by stevedores/ ship’s personnel.
Bay plan: this refers to the stowage plan of containers on board a vessel.
See Section 1 for container ship plans.
The information contained in a stowage plan shows the amount of cargo in each compartment,
the type of cargo and its destination to the ship’s officer cargo planner or the stevedores.
Other information available on a cargo plan are the loading ports, discharging ports, vessel’s
draft and voyage number, dangerous goods class number in the case of dangerous goods and
sometimes the carrying temperature of some special cargo.
Usually a cargo plan will also provide for a tonnage breakdown per hatch.
For clarity sake’s cargo plans for general cargo ships normally show cargo stowed in the lower
holds, tween decks and above deck. This is not the case for bulk carriers or tankers. For RO-RO
ships, different plan views show the cargo stowage on the different decks.
Examples of stow plans for General cargo ship are annexed in Appendix 14.
7.3
UNIT 7.2 Pre-loading and cargo plan

In order to prepare a pre stowage plan, certain items of information must be made available to
the ship’s officer. These are:
• port of loading
• port of discharge
• type of cargo
• amount of cargo
• stowage factor of cargo
• broken stowage of cargo
• vessel’s next ports of call in order
• carrying temperature of some special types of cargo
• any segregation that may be necessary
• classes of dangerous goods if shipping dangerous cargo
• maximum draft permissible at discharge ports
• size of odd shaped cargo.
This list is not exhaustive as special instructions will accompany special cargo.
The officer will then draw other information from various documents on board before attending
to the task of making the pre-stowage plan. These documents will be namely:
• the capacity plan of the vessel
• the rigging plan of the vessel
• the stability booklet of the vessel
• the cargo securing manual of the vessel
• previous cargo plans.
At this stage several variables are taken into account before starting allocating the cargo to each
compartment. These variables are:
• ports of call in the right order
• deck/tank top stresses
• special carrying requirement of the cargo
• availability of cargo handling equipment
• capacity of ballast pumps
• availability of securing equipment
• draft and trim of vessel at each stage of the voyage
• segregation that may be required.
Again, this list is not exhaustive. It is only a guide as to a general approach to preparing a cargo
plan.
Now that the above factors have been considered, the weights and volumes of the cargo are
distributed in the various compartments. To do this, use is made of the information provided in
the booking list.
A perfect distribution would see the vessel with an adequate trim and no list, with no
overstressing of any part of the structure, cargo distributed evenly in all compartments so as to
allow for speedy discharge and proper segregation.
7.4
With this pre-stowage plan in hand, the cargo officer should make every effort not to divert
from it. However, many circumstances dictate frequent amendments to the plan. This can only
be done with the Master’s or Chief Officer’s approval.
The preparation of a pre-stowage plan involves calculations to work out the weights and volume
to be occupied by the cargo in each hold. This topic was dealt with in Section 1.
At the completion of loading, the amended version of the pre-stowage plan is made up showing
the exact location, weight and volume of each cargo in each compartment. This is known as the
final stowage plan and will be used at the discharging port to decide upon the cargo operations
to be used.
UNIT 7.3 Capacity, lashing and rigging plans

On board the vessel, three plans are particularly important to the Chief Officer when it comes to
cargo work. They are:
1. the capacity plan
2. the lashing plan
3. the rigging plan.
The capacity plan

This plan is very commonly displayed in the alleyways, or in the ship’s office or very near the
Chief Officer’s office. It gives a general view of the vessel, together with the volumes of the
compartments (in bales and grain capacities), the sizes of the compartments, the maximum
allowable deck stresses, the stacking loads, capacity of all on-board tanks, deadweight,
lightship, position of the centre of gravity of compartments, and the various dimensions of the
vessel.
The lashing plan

Inadequate securing on ships has resulted in loss of cargo, ships and crew. The aim of the
lashing plan is to assist the officer in determining what is the minimum securing arrangements
that are required for a particular type of cargo in normal sea conditions.
Each lashing plan is tailor-made for a particular vessel following observation of her behaviour at
sea. The securing equipment mentioned in the plan are of a tested and approved type.
It must be remembered that in heavy weather the mariner must exercise extra care and this may
mean extra lashing arrangements.
The lashing plan is made following guidelines stipulated in the IMO publication Guidelines for
the Preparation of the Cargo Securing Manual which every vessel must now carry.
The Cargo Securing Manual was mentioned earlier in this module.
The rigging plan

This plan shows the capabilities and limitations of the cargo lifting gear. Derricks with their
SWL, minimum and maximum outreach and different rigging arrangements are some of the
features of the rigging plan.
It is consulted when a derrick has to be used in a different mode than the one it is normally
rigged. For example, two derricks are used in the union purchase mode; if, for one particular
operation, one derrick is required as a swinging derrick, the initial arrangement must be broken
and one derrick used. Consulting the rigging plan will remove any doubt in the officer’s mind as
to the safest arrangement possible.
7.5
Details of the material handling equipment, their measurements and SWL are found on that
plan.
UNIT 7.4 Importance of record keeping

As mentioned before, cargo damage claims is the biggest claim that a shipowner faces every
year. Quite often, the shipowner is blamed for his/her ‘apparent lack of care’. In many cases, it
is in fact a lack of documentation that prevents the shipowner from defending him/herself.
There are various reasons why it is important to properly document cargo operations but the
main one is most probably to avoid long legal battles over the condition of the cargo.
Since carriage of cargo involves caring for it, it is vital that the condition of the cargo be noted
at loading and compared with its condition at discharge. Should there be a major change in
condition, then the shipowner will have to explain the circumstances that caused that change. No
doubt that he/she will have to face the consequences of any negligence from the ship’s crew.
The cargo officer must not only note the condition of the cargo, but also the weather
experienced at the time of loading and any special occurrence at the time.
Above all, should the cargo officer believe that cargo has been damaged prior to loading, he/she
must advise the Chief Officer immediately and report that fact in the cargo log book.
Each entry in a cargo log book has its importance whether it is weather related (cargo being
affected by rain), time related (used in working out the time during which the vessel was on/off
charter) or cargo related (used to ascertain the condition in which the cargo was loaded).
In shipping, one important piece of documentation is the Bill of Lading. It is a negotiable
document, which means that the cargo owner could sell the cargo mentioned on the B/L to
anyone.
The making of a Bill of Lading is done following the information gathered from another
document known as the Mate’s Receipt. The Mate’s Receipt is a document stating the goods
actually shipped on board, the shipper’s name, amount and type of cargo, port of destination,
vessel’s name and, more importantly, the condition of the cargo at loading. As the Bill of
Lading is a negotiable document, it will have less value if it has been claused.
This is why it is very important to make all the necessary entries in the cargo log book. They
might sound trivial initially, but they come in very handy when there is a need to support one
argument.
Claims can be reduced to a certain extent if proper documentation is in place to prove that the
shipowner and/or his/her servants have acted in good faith.
Checklist –Records which should be maintained aboard bulk carriers

Following deck log book entries

• routine navigational, weather, sea state and ship's performance data
• details of heaving-to, or action taken to avoid a tropical storm
• dew point readings of cargo spaces and on deck
• ventilation of holds − times of starting and stopping, reason for stopping, ventilators used,
type of ventilation, direction of ventilation, speed of fans, hygrometer readings
• water, rainfall and spray over decks or hatches
• hold and hatch cover inspections − dates and times, names of person making inspection,
nature of inspection, and findings
• temperatures, and methane and 02 meter readings, of cargo
7.6
• pH of bilge water
• pumping of bilge water − time, tonnage and origin
• soundings − full set daily, giving actual soundings, not MT
• testing of cargo care systems such as hold bilge pumping system, hold ventilation fans,
hold C02 injection systems, testing of hatch cover watertightness
• inspection and tightening of lashings on cargo
• changing of ship's ballast, to comply with pollution regulations, or for purposes of draft
and trim
• details of any in-transit fumigation.
Following deck log or cargo log entries
• surveys undertaken, with times, result and identity of surveyor

• protests made by the ship, and to the ship
• details of any fumigation undertaken
• starts, stoppages and completions of cargo work
• transfers of cargo-handling equipment
• tanks ballasted and deballasted
• ballast valves opened and shut
• starts and stops of ballasting, and ballast pump readings
• soundings obtained
• cargo tonnages calculated or advised
• draft readings at completion of each pour during the loading, and at least twice daily
during discharge
• details of shifting ship
• times of bunkering, and quantities taken
• weather observations.
Cargo documents
• copies of all cargo documents issued or received

• authorisation to charterers or their agents to sign Bs/L.
Trim, stability and stress calculations
• values used in calculations

• results obtained
• full details of departure condition
• copy of each cargo operations control form issued
• ship's own draft survey calculations
• draft survey calculations by independent surveyors, and results obtained.
7.7
Damage records
• when, where and how damage to ship or cargo occurred

• detailed description of damage sustained.
UNIT 7.5 The damage report

If during cargo operations, cargo is accidentally damaged, a damage report should be made
immediately. The time of the incident, the extent of the damage, the cargo damaged, factors that
led to the incident must be part of that report.
Witnesses to the incident should sign the document. Stevedores and port authorities might have
to be advised depending on the extent of the damage.
Sometimes, the vessel itself might be damaged during cargo operations. Again, a damage report
should be made.
The damage reports are sent to the shipowner who has a legal team which is going to do the
needful to recover the costs of the damage or defend the shipowner if the latter seems to be at
fault.
At times, if the damage to the cargo and vessel has been extensive, an independent surveyor is
called in to assess the extent of the damage. He/she should be given full assistance at all times.
UNIT 7.6 Important shipping documents

To fully understand the documentation involved in the carriage of cargo, here are some
definitions:
Shipping note: is a document issued by the shipper to the carrier or vessel operator stating
his/her intention to ship cargo from one place to another. Details regarding the sender of the
goods (shipper), the receiver of the goods (consignee), the type and amount of cargo, are
features of the shipping note.
Boat note: term used to describe the document that accompanies the cargo from its place of
origin (shipper’s factory, warehouse or even backyard) to the port warehouse or storage place.
People responsible for loading the ship check the marks on the goods against that stated on the
boat note before shipping it on board.
Mate’s Receipt: is a document stating the goods shipped on board and their condition. It is
signed by the Chief Officer who attests that the cargo mentioned therein is actually on board.
The Mate’s Receipt is used to prepare the Bill of Lading.
Bill of Lading: one of the most important documents in carriage of cargo. It is a document of
title, a receipt for goods shipped and is an evidence of contract between the carrier and the
shipper. There are many types of B/Ls, some of which are not negotiable (cannot be used to sell
the goods mentioned in the document), others being intermodal (used to cover different types of
transportation) or even in-house B/L (a B/L prepared by a freight forwarder to individual
shippers when cargo is being sent as a groupage). See Section 1 for an example.
Charter Party: the agreement that exists between a shipowner and a charterer. All the terms of
the agreement and penalties in the event of breach are stated in that document.
Cargo manifest: is a compilation of all the cargo on board. Made from the Bills of Lading. Is
used by various port authorities, notably Customs.
Notice of Intention to Load Dangerous Goods: is as the name suggests, a notice given to the
local authorities, in Australia, AMSA, as to the vessel’s intention to load dangerous cargo in that
port. Dangerous goods cannot be loaded if prior notice has not been given. See Marine Orders
Part 41 for more details regarding the shipping of dangerous goods in Australia.
7.8
Note of protest: is a document signed by the Master in the presence of a Notary Public
exonerating himself and his/her vessel from damages that might have occurred to cargo on
board if the vessel has experienced heavy weather. He might elect to extend the protest when the
damages are actually assessed.
Shipper’s declaration: a document from the shipper giving details of the cargo. Cargo carrying
temperature, moisture content of the cargo and stowage factor of the cargo are important
information found on a shipper’s declaration. Also mentions the weight and dimensions of the
cargo. See Appendix 12.
Dangerous goods declaration: this is a document like the shipper’s declaration except that it
deals with dangerous goods. In this case, the U.N number, class and flashpoint of the goods
must be included. The document means that the shipper has packed, marked and labelled the
packages according to the IMDG Code. See Appendix 12.
Certificate of moisture content: this is a document provided by a testing authority following
tests carried out on some types of cargo (usually bulk cargoes) to determine the moisture content
of that cargo. It is important as it allows the vessel to reject the cargo should the moisture
content exceed the transportable moisture limit.
Hold cleanliness certificate: states the condition of the hold before loading. Is issued by local
authorities after the compartment has been inspected. Sometimes required by shippers before
allowing their cargo to be loaded. Is quite common on gas and product carriers.
Certificate of fumigation: issued by approved chemist or fumigation companies following the
fumigation of compartments. Sometimes some compartments have to be fumigated before
loading bulk grain. See Section 3 which deals with fumigation.
Empty hold certificate/certificate of discharge: generally issued by an independent marine
surveyor to confirm that the stevedore has completed the cargo operation in that hold.
Temperature control sheets: are records of duty inspection of refrigerated holds and/or
containers compiled by the ship.
Register of Materials Handling Equipment: see Marine Order Part 32.

1. Define ‘overcarried cargo’.
2. List 8 items of information you would find on a cargo stowage plan.
3. What are the publications that a Chief Officer would consult before making a pre-stowage
plan?
4. Explain how entries in the cargo log book can affect a Bill of Lading.
5. Describe how you would prepare a damage report.
7.9
APPENDIX A
Review Questions
NOTE: These questions have been included for the purpose of review/assessment.
Your college will advise you if they are to be attempted.
Review Questions 1
1. (a) Describe the difference between Hague-Visby Rules and Hamburg Rules.
Which Law is adopted in Australia ?
(b) Under The Hague-Visby Rules, describe the shipowner’s responsibilities in
relation to carriage of goods by sea.
2. (a) Your vessel is calling into an Australian port. Describe the procedure in
relation to ballast water management you will follow prior to arrival and
while at the berth.
(b) Describe the risks involved with the exchange of ballast water.
3. (a) State five precautions you will observe while measuring the density of dock
water.
(b) A hold has a bale capacity of 920 cu.m. At the bottom of the hold, 640
packages are stowed each 0.6 × 0.3 × 0.3 m and weighing 90 kg each. Allow
5% for B.S for the packages. On top of this, a parcel of 325 tonnes of wheat
is stowed at 1.53 cu.m/tonne. What tonnage remains in the hold at
1.1 cu.m/tonne?
4. Your vessel is assigned to load general cargoes from the next port of call. Explain
how you would prepare a cargo hold if you are to load bagged cargo, drums, and
steel products in it. Your answer should mention the equipment used and any
specific preparation that any of the above cargo might require.
5. (a) List five advantages of containerisation.

(b) As a prudent deck officer, how would you ensure a smooth and effective
cargo operation on a container vessel? Describe how you would identify a
container’s location on board.
6. (a) Describe three types of refrigerated cargoes.

(b) State how you would prepare a reefer compartment to load loose refrigerated
cargo and the particular attention you will be paying while loading.
7. (a) State the main factors you would consider when carrying solid bulk cargoes.
Where would you find information about hazards associated with any solid
bulk cargo?
(b) What are the dangers associated with carriage of coal cargo? State how you
would prepare holds for a cargo of coal.
8. (a) What do you understand by the term “Flammable Range”?

(b) List 8 advantages of COW.
(c) List the main summary of cargo handling procedures on a Tanker.
9. Describe the nine stages involved in loading, stowing and carrying of LPG/LNG.
10. List the factors you will consider while pre-planning for cargo stowage on an
Offshore Supply Vessel (OSV).
1
APPENDIX A – REVIEW QUESTIONS
Review Questions 2
1. (a) State the document(s) you would consult if you were to load timber deck
cargo for the first time.
(b) List the IMO stability criteria for the vessel carrying timber deck cargo.
2. (a) What is a Document of Authorisation in relation to bulk grain cargo?

(b) Describe the FIVE risks associated with the carriage of grain.
3. (a) The carriage of live stock in Australia is governed by M.O-43. To whom

does M.O-43 apply?
(b) Describe the loading formalities for live stocks in any Australian port.
(c) List some important factors you would consider for smooth carriage of live
stocks on board your vessel.
4. (a) To whom does M.O-32 apply?

(b) What is a Material Handling Equipment Register and what information will
you find in it?
(c) State the conditions when a wire rope can be used or condemned.
5. Your vessel has loaded bulk wheat and requires fumigation of the cargo hold.
Describe, as a cargo officer, what precautions you will take during and after the
fumigation for the safety of personnel.
6. Your vessel is fitted with a Stulcken derrick, SWL.65 tonnes. A heavy lift of 55
tonnes cylindrical piece of Silo is to be loaded on hatch top. State, in detail, the
precautions you would observe before and during the loading of the heavy lift.
7. The above piece of Silo is now loaded fore and aft on hatch top. With the aid of
sketches, describe the lashing arrangements you would prefer to withstand the peril
of ordinary seas.
8. In terms of function of dunnage, list the damaging effects it would have on the
above heavy cargo for poor dunnaging.
9. Describe the safety precautions and procedures during cargo operations as per
M.O-41.
10. Your vessel is to load a shipment of class-1 explosive from an Australian port.
Describe the procedure for shipment of class-1 cargo, before, during and after
loading.
2
Review Questions 3
1. List seven ways in which a cargo can be damaged. Explain the causes of these and
how you would prevent such accidents from happening.
2. Explain how you would ensure that no damage is done to a refrigeration plant on
board your vessel.
3. Define:
(a) Ship’s sweat
(b) Dew point
(c) Hygroscopic cargo
4. How would you reduce the risk of condensation when carrying non-hygroscopic
cargo?
5. When would you NOT ventilate a non-hygroscopic cargo?
6. What are the differences between a pre-stowage plan and final stowage plan?
7. What information is required before a pre-stowage plan can be prepared?
8. List some items of information you would get from a ship’s rigging plan.
9. What are the three functions of a Bill of Lading?
10. Define:
(a) Shipping note
(b) Mate’s receipt
(c) Cargo manifest.
3
APPENDIX A – REVIEW QUESTIONS
Review Questions 4
1. Describe the Master’s responsibilities in relation to carriage of goods by sea under
the Act (COGSA).
2. Outline the duties of OOW with respect to cargo operation in port and at
anchorage.
3. As a master, draw up a safety checklist you would expect the OOW to carry out
prior to the commencement of cargo operation.
4. Describe the procedure of taking over the watch in port while cargo operation is in
progress.
5. As the master, what are the safety issues you would expect the OOW to pay
attention to during the cargo operation in relation to hatch cover and cargo gears?
6. Outline the responsibilities of the OOW with regard to crew, stevedores and
visitors.
7. Your vessel is about to commence loading bulk grain. Outline the IMO criteria in
relation to stability and stress with which, as master, you would like deck officers
to be thoroughly familiar.
8. On arrival at the next port, the chief officer will be signing off and the new mate
will join. Outline the list of documents the outgoing chief officer must prepare to
hand over duties to the inbound mate in relation to cargo loading.
9. In your standing order to deck officers in relation to cargo operation in port, as a

master what entries would you order the OOW to make in the cargo logbook? Give
reasons to justify your orders.
4
Answers to self-test questions

NOTE: These answers are indicative and for reference only. Your answers should be detailed
and with more in-depth coverage of each topic. You will need to consult your notes and
references prior to answering these questions.
UNIT 1.7
1. • COGSA
• Hague-Visby Rules
• Navigation Act 1912
2. • Refer to Unit 1.3: Terms used to initiate Cargo Quantity.
3. • to use correct Hydrostatic data

• to obtain correct displacement
• load line
4. • flushing the tank with sea water three times its capacity
• exchange of ballast in deep sea
• Refer to Unit 1.5.3 on AQIS guidelines on ballast water.
• Consult website: www.aqis.gov.au/docs/ballast
5. • full use of vessel’s carrying capacity

• prevent damage to the vessel
• prevent damage to the cargo
• proper segregation of cargo
6. • less handling
• less damage
• reduced manning
• less broken stowage
• speedy cargo operation
7. • stowage of cargo
• securing arrangement
• vehicle envelop
• organising traffic flow
• equipment and ramps
• ballast management
• no obstruction and slippery floors
• good segregation etc. etc.
8. • Frozen = –20o
• Chilled = –2o to –3oC
• Temperature regulated – different temperatures for different cargoes as specified by
shipper
9. • Precooling
• Condensation in adjoining compartments
• Stowage must allow good air circulation.
• temp control of the compartment
• temp of the cargo
1
ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
• Packaging should not be torn/damaged.

• prevent damage and pilferage
10. • Surface ventilation only - refer to your text for more details.
11. • fire
• explosion
• toxic inhalation
12. • above the flammable range and too rich

• hazardous when loading into empty space and when venting
13. • pipe line going around the ship with sluice gate at the bottom of inter-tank bulkheads
14. • Refer to Unit 1.6.8.
15. • Refer to Unit 1.6.8: Preparation of cargo space.
UNIT 2.5
1. • top heavy due to moisture absorption
• increased tendency of capsizing
• Strength of deck is to be considered.
• shoring and securing
3. • IMO grain rules

• in Australia, MO-33 in conjunction with IMO grain rules
4. • Refer to ‘saucering’ and ‘bundling’ in Unit 2.2.4.
5. • Refer to Unit 2.3.4: Restrictions on carriage of livestock.
6. • Refer to Appendix 6 of MO-32.
7. • Refer to Unit 2.4.2: Requirements for derricks.
UNIT 3.6
1. • to destroy residual infestation from previous cargo
• to fumigate a particular type of cargo
• to comply with quarantine requirements
2. • Contact AQIS and seek professional advise for fumigation.

3. • Cargo-securing manual of that vessel
• IMO publication ‘Guidelines for the Preparation of the Cargo Securing Manual’
• ‘Code of Safe Practice for Cargo Stowage and Securing’
• MO-42
4. • Refer to Unit 3.4.4: Securing of heavy loads.
5. • Refer to Unit 3.5.2: Functions of dunnage.
UNIT 4.7
1. • Refer to Unit 4.4: The IMDG code and its contents.
2
2. • to avoid reaction among different substances

• Refer to the segregation table in Appendix 7.
3. • Consult IMDG code.

• Class and U.N number.
• MFAG
4. • Refer to Unit 4.4.
5. • Refer to Appendix 7 in the Resource Book.
UNIT 5.7
1. • Refer to Unit 5.1: Importance of cargo care.
2. • frozen: –7° Celcius or less
• chilled: –2o to –3°C
• temp. regulated: +1 to +10°C
3. • Sweat is caused by the condensation of moist saturated air on a cooler surface.

• See Fig. 15.3 and 15.4
UNIT 6.7
3. • STCW code sec. A-VIII/2 part-4 and sec.4 of Appendix I of MO-28
UNIT 7.7
1. • cargo not discharged in designated port
3. • capacity plan
• rigging plan
• stability booklet
• cargo securing manual
• previous cargo plan etc.
3
Master Class 3
CARGO
OPERATIONS
Learners Guide
DESCRIPTION
This Learner's Guide has been compiled in seven topics to cover the Master 3 syllabus
for Cargo Operations. Topics include: safe carriage of cargo, principles and practice;
regulations governing carriage of cargo and cargo gear; safe handling, stowage and
securing of cargo; safe carriage of IMO dangerous cargo; cargo care; cargo watch
in port and Officer of the Watch (OOW); documents associated with cargo and cargo
gear. Together, MAR041 (Learners Guide) and MAR045 (Resource Book) Cargo
Operations cover the required content for Cargo Operations to Master 3 level.
CATEGORY
Maritime Studies
MAR041 CARGO OPERATIONS

LEARNER’S GUIDE
ISBN 0 7307 9078 9
ORDERING INFORMATION:
Contact WestOne Services on Tel: (08) 9229 5252 Fax: (08) 9229 5292 Email: sales@westone.wa.gov.au
Orders can also be placed through the website: www.westone.wa.gov.au
© WestOne Services 2003
Any reproduction or use of this material, whether in print form or a digital medium or by redistribution by posting in electronic form on servers or other
means, is not permitted, unless such action falls within acceptable practices as defined by the Copyright Act of the Commonwealth of Australia. Permission
to copy must be by written assent from WestOne Services.
9 780730 790785

Cargo Operation Book

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Cargo Operation Book

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PUBLICATIONS

© Department of Training and Workforce Development 2016 (unless indicated

Copyright material available on this website is licensed under a Creative Commons

Except in relation to Excluded Material this license allows you to:

 Share — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format

Excluded Material not available under a Creative Commons license:

Training Sector Services

ISBN 0 7307 9078 9

© WestOne Services 2003

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

The Open Training and Education Network of the NSW Department of

Published by and available from

Prospect Place West Perth WA 6005

Section 1 SAFE CARRIAGE OF CARGO, PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Unit 1.2 Basic concepts of cargo carriage

Unit 1.3 Terms used to indicate cargo quantity

Unit 1.4 Methods of determining cargo quantity

Unit 1.5 Ballast management

Section 2 REGULATIONS GOVERNING CARRIAGE OF CARGO AND CARGO GEAR

Unit 2.3 National regulations governing the carriage of livestock

Section 3 SAFE HANDLING, STOWAGE AND SECURING OF CARGO

Unit 3.2 The methods of de-odorising and fumigating holds

Unit 3.3 Methods of handling and stowage of cargo using machinery

Unit 3.4 Importance of cargo securing

Unit 3.5 Dunnage - its types and functions

Section 4 SAFE CARRIAGE OF IMO DANGEROUS CARGO

Unit 4.1 Safely handle, stow and carry dangerous goods

Unit 4.2 Terminology used in the carriage of dangerous goods

Unit 4.3 Classification and marking of dangerous goods

Unit 4.5 The IMDG Code and its contents

Section 5 CARGO CARE

Unit 5.1 Importance of cargo care

Unit 5.2 Cargo damage: its causes, effects and prevention

Unit 5.3 Temperature control of reefer cargoes

Unit 5.4 Sweat: its causes, effects and prevention

Unit 5.5 Cargo contamination: its causes, effects and prevention

Unit 5.6 Checklist – Routine procedures for the loaded voyage

Unit 5.7 Cargo damage survey procedures

Section 6 CARGO WATCH IN PORT AND OOW

Unit 6.1 Duties of the OOW with respect to cargo operations

Unit 6.2 Hatch and cargo gear preparations

Unit 6.4 Recommended safety procedures with respect to port watchkeeping

Unit 6.5 Taking/ handing over a port watch

Unit 6.6 Importance of establishing and maintaining effective communication

Section 7 DOCUMENTS ASSSOCIATED WITH CARGO AND CARGO GEAR

Unit 7.1 Features of cargo stowage plan

Unit 7.2 Pre-loading and cargo plan

Unit 7.3 Capacity, lashing and rigging plans

Unit 7.4 Importance of record keeping

Unit 7.5 The damage report

Unit 7.6 Important shipping documents

Appendix A Review Questions

Answers to Self-test Questions

• Code of Safe Working Practice for Australian Seafarers

USE OF MATERIALS SUBJECT TO COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA COPY-

Safe Carriage of Cargo, Principles

TOPIC 1 Safe Carriage of Cargo, Principles and

SECTION 1 Safe Carriage of Cargo, Principles

Carriage of Goods by Sea Act (COGSA)

Ocean vessel Port of loading

Port of discharge Place of delivery Freight payable at Number of original Bs/L

Particulars above declared by Shipper

Place and date of issue

Signed for the carrier